Basics of Electromagnetism:

Easy learning

by Dr. Anjana Sen

Part 1: Electricity
Part 2: Magnetism
Part 3: Electromagnetism
 Part 1: Electricity

fundamental sub-atomic particles

electron (e─)

─
─
─
proton (p+)
nucleus

+
+
neutron (n0)
─ ─ ─

Electric charge occurs when, the number of protons in the nucleus ≠ the number of
electrons in the surrounding orbitals.
more protons than electrons cation, positive charge
less protons than electrons anion, negative charge
 useful definitions

Electricity: a physical phenomenon associated with presence of electric charge

(stationary / moving).

static electricity: accumulated electric charge on non-conducting material, results from

imbalance of positive and negative charges between object.

“valence electron”
• is located in the outermost shell (valence shell),
• participates in forming of chemical bonds,
• can escape from atomic orbital and become free.

free electron = flowing charge

permits very mobile electrons to flow freely and easily

conductor
releases electrons, such as metal
intermediate conductivity, increases with temperature,
semiconductor
such as silicon
extremely high resistance to flow of charge, such as
insulator
rubber, wood, plastic
voltage: difference in charge between two points.
electric current: flow of electric charge / electrons through a conducting material.
Why does electric current flow in the direction from the positive charge towards the
negative charge?

high potential energy

+ + + + + + + + +
electric potential

flow from high to low,

just like water

― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ―
low potential energy

What is electric potential energy?

Electric potential energy of a charge describes the amount of its stored energy.
Electrostatic force converts electric potential energy to kinetic energy (charge flow).

Voltage is measured as electric potential energy per unit charge (Joules per
Coulomb = Volt).
electrical resistance: material’s tendency to resist the flow of charge (current).
electrical conductance: material’s ability to conduct the flow of charge (current).
Electrical resistance is measured as the ratio of voltage and current.
 Ohm’s Law
V = I.R
V = voltage (Volt), I = current (Amp), R = resistance (Ohm)

factors affecting electrical resistance

• length of the wire
• material of the wire
• cross-sectional area of the wire

electric circuit: a closed path/line/loop of conducting material that allows flow of current.
electric field: a region associated with the existence of a force generated by a distribution
of electric charge.
Electric field is a vector quantity (force) exerted by a charged particle on the surrounding
charged particles.
Electric field is measured as electric force per unit charge
 examples of electric fields

Inductance: a property of an electric circuit of inducing electromotive force by variation of

current.
It’s measured as the ratio of the induced electromotive force and the rate of variation of the
inducing current.

Capacitance: the ability of a device to store electric charge.

It’s expressed as charge difference per potential difference (voltage)

direct current (dc) electricity

The flow of electricity is continuous in one direction.
DC electricity can be created by battery or DC generator.
Plot of DC voltage is just simple.

alternating current (ac) electricity

The terminals constantly switch polarity, the direction of the current alternates periodically.
ac waveforms

+ sine wave
amplitude

time

― +
square wave
amplitude

time

― + triangle wave
amplitude

time

―
 AC current DC current

home/office outlets obtained from battery

periodically alternating “one direction” flow

amplitude varies with time amplitude is constant

long distance transmission no

impedance resistance only

frequency is 50 - 60 Hz frequency is zero

Part 2: Magnetism

useful definitions

magnet: an object/device that produces magnetic field and exerts attractive/repulsive

forces.
magnetic field: a region / space near a magnet or moving charges exerting magnetic
force.
electric currents + magnetic moments give rise to magnetic field.
Magnetic field produces Magnetism, (attractive / repulsive force).

magnetic moment: property of a magnet that interacts with an applied magnetic field to
generate a mechanical moment. It’s a measure of the tendency to align with a magnetic
field.

magnetization: a vector field, it’s the process of making a substance temporarily or

permanently magnetic.
Magnetization delineates density of permanent or induced magnetic dipole moment
measured per unit volume.
 magnetic flux = Φ = BA

Now discussing………..magnetic field in sub-atomic level

spinning charge is associated with magnetic dipole moment

spinning charge generates magnetic field

 opposite spins
generate magnetic fields
in opposite directions

+ +

First discussing…………… permanent magnets

 magnetic field lines

magnetic field lines

N

properties of magnetic field lines

 Lines are closed loops
 Direction from the north pole
 Lines penetrate magnetic materials
 Strength is proportional to the density
 Lines bend at the surface of magnetic materials

“Ferromagnetism”, permanent magnetism is observed in magnetite, Fe3O4, a form of

natural iron.
Now discussing…………..induced magnets

S N
N

S
S N
iron paper clips

N N

S S
N N
iron nails

S
S
N N

S
S N

S
 permanent magnet vs. induced magnet
permanent magnet exhibits persistent alignment of unpaired electrons with / without
external magnetic field / electric current.

Induced by electric current

N
I

I
S
Ferromagnetism observed in Magnetite

Paramagnetism temporarily and reversibly magnetized

Diamagnetism repelled by permanent magnet

Ferromagnetism susceptibility is large and positive

Paramagnetism susceptibility is small and positive

Diamagnetism susceptibility is small and negative

magnetic field

diamagnetic paramagnetic
Ferromagnetic Paramagnetic Diamagnetic

iron aluminium silver

cobalt platinum gold

nickel manganese copper

gadolinium magnesium mercury

dysprosium lithium petroleum

Part 3: Electromagnetism

useful definitions

S N
 Solenoid

I
I

NI
magnetic field inside the solenoid B = µ0
l
I = electric current
l = length of the wire
N = number of turns
µ0 = magnetic constant

Solenoid: is a type of electromagnet with a purpose to generate controlled magnetic field.

Solenoids utilized to impede changes in electric current are called Inductors.
Electromagnetism

larger scale sub-atomic level

result of a magnetic field from force between

the movement of electrical charges electrically charged particles

usually concerns the use of electric current one of the fundamental

to make electromagnets interactions of matter

results in electrodynamics results in electromagnetic waves

electric force + magnetic force = electromagnetic force

 Lorentz Force Law
fusion of electric field and magnetic field

electric force magnetic force

Electrodynamics deals with interactions between electric, magnetic and mechanical forces.
Electrodynamics is phenomena associated with moving charges in varying electric and
magnetic fields.
Electromagnetic Induction: outlines
electric currents have magnetic fields can generate
associated magnetic fields electric currents
electric charges moving electric charges moving
in a magnetic field in an electric field
create an electric field create a magnetic field
moving electric charges a moving magnetic field
create a magnetic field creates an electric field
How electric field and magnetic field are related
magnetic moment

magnetic moment = electric current X area

 current through wire in a magnetic field

F = B.I.l

voltage is induced
when

a magnet moves near a conductor moves in

a stationary conductor a stationary magnetic field

basic law of Electromagnetic Induction:

A phenomenon where magnetic field interacting with an electric circuit produces an
ElectroMotive Force (EMF).
Induction of EMF

by moving a conductor across a magnetic field

by varying magnetic flux within a magnetic field

Φ = BA cos θ
 Now discussing……… Maxwell’s equations
Maxwell’s equations: only 4 equations together can describe all.
classical electric phenomena & classical magnetic phenomena.
Maxwell’s equations are the foundation of classical electromagnetism.
 First discussing……… Faraday’s laws
Faraday’s first law:
• When a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field, electromotive force is induced.
• If a closed circuit is placed in a varying magnetic field, then an induced current flows
through it.

Faraday’s second law:

The induced EMF in any closed circuit is the negative of the rate of change
of the magnetic flux enclosed by the circuit.

Hans Christian Ørsted, Ørsted’s Law

states that, a constant electric current

generates a magnetic field
around the conductor

Michael Faraday, Faraday’s Law

states that, a varying magnetic field

induces an electric current

Heinrich Lenz, Lenz’s Law

states that, this induced current

is in the opposite direction,
a phenomenon called “self-inductance”
Faraday’s Law:
• describes EMF generated by magnetic force
• describes EMF in coils of wire and moving wire
• describes EMF caused by magnet movement
• describes EMF caused by magnetic field change

Maxwell’s Equations contain Faraday’s Law

Faraday’s Law contains Lenz’s Law

Faraday’s Law vs. Lenz’s Law

Lentz’s Law gave the direction of the electromotive force

Lenz’s law

dφ
ε=–N
dt

induced voltage number of loops

(EMF)
Lenz’s law
• The induced EMF generates a current
• This current has its own magnetic field
• That field opposes the change in the magnetic flux
• Loops and coils tend to keep the magnetic flux constant
• This law provides the polarity (direction) in Faraday’s law

Now discussing……… Ampere’s laws

∫ denotes integral in 1-dimension

∫ denotes line integral

∫ = line integral on a closed path or curve

∫∫ denotes integral in 2-dimension

∫∫ denotes surface integral
s
∫∫ = surface integral on a closed surface
s

Faraday’s Law links a varying magnetic field with an induced electric field
Ampere’s Law links a varying electric field with an induced magnetic field

Ampere’s law:
• Magnetic equivalent of Gauss’s Law
• Basic relation between electricity and magnetism
 Ampere’s law

∫ B • dl = µ I
l
0 enc

Gauss’s Law vs. Ampere’s Law

Gauss’s Law relates electric charge to electric field

Ampere’s Law relates electric current to magnetic field

Faraday’s Law leads to the definition of Inductance

Faraday’s Law fundamental operating principle of transformers,
generators and electrical motors

The electric flux moving out of a closed surface

Gauss’s Law means
is proportional to the charge inside the volume
Magnetic flux through a closed surface is zero,
Gauss’s Law for Magnetism means
there are no monopoles
Line integral of the magnetic field
around a closed loop is proportional
Ampere-Maxwell Law means
to the electric current plus
the rate of change of electric field
 Gauss’s Law

Q
φE = ∫∫ E • dA =
s
ε0
φE = electric flux through a closed surface S
E = electric field

A = surface area

Q = total electric charge

ε0 = electric constant