LESSON 1

INTRODUCTION TO UNDERSTANDING OF CULTURE, SOCIETY AND POLITICS

The nature, goals and perspectives of anthropology, sociology and political science
1. Anthropology relates to sociology, it always describes human, human behavior and human societies around
the world. It is a comparative science that examines all societies. The term anthropology means scientific study
of man or human beings. Cultural anthropology studies, human societies and elements of cultural life. An
example of cultural anthropology is the Linguistic anthropology which focuses on language in a certain society.
The goal of studying anthropology is to understand the origin human evolution and the diverse forms of its
existence throughout time The study of Man and its various aspects is known as Anthropology. It may be a
subject of science and arts. It is a branch of sociology. It describes human, human behaviour and human
societies and it examines all societies around the world. It also describes the ancestors through time and space in
relation to its environmental, social relations, and culture
2. Sociology is the study of human social relationships and institutions. Sociology’s subject matter is diverse,
ranging from crime to religion, from the family to the state, from the divisions of race and social class to the
shared beliefs of a common culture, and from social stability to radical change in whole societies. The purpose
of sociology is to understand how human action and consciousness both shape and are shaped by surrounding
cultural and social structures. Sociology is a social science; it belongs to the family of social sciences. As a
social science, focuses its aspects on man, his social manners, social activities and social life. The goal of
sociology is to help you understand how human action and consciousness both shape and are shaped by the
surrounding cultural and social structures
3. Political Science is a social science that deals with humans and their interactions. It is a branch of sociology;
it essentially deals with the large-scale actions of humans, and group mentality it is a discipline that deals with
several aspects such as the study of state and government. It deals with the nature and formation of the state and
attempts to understand its forms and functions. The goal of Political Science is to constantly deepen the
knowledge, discover progress and protect the quality of life within a group, community, country, and the world.
Thus, it is the study of power relationships and competing interests among states around the world.
4. Anthropological perspectives are culture, cultural relativism, fieldwork, human diversity, holism, bio-
cultural focus. The four main perspectives of Anthropology are the cross-cultural or comparative emphasis, its
evolutionary/historical emphasis, its ecological emphasis, and its holistic emphasis . An example for this is the
analysis and solutions of the different aspects of the society such as the environment issues of pollution, the
issues on health and medicine and other issues related to the human activities.
5. Sociological perspective introduces the discipline of sociology, including something about its history,
questions, theory, and scientific methods, and what distinguishes it from other social science disciplines. Central
features include social interaction and relationships, social contexts, social structure, social change, the
significance of diversity and human variation, and the critical, questioning character of sociology. It also
explores what sociologists do.
Sociology includes three major theoretical perspectives:
1. the functionalist perspective;
2. the conflict perspective; and
3. the symbolic interaction perspective.

6. Theoretical perspective is used to analyse and explain objects of social study, and facilitat organizing
sociological knowledge. In functionalist perspective, societies are thought to function like organisms, with
various social institutions working together like organs to maintain and reproduce societies. The conflict
perspective sees social life as a competition, and focuses on the distribution of resources, power, and inequality.
7. Political science perspective studies the tendencies and actions of people which cannot be easily quantified
or examined. Political science is more focused than most social sciences. It sticks to the political arena and to
the realm of politics, either dealing with situations with two competing sides or the lateral decisions that affect
the group as a whole. An example is the study of democracy as a form of government and why is democracy
considered as the best form of government.
Activity 1. Jumbled Letters
Directions: There are five words that you can find below; however, the letters are jumbled. A short description is
provided to help you identify the words. Kindly write the correct word/phrase on the blanks provided. Write
your answer in your notebook.
____________________ 1. GYOLOPORTHAN -Scientific study of man or human beings.
____________________2. GYOLOICOS -Study of human social relationships and institutions.
____________________3. CALITILOP ECNEICS - A social science that deals with humans and their
interactions.
____________________4. ERUTLUC - Consists of beliefs, behaviors, objects, and other characteristics
common to the members of a particular group or society.
____________________5. SFEILEB - A state or habit of mind in which trust or confidence is placed in some
person or thing.
Performance Task # 1. My Own Collage
Directions: Using various materials like pictures in magazines, newspapers and brochures. Create a collage that
reflects your understanding of anthropology, sociology and political science. Use a legal size bond paper (long).
Lesson 2
The Concept of Society
Meaning and Nature of Society
According to sociologist, a society is a group of people with common territory, interaction, and culture.
Arcinas (2016) in his book, Undertanding Culture, Society, and Politics, defined society as group of people who
share a common territory snd culture. It is a group of people living together in a definite territory, having a sense
of belongingness, mutually interdependent of each other, and follow a certain way of life. Society is derived
from the Latin term “societas”, from socius, which means companion or associate. Thus, it refers to all people,
collectively regarded as constituting a community of related, interdependent individuals living in a definite
place, following a certain mode of life (Ariola, 2012).
Definition of society has two types - the functional definition and the structural definition. From the
functional point of view, society is defined as a complex of groups in reciprocal relationships, interacting upon
one another, enabling human organisms to carry on their life-activities and helping each person to fulfill his
wishes and accomplish his interests in association with his fellows. From the structural point of view, society is
the total social heritage of folkways, mores and institutions; of habits, sentiments and ideals. The important
aspect of society is the system of relationships, the pattern of the norms of interaction by which the members of
the society maintain themselves.
The following are reasons people live together as a society (Ariola, 2012):
a. For survival – No man is an island. No man can live alone. From birth to death, man always
dependsn upon his parents and from others. The care, support, and protection given by them are importnt factors
for survival.
b. Feeling of gregariousness – This is the desire of people to be with other people, esecially of their
own culture. People flock together for emotional warmth and belongingness. the need for approval, sympathy
and understanding to which the individual belongs is a psychosocial need. Among Filipinos, the feeling of
gregariousness is found in all levels of society, especially among the lower socio- econmic classess. The more
the person is needy, the more he craves sympathy and understanding from someone else.
c. Specialization – Teachers, businessmen, students, physicians, nurses, lawyers, pharmacists, and other
professionals organize themselves into societies or associations to promote and protect their own professions.

Characteristics of Society
Society comprises of a group of people who share a common culture, live in a particular area and feel
themselves to constitute a unified and distinct entity. Society or human society is a group of people related to
each other through persistent relations such as kinship, marriage, social status, roles and social networks. By
extension, society denotes the people of a region or country, sometimes even the world, taken as a whole.

Society has the following characteristics:

1. It is a social system. A social system consists of individuals interacting with rach other. A system
consists of sub-parts whereby a change in one part affects the other parts. Thus, a change in one group of
individuals will affect the stability of the other parts of the system.
2. It is relatively large. The people must be socialy integrated to be considered relatively large than if
the people are individually scattered. Thus, the people in a family, clan, tribe, neighborhood, community are
socially integrated to be relatively large in scope.
3. It socializes its members and from those from without. Since most of society’s members are born
to it, they are taught the basic norms and expectations. Those who come from other societies, before being
accepted as functioning members, are socialized and taught the basic norms and expectations of the society.
4. It endures, produces and sustains its members for generations. For society to survive, it must have
the ability to produce, endure and sustain its new members for at least several generations. For instance, if a
society cannot assist its members during their extreme conditions of hunger and poverty, that society will not
survive long.
5. It holds its members through a common culture. The individuals in a society are held together
because that society has symbols, norms, values, patterns of interaction, vision and mission that are commonly
shared by the members of such society.
6. It has clearly-defined geographical territory. The members in a society must live in a certain
specific habitat or place and have a common belongingness and sense of purpose.

Major Functions of Society

A society is important because they have the following functions:

1. It provides a system of socialization.

Knowledge and skills, dominant patterns of behavior, moral and social values, and aspects of
personality are transmitted to each members, especially to the young. the family, the peer group, the
 school, the church and other government and non- government organizations play a role in the
individual’s development.

2. It provides the basic needs of its members.

Food, clothing, shelter, medicine, education, transportations and communication facilities, among
others must be provided by society to satisfy the basic needs of its members.

3. It regulates and controls people’s behavior. Conformity to the prevailing norms of conduct
ensures social control. The police, armed forces, law enforcement agencies and even the church and
other government and non-government organizations exist as means of social control. Peace and
order are created through a system of norms and formal organizations.

4. It provides the means of social participation. Through social participation, the individuals in a
society learn to interact with each other, present and discuss their concerns and solve their own
problems or renew their commitment and values. the people are give the opportunities to contribute
to their knowledge and skills for the betterment of their family, neighborhood and community.
religious organizations, civic organizations, people’s organizations (PO) and non-government
organizations (NGOs) do their part in community development.

5. It provides mutual support to the members. Mutual support is provided to the members of
society in the form of relief in any form and solution to problems met by them. This form of
assistance may come from the family, neighbors, clans, government and non-government agencies,
civic and organizations.

Types of Societies
Societies exist in particular places and times, and they change over time. Societies are organized in particular
patterns, patterns that are shaped by a range of factors, including the way people procure food, the availability
of resources, contact with other societies, and cultural beliefs. For example, people can change from herding to
farming only if they have the knowledge, skills, and desire to do so and only in environments that will support
agriculture. As societies develop, changes take place in the social structures and relationships between people
that characterize each type of society. For example, in industrialized societies, relationships between people
typically must become more formal because people must interact with strangers and not just relatives. It is
important to note that not all societies go through all stages. Some are jolted into the future by political events
or changes in the global system, and some resist pressures to become modernized and continue to live in
simpler social systems.

Sociologists and anthropologists (experts who study early and tribal cultures) identified different types and
classification of societies. Below are the different types of societies as mentioned by Ariola (2012) in his book
Sociology and Anthropology with Family Planning:

According to Economic and According to Evolutionary View According to People’s

Material System Substinence
1. Pre-class Societies – They are 1.Simple Societies – These were 1.Food Gathering Societies
characterized by communal predominantly small, nomadic and (more than 16, 000 years ago) –
ownership of property and division leadership is unstable. The people The people survived from day to
of labor. Examples of these had no specialization of skills, thus day through hunting larger
societies are earliest clans and they lived in a simple life. animals, collecting shellfish and
tribes. vegetable gathering. Their tools
were made of stones, wood and
bones
2.Asiatic Societies – The people 2.Compound Societies – Two or 2.Horticultural Societies (12, 000
are economically self-sufficient more simple societies merged to to 15, 000 years ago) - The people
but their leaders are despotic and form a new and bigger society. planted seeds as a means of
powerful. These societies tended to be production for substinence.
predominantly settled agricultural
societies and tended to be
characterized by a division of four
or five social classes.
3. Ancient Societies – These are 3. Doubly Compound Societies – 3. Pastoral Society- Most of the
characterized by private land These are completely integrated, people are nomadic who follow
ownership. The rich (those who more definite in political and their herds in quest of animals for
haves) owned big tract of private religious structure and more food and clothing to satisfy their
 properties while the poor (those complex division of labor. needs. they raised animals to
who-have-nots) worked as Considerable progress in provide milk, fur and blood for
laborers. Thus, wealth is linited to infrastructure and knowledge in protein. These societies typically
a few people. arts had taken place. are relatively small, wandering
communities organized along
male-centered kinship groups.
4.Feudal Societies – The 4.Militant Societies – These are 4.Agricultural Societies – In the
aristocrats (feudal lords) owned characterized by the following: (a) early agricultural societies, people
the wealth of the country due to the existence of military used plow than hoe in food
their ownership of big tracts of organization and military rank; (b) production. By the use of plow, it
lands. The peasants worked on the individual lives and private turns the topsoil deeper allowing
lands of the feudal lords with only possessions are at the disposal of for better aerating and fertilizing
few benefits received by them. the State; and (c) individual thus improving better yield when
However, these types of societies activities such as recreation, harvested. Irrigation farming was
collapsed due to the rise of cities movements, satisfaction of introduced which resulted to a
and metropolis as a result of the biological needs, and production larger yield of production that can
rise of trades and industries. of goods are totally regulated by even feed large number of people
the State. In other words, who did not know how to produce
individuals exist to serve the State. food by themselves.
5.Capitalists Societies – These 5.Industrial Societies – These 5.Industrial Societies - These
societies existed in societies where societies are characterized by the societies began in the 18th century
two classes of people appeared. following: (a) people elect their during the Industrial Revolution
The bourgeoise (property owners) representatives to protect their and gained momentum by the turn
who owned the capital and the individual initiatives; (b) freedom of the 19th century. This period is
means of production and the of belief, religion, production of characterized by the use of
proletariat (the laborers or industrial goods exist; (c) disputes machines as means of food
workers) who are compelled to and grievances are settled through production. Mass production of
work for the capitalists or sell their peaceful arbitration; and (d) guns, invention of steam
small properties to the capitalists. business organizations appear locomotives and large production
where cooperative efforts between of steel, and well-coordinated
management and labor are based labor force took place. Thus, the
on contractual agreement. In other people began to be highly skilled
words, individual freedom, rights and highly diversified in their
and initiatives are being protected. occupation.
6.Democratic Societies – These 6.Post-Industrial Societies – 6.Post-Industrial Societies or
societies are characterized by free These are characterized by: (a) Information Societies –
enterprise where people are free to spread of computer machines and Information and communication
engage in any lawful business for existence of information and technology is the hallmark of these
profit or gain. People had to work communication; (b) inventions and modern societies. These are
on their own livelihood according discoveries in medicines, characterized by the spread of
to what the law mandates. agriculture, business whether in computer technology, advances in
physical and natural sciences this technology are made by
emerged; and (c) pollution, highly-trained computer specialists
diseases, calamities are prevalent who work to increase the
as a result of the use of advanced capabilities of computers and
technology. internet. The use of modern
technology gave rise to several
technological problems such as
pollution, lung illness, skin
problems and other.

Dissolution of a Society
There are several ways by which a society is dissolved: (1) when the people kill each other through civil
revolution; (2) when an outside force exterminates the members of the society; (3) when the members become
apathetic among themselves or have no more sense of belongingness; (4) when a small society is absorbed by a
stronger and larger society by means of conquest or territorial absorption; (5) when an existing society is
submerged in water killing all the people and other living things in it; or (60 when the people living in such a
society voluntarily attach themselves to another existing society.

The Concept of Culture

Meaning and Nature of Culture
It was E.B. Taylor who conceptualized the definition of culture in 1860s. According to him, culture is a complex
whole which consist of knowledge, beliefs, ideas, habits, attitudes, skills, abilities, values, norms, art, law,
morals, customs, traditions, feelings and other capabilities of man which are acquired, learned and socially
transmitted by man from one generation to another through language and living together as members of the
society (Arcinas, 2016).

In general, culture is a term used by social scientists, like anthropologists and sociologists, to encompass all the
facets of human experience that extend beyond our physical fact. It simply refers to the way we understand
ourselves both as individuals and as members of society, and includes stories, religion, media, rituals, and even
language itself. Irrespective of the various definitions, conceptions and approaches to the understanding of the
concept of culture, it is however agreed that culture is a way of life and morality is a part of culture. Practically
all modern definitions share key features.

Characteristics of Culture
From the Perspective of Sociologists) From the Perspective of Anthropologists
1. Dynamic, flexible and adaptive 1. Learned
- Culture necessarily changes, and is changed by, a - Culture is learned, as each person must learn how to
variety of interactions, with individuals, media, and “be” a member of that culture
technology, just to name a few. - Culture is acquired by being born into a particular
- Cultures interact and change. Most societies interact society in the process of enculturation. Through
with other societies, and as a consequence their language, the cultural traits of society are passed on
cultures interact that lead to exchanges of material to younger members in the process of growing up and
(ex: tools and furniture) and non-material (ex: ideas through teaching.
and symbols) components of culture. - Every human generation potentially can discover
- All cultures change, or else, they would have new things and invent better technologies. The new
problems adjusting and adapting to changing cultural skills and knowledge are added onto what
environments. - Culture is adaptive and dynamic, was learned in previous generations.
once we recognize problems, culture can adapt again,
in a more positive way, to find solutions.
- We need our cultural skills to stay alive.
2. Shared and maybe challenged 2. Symbolic
- (Given the reality of social differentiation), as we - Culture is symbolic, as it based on the manipulation
share culture with others, we are able to act in a of symbols
appropriate ways as well as predict how others will - Culture renders meaning to what people do. Beliefs,
act. Despite the shared nature of culture, that doesn’t religion, rituals, myths, dances, performances, music,
mean that culture is homogenous (the same). artworks, sense of taste, education, innovations,
- It may be challenged by the presence of other identity, ethnicity, and so on are meaningful human
cultures and other social forces in society like expressions of what people do and how they act.
modernization, industrialization, and globalization.
3. Learned through socialization or enculturation 3. Systemic and integrated
- Culture is not biological, people do not inherit it but - Culture is systemic and integrated as the parts of
learned as interact in society. Much of learning culture work together in an integrated whole.
culture is unconscious. People learn, absorb and - The systems of meanings and many other facets
acquire culture from families, friends, institutions, (sides) of culture such as kindred, religion, economic
and the media. The process of learning culture is activities, inheritance, and political process, do not
enculturation. function in isolation but an integrated whole that
makes society work. - These varying systems of
meanings, relations. And processes are shared within
a group of people rendering culture bounded to those
who seek a sense of belonging to the same society.
4. Patterned social interactions 4. Shared
- Culture as a normative system has the capacity to - Culture is shared, as it offers all people ideas about
define and control human behaviors. behavior
- Norms (for example) are cultural expectations in - Since culture is shared within exclusive domains of
terms of how one will think, feel, or behave as set by social relations, societies operate differently from
one’s culture. It sets the patterns in terms of what is each other leading for cultural variations. Even
appropriate or inappropriate in a given setting. culture is bounded, it does not mean that there are no
- Human interactions are guided by some forms of variations in how people act and relate with each
standards and expectations which in the end other within a given system of their respective
regularize it. societies. On the contrary, the same society can be
broadly diverse wherein people, for example, profess
 connections to each other yet practice different
religion, values, or gender relations.
- Societies do not always exist independently from
each other.
5. Transmitted through socialization or enculturation 5. Encompassing
- As we share our culture with others, we are able to - Culture covers every feature of humanity. Around
pass it on to the new members of society or the the world, people as members of their own societies
younger generation in different ways. establish connections with each other and form
- In the process of socialization /enculturation, we relationship guided by their respective cultural
were able to teach them about many things in life and practices and values.
equip them with the culturally acceptable ways of - Edward Tylor defines culture as a complex whole
surviving, competing, and making meaningful which encompasses beliefs, practices, traits, values,
interaction with others in society. attitudes, laws, norms, artifacts, symbols, knowledge,
and everything that a person learns and shares as a
member of society (David and Macaraeg, 2010).
6. Requires language and other forms of
communication
- In the process of learning and transmitting culture,
symbols and language are needed to communicate
with others in society (Arcinas 2016)

Importance/Functions of Culture
Sociologists recognize and regard culture as one of the most important concepts within sociology
because it plays a vital role in our social lives. It is essential for shaping social relationships, maintaining and
challenging social order, determining how we make sense of the world and our place in it, and in shaping our
everyday actions and experiences in society. Moreover, culture is important to sociologists because it plays a
significant and important role in the production of social order. The social order refers to the stability of society
based on the collective agreement to rules and norms that allow us to cooperate, function as a society, and live
together (ideally) in peace and harmony (Cole, 2019).
In the book of (David and Macaraeg, 2010), the following functions of culture were given emphasis: (1)
it serves as the “trademark” of the people in the society; (2) it gives meaning and direction to one’s existence;
(3) it promotes meaning to individual’s existence; (4) it predicts social behavior; (5) it unifies diverse behavior;
(6) it provides social solidarity; (7) it establishes social personality; (8) it provides systematic behavioral
pattern; (9) it provides social structure category; (10) it maintains the biologic functioning of the group; (11) it
offers ready-made solutions to man’s material and immaterial problems; and (12) it develops man’s attitude and
values and gives him a conscience.

Elements of Culture
1. Symbols refers to anything that is used to stand for something else. It is anything that gives meaning
to the culture. People who share a culture often attach a specific meaning to an object, gesture,
sound, or image. An example of which are the feasts we are celebrating. Those particular events give
a representation of a particular culture. Even the meanings we provide to things such as colors and
graphic symbols provide understanding which is common to a certain group of people (David and
Macaraeg, 2010). For instance, a cross is a significant symbol to Christians. It is not simply two
pieces of wood attached to each other, nor is it just an old object of torture and execution. To
Christians, it represents the basis of their entire religion, and they have great reverence for the
symbol.
2. Language is known as the storehouse of culture ( Arcinas, 2016). It system of words and symbols
used to communicate with other people. We have a lot of dialects in the Philippines that provide a
means of understanding. Through these, culture is hereby transmitted to future generation through
learning (David and Macaraeg, 2010).
3. Technology refers to the application of knowledge and equipment to ease the task of living and
maintaining the environment; it includes artifacts, methods and devices created and used by people
(Arcinas, 2016).
4. Values are culturally defined standards for what is good or desirable. Values determine how
individuals will probably respond in any given circumstances. Members of the culture use the shared
system of values to decide what is good and what is bad. This also refers to the abstract concept of
what is important and worthwhile (David and Macaraeg, 2010). What is considered as good, proper
and desirable, or bad, improper or undesirable, in a culture can be called as values (Arcinas, 2016). It
influence people’s behavior and serve as a benchmark for evaluating the actions of others. Majority
of Philippine population is bonded together by common values and traits that are first taught at home
and being applied in our day to day lives. Filipinos are known for the following values: (a)
 compassionate; (b) spirit of kinship and camaraderie; (c) hardwork and industry; (d) ability to
survive; (e) faith and religiosity; (f) flexibility, adaptability and creativity; (g) joy and humor; (h)
family orientation; (i) hospitality; and (j) pakikipagkapwa-tao.
5. Beliefs refers to the faith of an individual ( David and Macaraeg, 2010). They are conceptions or
ideas of people have about what is true in the environment around them like what is life, how to
value it and how one’s belied on the value of life relate with his or her interaction with others and the
world. These maybe based on common sense, folk wisdom, religion, science or a combination of all
of these (Arcinas, 2016).
6. Norms are specific rules/standards to guide for appropriate behavior (Arcinas, 2016). These are
societal expectations that mandate specific behaviors in specific situations (David and Macaraeg,
2010). Like in school, we are expected to behave in a particular way. If violate norms, we look
different. Thus, we can be called as social deviants. For example, Filipino males are expected to
wear pants, not skirts and females are expected to have a long hair not a short one like that of males.
Social norms are indeed very essential in understanding the nature of man’s social relationship. They
are of different types and forms According to Palispis (2007), as mention by Baleña (2016), in the
social interaction process, each member possesses certain expectations about the responses of
another member. Therefore, it is very important to determine the different forms of societal norms.
Types:
a. Proscriptive norm defines and tells us things not to do
b. Prescriptive norm defines and tells us things to do
Forms:
a. Folkways are also known as customs (customary/repetitive ways of doing things);
they are forms of norms for everyday behavior that people follow for the sake of tradition or
convenience. Breaking them does not usually have serious consequences. We have certain
customs that were passed on by our forebears that make up a large part of our day to day
existence and we do not question their practicality. Since they are being practiced, it is expected
that we do them also. For example, we Filipinos eat with our bear hands.
b. Mores are strict norms that control moral and ethical behavior; they are based on
definitions of right and wrong (Arcinas, 2016). They are norms also but with moral understones
(David and Macaraeg, 2010). For example, since our country Philippines is a Christian nation,
we are expected to practice monogamous marriage. So if a person who has two or more partners
is looked upon as immoral. Polygamy is considered taboo in Philippine society.
c. Laws are controlled ethics and they are morally agreed, written down and enforced by
an official law enforcement agency (Arcinas, 2016). They are institutionalized norms and mores
that were enacted by the state to ensure stricter punishment in order for the people to adhere to
the standards set by society (David and Macaraeg, 2010).

Two Components of Culture

Sociologists describe two interrelated aspects of human culture: the physical objects of the culture
(material culture) and the ideas associated with these objects (non-material culture).

1. Material culture consists of tangible things (Banaag, 2012). It refers to the physical objects, resources, and
spaces that people use to define their culture. These include homes, neighborhoods, cities, schools, churches,
synagogues, temples, mosques, offices, factories and plants, tools, means of production, goods and products,
stores, and so forth. All of these physical aspects of a culture help to define its members' behaviors and
perceptions. Everything that is created, produced, changed and utilized by men is included in the material
culture (Arcinas, 2016).

2. Non-material culture consists of intangible things (Banaag, 2012). Non‐material culture refers to the
nonphysical ideas that people have about their culture, including beliefs, values, rules, norms, morals, language,
organizations, and institutions. For instance, the non‐material cultural concept of religion consists of a set of
ideas and beliefs about God, worship, morals, and ethics. These beliefs, then, determine how the culture
responds to its religious topics, issues, and events. When considering non‐material culture, sociologists refer to
several processes that a culture uses to shape its members' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Four of the most
important of these are symbols, language, values, and norms. Non-material culture can be categorized into
cognitive and normative culture. The former includes ideas, concepts, philosophies, designs etc. that are product
of mental or intellectual functioning and reasoning of the human mind. Whereas, the latter includes all
expectations, standards and rules for human behaviour (Arcinas, 2016).
Modes of Acquiring Culture

1. Imitation - Children and adults alike have the tendency to imitate the values, attitudes, language and all other
things in their social environment. Some of those things imitated are internalized in their personality and
become a part of their attitude, character and other behavioral patterns.
2. Indoctrination or Suggestion - This may take the form of formal training or informal teaching. Formally,
the person learns from school. Informally, he may acquire those behaviors from listening or watching, reading,
attending training activities or through interaction.
3. Conditioning - The values, beliefs, and attitudes of other people are acquired through conditioning. This
conditioning can be reinforced through reward and punishment.

Adaptation of Culture
1. Parallelism means that the same culture may take place in two or more different places. Example: The
domestication of dogs, cats, pigs and other animals may have semblance in other places
2. Diffusion refers to those behavioral patterns that pass back and forth from one culture to another. This is the
transfer or spread of culture traits from one another brought about by change agents such as people or media
Examples: food and eating practices, marriage and wedding ceremonies, burial rituals, feast celebrations
3. Convergence takes place when two or more cultures are fused or merged into one culture making it different
from the original culture.
4. Fission takes place when people break away from their original culture and start developing a different
culture of their own.
5. Acculturation refers to the process wherein individuals incorporate the behavioral patterns of other cultures
into their own either voluntarily or by force. Voluntary acculturation occurs through imitation, borrowing, or
personal contact with other people.
6. Assimilation occurs when the culture of a larger society is adopted by a smaller society, that smaller society
assumes some of the culture of the larger society or cost society.
7. Accommodation occurs when the larger society and smaller society are able to respect and tolerate each
other’s culture even if there is already a prolonged contact of each other’s culture.

Causes of Cultural Change

1. Discovery is the process of finding a new place or an object, artefact or anything that previously existed. For
example, the discovery of fire led to the art of cooking; discovery of oil, of organisms and substances; of
diseases; of atoms and sources of energy.
2. Invention implies a creative mental process of devising, creating and producing something new, novel or
original; and also the utilization and combination of previously known elements to produce that an original or
novel product. It could be either social or material or it could also be invention of new methods or techniques.
Example of social invention: invention of number system, government, language, democracy, religion, and
alphabet Example of Material Invention: invention of the wheel, machines
3. Diffusion is the spread of cultural traits or social practices from a society or group to another belonging to the
same society or to another through direct contact with each other and exposure to new forms. It involves the
following social processes:
a. Acculturation – cultural borrowing and cultural imitation Example: The Filipinos are said to be the
best English- speaking people of Asia.
b. Assimilation – the blending or fusion of two distinct cultures through long periods of interaction
Example: Americanization of Filipino immigrants to the US
c. Amalgamation – the biological or hereditary fusion of members of different societies Example:
Marriage between a Filipino and an American
d. Enculturation – the deliberate infusion of a new culture to another Example: The teaching of
American history and culture to the Filipinos during the early American Regime

4. Colonization refers to the political, social, and political policy of establishing a colony which would be
subject to the rule or governance of the colonizing state. For example, the Hispanization of Filipino culture
when the Spaniards came and conquered the Philippines.
5. Rebellon and revolutionary movements aim to change the whole social order and replace the leadership.
The challenge the existing folkways and mores, and propose a new scheme of norms, values and organization.

Ethnocentrism, Xenocentrism and Cultural Relativism as Orientations in Viewing Other Cultures

Cultural variation is the differences in social behaviors that different cultures exhibit around the world. What
may be considered good etiquette in one culture may be considered bad etiquette in another. In relation to this,
there are important perceptions on cultural variability: ethnocentrism, xenocentrism and cultural relativism.
 Ethnocentrism is a perception that arises from the fact that cultures differ and each culture defines
reality differently. This happens when judging another culture solely by the values and standards of one’s own
culture (Baleña, et.al,2016). This is the tendency to see and evaluate other cultures in terms of one’s own race,
nation or culture. This is the feeling or belief that one’s culture is better than the rest. Whereas, xenocentrism is
the opposite of ethnocentrism, the belief that one’s culture is inferior compared to others. People are highly
influenced by the culture or many culture outside the realm of their society. This could be one of the effects of
globalization. Exposure to cultural practices of others may make one individual or group of individuals to give
preference to the ideas, lifestyle and products of of other culture.
Cultural relativism is an attempt to judge behavior according to its cultural context (Baleña,
et.al,2016). It is a principle that an individual person’s beliefs and activities should be understood by others in
terms of that individual’s own culture. This concept emphasizes the perspective that no culture is superior to any
other culture (Arcinas, 2016) because (a) different societies have different moral code; (b) the moral code of a
society determines what is right or wrong within the society; (c) there are no moral truths that hold for all
people at all times; (d) the moral code of our own society has no special status, it is but one among many; and
(e) it is arrogant for us to judge other cultures, so we have to be tolerant to them.

Other Important Terms Related to Culture

1. Cultural diversity refers the differentiation of culture all over the world which means there is no
right or wrong culture but there is appropriate culture for the need of a specific group of people.
2. Sub-culture refers to a smaller group within a larger culture.
3. Counterculture refers cultural patterns that strongly oppose those widely accepted within a society
(example in the 1960”s counter culture among teenagers reflect long hair, blue jeans, peace sign, rock and roll
music and drug abuse).
4. Culture lag is experienced when some parts of the society do not change as fast as with other parts
and they are left behind .
5. Culture shock is the inability to read meaning in one’s surroundings, feeling of lost and isolation,
unsure to act as a consequence of being outside the symbolic web of culture that binds others.
6. Ideal culture refers to the social patterns mandated by cultural values and norms.
7. Real culture refers to the actual patterns that only approximate cultural expectations.
8. High culture refers to the cultural patterns that distinguish a society’s elite
9. Popular culture refers to the cultural patterns that are widespread among a society’s population.
10.Culture change is the manner by which culture evolves.

Enrichment Activity 1
Directions: Complete the graphic organizers below by providing what is asked in each item. Write your
answer in a separate sheet of paper.

A. Your own definition of :

*Society-

*Culture-

B. What is the importance of the society and culture?

Enrichment Activity 2
Directions: List down characteristics of society and culture. Write your answer in a separate sheet of paper.

Characteristics of Society Characteristics of Culture

Activity 3
Directions: Answer the following questions.
1.How are society and culture interlinked with one another?
 2. Why is culture important in our society?
3. How does our culture play a role in our functions in the society?

Performance Task # 2
Directions: In a short bond paper , make a slogan out of the thought “culture plays a vital role in the
society”.
LESSON 3
Human Capacity for Culture
Culture is defined as “that complex whole which encompasses beliefs, practices, values, attitudes,
laws, norms, artifacts, symbols, knowledge, and everything that a person learns and shares as a member of a
society” (Taylor, 2010). It is by-product of the attempt of humans to survive their environment and to
compensate for their biological characteristics and limitations. Our evolution toward humanity as we know it
has been a long journey of survival against the elements of the environment and against competing species. As
our ancestors evolved biologically in response to their environment, they have also developed cultural
technologies that aided them to efficiently obtain food and deter predators.
Evolution is a natural process of biological changes occurring in a population across successive
generations (Banaag, 2012 p.31). It helps us identify and analyze man’s physiological development and
eventually the emergence of different society. Moreover, man’s progression and characteristics are essential in
understanding the capability for adaptation. Most scientists currently recognize some 15 to 20 different species
of early humans.

Human Biocultural Evolution

Species Characteristics
Hominids “Manlike Primates” The development of the different species of primates
which were able to evolve in 40 million years ago.
There have been various relics of hominids which
could be described as manlike primates. They are
Ramapithecus, Lucy and Australopithecus
Homo Habilis “Handy Man”. The apelike men who first to used stone tools as
weapons and protection of their enemies. They are
recognized as the first true human. Lived about 2.4 to
1.4 million years ago
Homo Erectus “The Upright Man” It was believed to be the first man like creature that
lived about 500,000 years ago in Asia, Africa and
Europe. This manlike specie could walk straight with
almost the same brain with modern man. He made
refined stone stools for hunting and weapons for
protection of the enemies.
The following are the major discovered fossils:
a. Pithecanthropus Erectus “Java Man” –Discovered
by Eugene Dubois at Trinil, Java, Indonesia in 1891.
b. Sinanthropus Pekinensis “Peking Man” –
Discovered at Choukoutien village, Beijing, China in
1929.
Homo Sapiens “The Thinking Man” It was believed that this was the direct descendant of
modern man who lived about 250,000 years ago.
They had similar physical descriptions with modern
man. They originated as the primitive men whose
activities were largely dependent on hunting, fishing
and agriculture. They buried their dead, used had
tools and had religion. The following are Homo
Sapiens subspecies:

a. Neanderthal Man –Discovered in Neanderthal

valley near Dusseldorf, Germany in 1856 who lived
in cave and dependent in hunting and fishing.
b. Cro-Magnon Man – Discovered by a French
archaeologist Louis Lartet in the Cro Magnon Cave
in Southern France. It was believed to live in Europe,
Asia and Africa. As a prehistoric man, they were the
first to produce art in cave paintings and crafting
decorated tools and accessories.

Cultural and Sociopolitical Development

 The physical as well as the mental development of early human beings helped them understand and
adapt to their existing environment. Thus, their adjustment served as the onset of their culture. Culture enables
the members of society to develop ways of coping with exigencies of nature as well as ways of harnessing their
environment (Panopio, et.al 1994). The changes made by man through his interaction with the environment
establish the different cultural evolution which determines man’s socio-cultural development.

Cultural Period Cultural and Socio-political Development

Paleolithic Period (Old Stone Age) 3 million years to -Use of simple pebble tools.
8,000 B.C -Learned to live in caves.
- Discovered the use of fires.
-Developed small sculptures; and monumental
painting, incised designs, and reliefs on the wall of
caves.
- “Food-collecting cultures”
Neolithic Age (New Stone Age) Occurred sometime -Stone tools were shaped by polishing or grinding.
about 10,000 BCE - Settlement in permanent villages.
- Dependence on domesticated plants or animals.
- Appearance of such crafts as pottery and weaving.
-“Food-producing cultures”
Age of Metals 4,000 B.C. – 1,500 B.C -The used of metal such as bronze, copper, and iron
produced a new historical development form cradles
civilization of Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, including
India and China which later on spread throughout
Asia.
- The civilization which defines to a more developed
social, cultural, political and economic system.
-It had already direct contacts through tribes,
kingdoms, empire and later on state which the
constant political activities were through conquest,
wars and trade.

The Early Types of Societies

During the course of human history, people have organized themselves into various types of societies
depending upon their level of technology and the related methods of subsistence. The earliest societies confined
themselves in gathering and hunting for food. When man invented the plow, it enabled him to increase the
amount of available food. The introduction of modern technology and equipment, mass computerization, and
white-collar service occupations, has changed the man’s society into a more complex one.

Type of Society Technology Economy Settlements Social

Organizations
A. Hunting and Very simple – fire, Society Bare Nomadic 25-40 All resting within
Gathering arrow, baskets necessities – no people family
surplus
B. Horticultural Digging sticks, Simple crop Semipermanent – Family-centered;
And Pastoral occasionally blade cultivation, some some citiesReligious system
Society tools. surplus and occasionally begins to develop,
exchange. kingdoms. moderate
specialization;
Presence of social
inequality
C. Agrarian Society Irrigation, Largely agricultural Permanent Family loses
Fertilization, but much surplus; urbanization significance as
Metallurgy, increased market becoming important distinctive
Animal-drawn exchange and empires covering religious, political,
plow. substantial trade. continent. and economic
system emerged.
Increased presence
of social inequality.
D. Industrial Advance sources of Industrial – few Permanent – urban Cities now contain
Society energy; engage in living most of the
Mechanized agriculture or direct predominating. population. The rise
 production. production; Much of state. Complex
surplus; Fully set of
developed market interdependent
economy institutions.

The Legacy of Early Humans to Contemporary Population

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) is the primary
transnational entity that manages and negotiates matters relating to human heritage. It defined cultural heritage
as follows:

Cultural heritage is not limited to material manifestations, such as monuments and objects that have
been preserved over time. This notion also encompasses living expressions and the traditions that countless
groups and communities worldwide have inherited from their ancestors and transmit to their descendants, in
most cases, orally (UNESCO, 2010).
This definition us with a two-part meaning of cultural heritage. On one end, there is heritage being
tangible in the form of structures, monuments, historical sites, and other artifacts. On the other hand, there is
heritage being intangible in the form of literature, oral, traditions, concepts, and values.
Tangible heritage could be divided into two categories: movable and immovable. The primary
difference in these categories is the size of the heritage. For example, the Stonehenge is an immovable tangible
heritage, whereas the sarcophagus of the pharaoh Tutankhamun is a movable tangible heritage.
Movable tangible heritage pieces are often removed from the sites where they were found and
transferred to museums for safekeeping and maintenance. Immovable tangible heritage pieces are often left to
the elements of nature (i.e., rain, wind, sand, sun), which makes them vulnerable to decay and corrosion. This
does not mean that conservation efforts are not being made. However, due to the constant exposure of these
objects to these elements, conservation becomes more challenging.

Activity 1.Select the right answer from the choices inside the box.
Choices for 1-4:
A. Hominids C. Homo Erectus
B. Homo Habilis D. Homo Sapiens
1. They were the first hunters with improvised tools such as axes and knives, and were the first to produce fire.
2. First to make stone tools.
3. Described as manlike primates.
4. They were the first to produce art in cave paintings and crafting decorated tools and accessories.

Choices for 5-8:

A. Paleolithic Period C. Metal Age
B. Neolithic Period D. Age of Modern Technology
5. Also known as the computer age.
6. Trading flourished in and among tribes, kingdoms, empires and later on state.
7. The period when the considered new people learned farming, domesticating animals and use wove cloth as
protection of their skin.
8. People during this period are nomadic.

Choices for 9-12

A. basket C. plough
B. weaving of cloth D. banga/clay pot
9. Used for food preservation and storing of water.
10. What materials they produced or made to help them in harvesting crops?
11. With great skills, a loom is a device for;
12. Traditional tool in farming.

Choices for 13-15:

A. Language C. Values
B. Beliefs D. Norms
13.Performing rituals -butchering of animals, offering of foods, for the dead relatives.
14. Killing, stealing and many more are strictly prohibited by society.
15. Elders are given high respect in the society.