Artificial Intelligence Unit-4

What is knowledge representation?

Humans are best at understanding, reasoning, and interpreting knowledge. Human knows things, which is
knowledge and as per their knowledge they perform various actions in the real world. But how machines do all
these things comes under knowledge representation and reasoning. Hence we can describe Knowledge
representation as following:
o Knowledge representation and reasoning (KR, KRR) is the part of Artificial intelligence which concerned with AI
agents thinking and how thinking contributes to intelligent behavior of agents.
o It is responsible for representing information about the real world so that a computer can understand and can
utilize this knowledge to solve the complex real world problems such as diagnosis a medical condition or
communicating with humans in natural language.
o It is also a way which describes how we can represent knowledge in artificial intelligence. Knowledge
representation is not just storing data into some database, but it also enables an intelligent machine to learn from
that knowledge and experiences so that it can behave intelligently like a human.
What to Represent:
Following are the kind of knowledge which needs to be represented in AI systems:
o Object: All the facts about objects in our world domain. E.g., Guitars contains strings, trumpets are brass
instruments.
o Events: Events are the actions which occur in our world.
o Performance: It describe behavior which involves knowledge about how to do things.
o Meta-knowledge: It is knowledge about what we know.
o Facts: Facts are the truths about the real world and what we represent.
o Knowledge-Base: The central component of the knowledge-based agents is the knowledge base. It is
represented as KB. The Knowledgebase is a group of the Sentences (Here, sentences are used as a technical term
and not identical with the English language).
Knowledge: Knowledge is awareness or familiarity gained by experiences of facts, data, and situations. Following are the
types of knowledge in artificial intelligence:
Types of knowledge
Following are the various types of knowledge:

1. Declarative Knowledge:
o Declarative knowledge is to know about something.

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 Artificial Intelligence Unit-4
o It includes concepts, facts, and objects.
o It is also called descriptive knowledge and expressed in declarativesentences.
o It is simpler than procedural language.
2. Procedural Knowledge
o It is also known as imperative knowledge.
o Procedural knowledge is a type of knowledge which is responsible for knowing how to do something.
o It can be directly applied to any task.
o It includes rules, strategies, procedures, agendas, etc.
o Procedural knowledge depends on the task on which it can be applied.
3. Meta-knowledge:
o Knowledge about the other types of knowledge is called Meta-knowledge.
4. Heuristic knowledge:
o Heuristic knowledge is representing knowledge of some experts in a filed or subject.
o Heuristic knowledge is rules of thumb based on previous experiences, awareness of approaches, and which are
good to work but not guaranteed.
5. Structural knowledge:
o Structural knowledge is basic knowledge to problem-solving.
o It describes relationships between various concepts such as kind of, part of, and grouping of something.
o It describes the relationship that exists between concepts or objects.
The relation between knowledge and intelligence:
Knowledge of real-worlds plays a vital role in intelligence and same for creating artificial intelligence. Knowledge plays an
important role in demonstrating intelligent behavior in AI agents. An agent is only able to accurately act on some input
when he has some knowledge or experience about that input.
Let's suppose if you met some person who is speaking in a language which you don't know, then how you will able to act
on that. The same thing applies to the intelligent behavior of the agents.
As we can see in below diagram, there is one decision maker which act by sensing the environment and using knowledge.
But if the knowledge part will not present then, it cannot display intelligent behavior.

AI knowledge cycle:
An Artificial intelligence system has the following components for displaying intelligent behavior:
o Perception
o Learning
o Knowledge Representation and Reasoning
o Planning

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 Artificial Intelligence Unit-4
o Execution

The above diagram is showing how an AI system can interact with the real world and what components help it to show
intelligence. AI system has Perception component by which it retrieves information from its environment. It can be visual,
audio or another form of sensory input. The learning component is responsible for learning from data captured by
Perception comportment. In the complete cycle, the main components are knowledge representation and Reasoning.
These two components are involved in showing the intelligence in machine-like humans. These two components are
independent with each other but also coupled together. The planning and execution depend on analysis of Knowledge
representation and reasoning.
Approaches to knowledge representation:
There are mainly four approaches to knowledge representation, which are givenbelow:
1. Simple relational knowledge:
o It is the simplest way of storing facts which uses the relational method, and each fact about a set of the object is
set out systematically in columns.
o This approach of knowledge representation is famous in database systems where the relationship between
different entities is represented.
o This approach has little opportunity for inference.
Example: The following is the simple relational knowledge representation.

Player Weight Age

Player1 65 23

Player2 58 18

Player3 75 24

2. Inheritable knowledge:
o In the inheritable knowledge approach, all data must be stored into a hierarchy of classes.
o All classes should be arranged in a generalized form or a hierarchal manner.
o In this approach, we apply inheritance property.
o Elements inherit values from other members of a class.
o This approach contains inheritable knowledge which shows a relation between instance and class, and it is called
instance relation.
o Every individual frame can represent the collection of attributes and its value.
o In this approach, objects and values are represented in Boxed nodes.
o We use Arrows which point from objects to their values.
o Example:

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3. Inferential knowledge:
o Inferential knowledge approach represents knowledge in the form of formal logics.
o This approach can be used to derive more facts.
o It guaranteed correctness.
o Example: Let's suppose there are two statements:
a. Marcus is a man
b. All men are mortal
Then it can represent as;

man(Marcus)
∀x = man (x) ----------> mortal (x)s
4. Procedural knowledge:
o Procedural knowledge approach uses small programs and codes which describes how to do specific things, and
how to proceed.
o In this approach, one important rule is used which is If-Then rule.
o In this knowledge, we can use various coding languages such as LISP language and Prolog language.
o We can easily represent heuristic or domain-specific knowledge using this approach.
o But it is not necessary that we can represent all cases in this approach.
Requirements for knowledge Representation system:
A good knowledge representation system must possess the following properties.
1. Representational Accuracy:
KR system should have the ability to represent all kind of required knowledge.
2. Inferential Adequacy:
KR system should have ability to manipulate the representational structures to produce new knowledge
corresponding to existing structure.
3. Inferential Efficiency:
The ability to direct the inferential knowledge mechanism into the most productive directions by storing
appropriate guides.
4. Acquisitional efficiency- The ability to acquire the new knowledge easily using automatic methods.
Techniques of knowledge representation
There are mainly four ways of knowledge representation which are given as follows:
1. Logical Representation
2. Semantic Network Representation
3. Frame Representation
4. Production Rules

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1. Logical Representation
Logical representation is a language with some concrete rules which deals with propositions and has no ambiguity in
representation. Logical representation means drawing a conclusion based on various conditions. This representation lays
down some important communication rules. It consists of precisely defined syntax and semantics which supports the
sound inference. Each sentence can be translated into logics using syntax and semantics.
Syntax:
o Syntaxes are the rules which decide how we can construct legal sentences in the logic.
o It determines which symbol we can use in knowledge representation.
o How to write those symbols.
Semantics:
o Semantics are the rules by which we can interpret the sentence in the logic.
o Semantic also involves assigning a meaning to each sentence.
Logical representation can be categorized into mainly two logics:
Propositional Logics
Predicate logics
Advantages of logical representation:
1. Logical representation enables us to do logical reasoning.
2. Logical representation is the basis for the programming languages.
Disadvantages of logical Representation:
1. Logical representations have some restrictions and are challenging to work with.
2. Logical representation technique may not be very natural, and inference may not be so efficient.
2. Semantic Network Representation
Semantic networks are alternative of predicate logic for knowledge representation. In Semantic networks, we can
represent our knowledge in the form of graphical networks. This network consists of nodes representing objects and arcs
which describe the relationship between those objects. Semantic networks can categorize the object in different forms
and can also link those objects. Semantic networks are easy to understand and can be easily extended.
This representation consist of mainly two types of relations:
 IS-A relation (Inheritance)
 Kind-of-relation
Example: Following are some statements which we need to represent in the form of nodes and arcs.
Statements:
a. Jerry is a cat.
b. Jerry is a mammal
c. Jerry is owned by Priya.
d. Jerry is brown colored.

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 Artificial Intelligence Unit-4
e. All Mammals are animal.

In the above diagram, we have represented the different type of knowledge in the form of nodes and arcs. Each object is
connected with another object by some relation.
Drawbacks in Semantic representation:
1. Semantic networks take more computational time at runtime as we need to traverse the complete network tree to
answer some questions. It might be possible in the worst case scenario that after traversing the entire tree, we
find that the solution does not exist in this network.
2. Semantic networks try to model human-like memory (Which has 1015 neurons and links) to store the information,
but in practice, it is not possible to build such a vast semantic network.
3. These types of representations are inadequate as they do not have any equivalent quantifier, e.g., for all, for
some, none, etc.
4. Semantic networks do not have any standard definition for the link names.
5. These networks are not intelligent and depend on the creator of the system.
Advantages of Semantic network:
1. Semantic networks are a natural representation of knowledge.
2. Semantic networks convey meaning in a transparent manner.
3. These networks are simple and easily understandable.
3. Frame Representation
A frame is a record like structure which consists of a collection of attributes and its values to describe an entity in the
world. Frames are the AI data structure which divides knowledge into substructures by representing stereotypes
situations. It consists of a collection of slots and slot values. These slots may be of any type and sizes. Slots have names
and values which are called facets.
Facets: The various aspects of a slot is known as Facets. Facets are features of frames which enable us to put constraints
on the frames. Example: IF-NEEDED facts are called when data of any particular slot is needed. A frame may consist of any
number of slots, and a slot may include any number of facets and facets may have any number of values. A frame is also
known as slot-filter knowledge representation in artificial intelligence.
Frames are derived from semantic networks and later evolved into our modern-day classes and objects. A single frame is
not much useful. Frames system consist of a collection of frames which are connected. In the frame, knowledge about an
object or event can be stored together in the knowledge base. The frame is a type of technology which is widely used in
various applications including Natural language processing and machine visions.
Example: 1
Let's take an example of a frame for a book

Slots Filters

Title Artificial Intelligence

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Genre Computer Science

Author Peter Norvig

Edition Third Edition

Year 1996

Page 1152

Example 2:
Let's suppose we are taking an entity, Peter. Peter is an engineer as a profession, and his age is 25, he lives in city London,
and the country is England. So following is the frame representation for this:

Slots Filter

Name Peter

Profession Doctor

Age 25

Marital status Single

Weight 78

Advantages of frame representation:

1. The frame knowledge representation makes the programming easier by grouping the related data.
2. The frame representation is comparably flexible and used by many applications in AI.
3. It is very easy to add slots for new attribute and relations.
4. It is easy to include default data and to search for missing values.
5. Frame representation is easy to understand and visualize.
4. Production Rules
Production rules system consist of (condition, action) pairs which mean, "If condition then action". It has mainly three
parts:
o The set of production rules
o Working Memory
o The recognize-act-cycle
In production rules agent checks for the condition and if the condition exists then production rule fires and
corresponding action is carried out. The condition part of the rule determines which rule may be applied to a problem.
And the action part carries out the associated problem-solving steps. This complete process is called a recognize-act
cycle.
The working memory contains the description of the current state of problems-solving and rule can write knowledge to
the working memory. This knowledge match and may fire other rules.
If there is a new situation (state) generates, then multiple production rules will be fired together, this is called conflict set.
In this situation, the agent needs to select a rule from these sets, and it is called a conflict resolution.
Example:
o IF (at bus stop AND bus arrives) THEN action (get into the bus)
o IF (on the bus AND paid AND empty seat) THEN action (sit down).
o IF (on bus AND unpaid) THEN action (pay charges).
o IF (bus arrives at destination) THEN action (get down from the bus).
Advantages of Production rule:
1. The production rules are expressed in natural language.
2. The production rules are highly modular, so we can easily remove, add or modify an individual rule.

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Disadvantages of Production rule:

1. Production rule system does not exhibit any learning capabilities, as it does not store the result of the problem for
the future uses.
2. During the execution of the program, many rules may be active hence rule-based production systems are
inefficient.

Extended Semantic Network

 In conventional Sem Net, clausal form of logic can not be expressed.
 Extended Semantic Network (ESNet) combines the advantages of bothlogic and
semantic network.
 In the ESNet, terms are represented by nodes similar to Sem Net.
 Binary predicate symbols in clausal logic are represented by labels onarcs of ESNet.
– An atom of the form “Love(john, mary)” is an arc labeled as ‘Love’with its two end
nodes representing ‘john’ and ‘mary’.
 Conclusions and conditions in clausal form are represented by differentkinds of arcs.

– Conditions are drawn with two lines

and conclusions are drawn with one heavy line .

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Example:

 Represent ‘grandfather’ definition

– Gfather(X, Y)  Father(X, Z), Parent(Z, Y) in ESNet.

Z
Father Parent

X Y
Gfather

Example:

 Represent ‘grandfather’ definition

– Gfather(X, Y)  Father(X, Z), Parent(Z, Y) in ESNet.

male
Isa Isa
X human
Isa
female

Inference Rules in ESNet

 Inference rules are embedded in the representation itself.

 The inference that “for every action of giving, there is an action of taking”in clausal
logic written as

– “Action(E, take)  Action(E, give)”.

Action
E take
ESNet
Action
E give

 The inference rule such as “an actor of taking action is also the recipientof the action”
can be easily represented in clausal logic as:
M.Ramakoteswara
– Here E Rao
is aM.Tech(CSE)
variable representing an event where an action of taking is Page 9
happening.
 Artificial Intelligence Unit-4

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 Represent clausal rule “Male(X), Female(X)  Human(X)” using binary

representation as
– “Isa(X, male), Isa(X, female)  Isa( X, human)” and subsequently in ESNet as
follows:

Inference Rules in ESNet

 Inference rules are embedded in the representation itself.

 The inference that “for every action of giving, there is an action of taking”in clausal
logic written as
– “Action(E, take)  Action(E, give)”.

ESNet

 The inference rule such as “an actor of taking action is also the recipientof the action”
can be easily represented in clausal logic as:
– Here E is a variable representing an event where an action of taking is
happening.

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– Recipient(E, Y)  Acton(E,
Action take), Actor (E, Y)
ESNet E take
Recipient
Actor

Example 2:

 Represent the following clauses of Logic in ESNet.Recipient(E, Y)  Acton(E,

take), Actor (E, Y) Object (e, apple).
– Action(e, take).Actor (e, john) .
apple

e E Recipient
Actor Action Actor
Action

john take Y

Contradiction

 The contradiction in the ESNet arises if we have the following situation.

Part_of
P X

Isa
Part_of
Y

Deduction in ESNet

Both of the following inference mechanisms are available in ESNet.

1. Forward reasoning inference (uses bottom up approach)

– Bottom Up Inferencing: Given an ESNet, apply the followingreduction (resolution) using

modus ponen rule of logic ({A B, B} then A).
2. Backward reasoning inference (uses top down approach).
– Top Down Inferencing: Prove a conclusion from a given ESNet by adding thedenial of the
conclusion to the network and show that the resulting set of clauses in the network is inconsistent

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Advance Knowledge Representation Techniques

Conceptual Dependency (CD)
 CD theory was developed by Schank in 1973 to 1975 to represent themeaning of NL
sentences.

– It helps in drawing inferences

– It is independent of the language

 CD representation of a sentence is not built using words in the sentencerather built using
conceptual primitives which give the intended meanings of words.

 CD provides structures and specific set of primitives from whichrepresentation can be built.
Primitive Acts of CD theory
● ATRANS Transfer of an abstract relationship (i.e. give)
● PTRANS Transfer of the physical location of an object (e.g., go)
● PROPEL Application of physical force to an object (e.g. push)
● MOVE Movement of a body part by its owner (e.g. kick)
● GRASP Grasping of an object by an action (e.g. throw)
● INGEST Ingesting of an object by an animal (e.g. eat)
● EXPEL Expulsion of something from the body of an animal
(e.g. cry)

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● MTRANS Transfer of mental information (e.g. tell)

● MBUILD Building new information out of old (e.g decide)
● SPEAK Producing of sounds (e.g. say)
● ATTEND Focusing of a sense organ toward a stimulus
(e.g. listen)
Conceptual category
● There are four conceptual categories

− ACT Actions {one of the CD primitives}

− PP Objects {picture producers}

− AA Modifiers of actions {action aiders}

− PA Modifiers of PP’s {picture aiders}

Example:
I gave a book to the man. CD representation is as follows:

It should be noted that this representation is same for different sayingwith same
meaning. For example

– I gave the man a book,

– The man got book from me,
– The book was given to man by me etc.

Few conventions
● Arrows indicate directions of dependency
● Double arrow indicates two way link between actor and action.

O – For the object case relation R

– For the recipient case relation P –
For past tense
D – Destination
Some of Conceptualizations of CD
 Dependency structures are themselves conceptualization and can serveas
components of larger dependency structures.
 The dependencies among conceptualization correspond to semantic
relations among the underlying concepts.
 We will list the most important ones allowed by CD.
Remaining can be seen from the book.
 Remaining can be seen from the book.
Rule 1: PP  ACT
 It describes the relationship between an actor and the event he or shecauses.
o This is a two-way dependency, since neither actor nor event can be
considered primary.
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 Artificial Intelligence Unit-4

o The letter P in the dependency link indicates past tense.

 Example: John ran
P
CD Rep: John  PTRANS
Rule 2: ACT  PP
 It describes the relationship between a ACT and a PP (object) of ACT.
o The direction of the arrow is toward the ACT since the context ofthe
specific ACT determines the meaning of the object relation.
o Example: John pushed the bike CD
Rep: John  PROPEL  bike
Rule 3: PP  PP
 It describes the relationship between two PP’s, one of which belongs tothe set
defined by the other.
 Example: John is doctor
CD Rep: John  doctor
Rule 4: PP  PP
 It describes the relationship between two PP’s, one of which provides a
particular kind of information about the other.
– The three most common types of information to be provided in this way are possession (
shown as POSS-BY), location (shown as LOC), and physical containment (shown as
CONT).

– The direction of the arrow is again toward the concept beingdescribed.

– Example: John’s dog

poss-by
CD Rep dog  John

Rule 5: PP  PA
● It describes the relationship between a PP and a PA that is asserted to
describe it.
– PA represents states of PP such as height, health etc.
● Example: John is fat
CD Rep John  weight (> 80)

Rule 6: PP  PA
● It describes the relationship between a PP and an attribute that already has
been predicated of it.
– Direction is towards PP being described.
– Example: Smart John
CD Rep John  smart

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It describes the relationship between an ACT and the

source and therecipient of the ACT
Example: John took the book from Mary

 It describes the relationship that describes the change in state.

 Example: Tree grows

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It describes the relationship between one conceptualization and anotherthat causes it.

– Here {x} is causes {y} i.e., if x then

y Example: Bill shot Bob

 It describes the relationship between one conceptualization with anotherthat is

happening at the time of the first.
– Here {y} is happening while {x} is in progress.
– Example: While going home I saw a snakeI
am going home

I saw a snake
Generation of CD representations:

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Inferences Associated with Primitive Act

 General inferences are stored with each primitive Act thus reducing the number of
inferences that need to be stored explicitly with each concept.

 For example, from a sentence “John killed Mike”, we can infer that “Mikeis dead”.

 Let us take another example of primitive Act INGEST.

 The following inferences can be associated with it.

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– The object ingested is no longer available in its original form.

– If object is eatable, then the actor has less hunger.

– If object is toxic, then the actor’s heath is bad.

– The physical position of object has changed. So PTRANS isinferred.

 Example: The verbs {give, take, steal, donate} involve a transfer ofownership of an object.

– If any of them occurs, then inferences about who now has theobject and who once had the
object may be important.

– In a CD representation, these possible inferences can be statedonce and associated with the
primitive ACT “ATRANS”.

 Consider another sentence “Bill threatened John with a broken nose”

– Sentence interpretation is that Bill informed John that he (Bill) willdo something to break
john’s nose.

– Bill did (said) so in order that John will believe that if he (john) does some other thing
(different from what Bill wanted) then Billwill break John’s nose.

Problems with CD Representation:

 It is difficult to

– construct original sentence from its corresponding CDrepresentation.

– CD representation can be used as a general model for knowledgerepresentation, because this

theory is based on representation ofevents as well as all the information related to events.

 Rules are to be carefully designed for each primitive action in order toobtain semantically
correct interpretation.

 Many verbs may fall under different primitive ACTs, and it becomesdifficult to find correct
primitive in the given context.

 The CD representation becomes complex requiring lot of storage formany simple actions.

 For example, the sentence “John bet Mike that Indian cricket team willwin incoming
world cup” will require huge CD structure.
Conceptual P ar s i n g
 Conceptual parsing is required for generating CD representation fromsource sentences in
natural language.

 The main steps involved in CD parsing are as follows:

– Syntactic processor extracts main verb and noun along with syntactic category of the verb
(transitive or intransitive) from the sentence.

– Conceptual processor then makes use of verb ACT dictionary.

– Once the correct entry from dictionary is chosen, CD processor analyses the rest of sentence

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looking for arguments for empty slots of the verb.

– CD processor examines possible interpretation in a well-defined order.

Example:

 Case1: Handling of ‘with PP’ phrase by CD processor and formulating strategies to

disambiguate the meanings.

– Type1: John broke the door with hammer non animate

– Type2: John broke the door with Mike animate

 Rule 1: If PP in ‘with PP’ phrase is non-animate and CD Act requires instrument then the
sentence is of Type1, where PP (hammer) is resolved to instrument.

 Rule 2: If PP in ‘with PP’ phrase is animate and CD Act requires instrument then the
sentence is of Type2, where PP (Mike) is resolved as co-actor.

 Case2: If PPs in both the sentences are non-animate, then they have to be resolved using
semantic lexicon.

– Type3: John went to the garden with flowers

– Type4: John went to the garden with bag

 In Type3, non-animate noun ‘flowers’ is part of garden, whereas inType4, non-animate

‘bag’ is some object not related to garden.

 Such association of word senses could be found in Word-Net and then disambiguation is
possible.

 Here noun ‘bag’ is treated as possession by John.

 Case 3: If PPs in the sentences are animate, then they have to be resolved using semantic
lexicon and context.

 Consider the following examples.

– Type5: John went to the garden with Mike

– Type6: John went to the garden with butterflies

– Type7: John went to the garden with dog

 In these sentences, Mike, butterflies and dog are animate PPs and can be resolved as
follows:
– Mike is easily resolved to co-actor of John as both are human and have
similar characteristics

 Word-Net can be used to check if butterfly and garden has some commonsense.

 Dog is still ambiguous.

 It may be treated as possession of actor or may be a part of garden asanimals many

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 Artificial Intelligence Unit-4
wonder in garden.

 Such situations can be further resolved by considering the context ofsentences.

 We can use semantic lexicon dictionary to resolve some of theambiguities.
Script Structure:
 Scripts were introduced by Schank and Abelson introduced in 1977 that used CD
framework.

 The scripts are useful in describing certain stereotyped situations such as going to theater

 It consists of set of slots containing default values along with some information about the type
of values similar to frames.

 It differs from FS as the values of the slots in scripts must be ordered and have more
specialized roles.

 In real world situations, we see that event tends to occur in known patterns because of
clausal relationship to the occurrence of events
Script Components:
 Each script contains the following main components.

– Entry Conditions: Must be satisfied before events in the script can occur.

– Results: Conditions that will be true after events in scrip to occur.

– Props: Slots representing objects involved in the events.

– Roles: Persons involved in the events.

– Track: Specific variation on more general pattern in the script. Different tracks may
share many components of the same script but not all.

– Scenes: The sequence of events that occur. Events are represented in conceptual
dependency form.

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Script Invocation:

 It must be activated based on its significance.

 If the topic is important, then the script should be opened.
 If a topic is just mentioned, then a pointer to that script could be held.
 For example, given “John enjoyed the play in theater”, a script “Play inTheater”
suggested above is invoked.
 All implicit questions can be answered correctly.
 Here the significance of this script is high.
– Did john go to theater?
– Did he buy ticket?

– Did he have money?

 If we have a sentence like “John went to theater to pick his daughter”,then invoking this
script will lead to many wrong answers.

– Here significance of the script theater is less.

 Getting significance from the story is not straightforward. However, someheuristics can be
applied to get the value.
Advantages / Disadvantages of Script

 Advantages

– Capable of predicting implicit events

– Single coherent interpretation may be build up from a collection ofobservations.

 Disadvantage

– More specific (inflexible) and less general than frames.

– Not suitable to represent all kinds of knowledge.

 To deal with inflexibility, smaller modules called memory organizationpackets (MOP) can be
combined in a way that is appropriate for the situation.

CYC

What is CYC?
 An ambitious attempt to form a very large knowledge base aimed atcapturing
commonsense reasoning. 

 Initial goals to capture knowledge from a hundred randomly selected. 

 Both Implicit and Explicit knowledge encoded. 

– Example: Suppose we read that Wellington learned of Napoleon's death

– Then we (humans) can conclude Napoleon never new that Wellington had died.How do we
do this?
 We require special implicit knowledge or commonsense such as:

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 We only die once.

 You stay dead.
 You cannot learn of anything when dead.
 Time cannot go backwards.

Why build large knowledge bases:

Brittleness

– Specialized knowledge bases are brittle. Hard to encode new situations and non-graceful degradation in
performance. Commonsense based knowledge bases should have a firmer foundation.
Form and Content

– Knowledge representation may not be suitable for AI. Commonsense strategies could point out
where difficulties in content may affect the form.
Shared Knowledge

– Should allow greater communication among systems with common bases and
assumptions.
How is CYC coded?
 By hand. 

 Special CYCL language:

– LISP like.

– Frame based

– Multiple inheritance

– Slots are fully fledged objects.

– Generalized inheritance -- any link not just isa and instance.

CASE GRAMMAR
 Case grammar is a system of linguistic analysis, focusing on the link between the valence,
or number of subjects, objects, etc., of a verb and the grammatical context it requires.
 The system was created by the American linguist Charles J. Fillmore in (1968),
in the context of Transformational Grammar.
 He initially introduced six cases:
 AGENTIVE (agent)
 OBJECTIVE (object)
 INSTRUMENTAL (instrument)
 DATIVE (which covers experience)
 FACTIVE (which covers result of an action)
 LOCATIVE (location of an action)

 This theory analyzes the surface syntactic structure of sentences by studying the
combination of deep cases (i.e. semantic roles)

 Agent, Object, Benefactor, Location, Instrument— which are required by a specific

verb.
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 For instance, the verb "give" in English requires an Agent (A) and Object (O), and a
Beneficiary (B); e.g. "Jones (A) gave money (O) to the school (B).

 According to Fillmore, each verb selects a certain number of deep cases which
form its case frame.

 Thus, a case frame describes important aspects of semantic valency, of verbs,

adjectives and nouns. 

 Case frames are subject to certain constraints, such as that a deep case can occur only
once per sentence. 

 Some of the cases are obligatory and others are optional. Obligatory cases may not be
deleted, at the risk of producing ungrammatical sentences.

– For example, Mary gave the apples is ungrammatical in this sense.

 A fundamental hypothesis of case grammar is that grammatical functions, such as

subject or object, are determined by the deep, semantic valence of the verb, which finds
its syntactic correlate in such grammatical categories as Subject and Object, and in
grammatical cases such as Nominative, Accusative, etc.

 Fillmore (1968) puts forwards the following hierarchy for a universal subject
selection rule:

 Agent < Instrumental < Objective 

 That means that if the case frame of a verb contains an agent, this one is realized as the subject of an
active sentence; otherwise, the deep case following the agent in the hierarchy (i.e. Instrumental) is
promoted to subject.

 The influence of case grammar on contemporary linguistics has been significant, to the
extent that numerous linguistic theories incorporate deep roles in one or other form, such
as the so-called Thematic structure in Government and Binding theory. It has also inspired
the development of frame-based representations in AI research

SEMATIC WEB

 The Semantic Web is an extension of the World Wide Web through standards set by the
World Wide Web Consortium (W3C).

 The goal of the Semantic Web is to make Internet data machine-readable. To enable the
encoding of semantics with the data, technologies such as Resource
Description Framework (RDF) and Web Ontology Language (OWL) are used.

 These technologies are used to formally represent metadata.

 For example, ontology can describe concepts, relationships between entities, and
categories of things.

 These embedded semantics offer significant advantages such as reasoning over data and
operating with heterogeneous data sources.

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 These standards promote common data formats and exchange protocols on the Web,
fundamentally the RDF.

 According to the W3C, "The Semantic Web provides a common framework that allows data
to be shared and reused across application, enterprise, and community boundaries."

 The Semantic Web is therefore regarded as an integrator across different content and
information applications and systems.

 The term was coined by Tim Berners-Lee for a web of data (or data web) that can be
processed by machines—that is, one in which much of the meaning is machine- readable.

 While its critics have questioned its feasibility, proponents argue that applications in library
and information science, industry, biology and human sciences research have already proven
the validity of the original concept.

 In addition to the classic “Web of documents” W3C is helping to build a technology stack
to support a “Web of data,” the sort of data you find in databases.

 The ultimate goal of the Web of data is to enable computers to do more useful work and to
develop systems that can support trusted interactions over the network.

 The term “Semantic Web” refers to W3C’s vision of the Web of linked data.

 Semantic Web technologies enable people to create data stores on the Web, build
vocabularies, and write rules for handling data.

 Linked data are empowered by technologies such as XML, XML Schema, RDF, RDF
Schema, SPARQL, OWL, and SKOS.

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