ZNOTES.

ORG

UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
PHYSICS
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
Prepared for Abdul for personal use only.
CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS

The area of a square with sides 1 cm long is 1 square

1. Motion, Forces and Energy centimetre (1 cm²).
Area formula: area = length × breadth.
SI unit of area: square metre (m²), which is the area of a
1.1. Physical Quantities and square with sides 1 m long.
Measurement Techniques
Volume
Units and basic quantities
A standard or unit must be chosen before a
measurement can be made.
The size of the quantity to be measured is found using
an instrument with a scale marked in the unit
Three basic quantities are measured in physics: length,
mass, and time.
Units for other quantities are based on length, mass, and
time.
The SI (Système International d’Unités) system is a set
of units used in many countries
Length Volume is the amount of space occupied.
Unit of length: metre (m) Unit of volume: cubic metre (m³).
1 decimetre (dm) = 10⁻¹ m Commonly used unit for volume: cubic centimetre (cm³).
1 centimetre (cm) = 10⁻² m Volume of a cylinder: V = πr2 h
1 millimetre (mm) = 10⁻³ m A measuring cylinder can measure the volume of a
1 micrometre (μm) = 10⁻⁶ m liquid. Ensure the cylinder is upright and the eye is at
1 nanometre (nm) = 10⁻⁹ m bottom level of the meniscus.

Multiples for large distances: Time

1 kilometre (km) = 10³ m Unit of time: second (s).

1 gigametre (Gm) = 10⁹ m Time-measuring devices use oscillations.
Many length measurements are made with rulers/meter Choose a timer that is precise enough for the task (e.g., a
rule stopwatch for the pendulum period or a millisecond
timer for measuring the speed of sound).
For any length less than a meter, we use a tape measure
Scalars and Vectors

Scalar quantity: has magnitude (size) only.

Examples: distance, speed, time, mass, pressure, energy,
temperature.
Vector quantity: described by both magnitude and
direction.
Examples: force, gravitational field strength, electric field
strength, weight, velocity, acceleration, momentum.
Representing Vectors: a straight line with length
indicating the magnitude and an arrow showing
direction.
Adding scalars: ordinary arithmetic.
Note: Take ± readings for accuracy Adding vectors: geometrically, considering both
Area magnitude and direction.

For two vectors, FX and FY, at right angles:

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The magnitude of the resultant

F = FX2 + FY2
​ ​

At rest ( BC).
Constant speed (AB and CD)
Angle θ between FX and F Speed is higher when the gradient is steeper. For
example, the speed of the train at CD is 2m/s, but that at
tan θ = FY ​

AB is 1m/s. It is higher in CD, which can be seen as CD

FX
​

being steeper.
​

Non-Constant Speed

When speed changes, the gradient of the distance-time

graph varies.
Upward curve of increasing gradient: accelerating.
The upward curve of decreasing gradient: decelerating.
Example:

Gradient of the tangent at T:

AB 40m
BC = 2s = 20m/s
​ ​

1.2. Motion
Distance and displacement

Speed

Speed is the distance travelled by a body in unit time.

When the distance travelled is (s) over a short time
period (t), the speed (v) is given by:
s
v=
Distance is a length a body travels between two points. It t
​

is a scalar quantity. Key definition: Speed is the distance travelled per unit
Displacement is similar to distance but as it is a vector time.
quantity, direction is also considered. General formula:
Distance-Time Graph Examples

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Total distance travelled
Average speed = Total time taken
​

Example: If a car starts from rest and reaches a

Example: If a car travels 300 km in five hours, its average velocity of 2 m/s after 1 second, its acceleration is
speed is: Average speed = 3005 hkm = 60 km/h ​
2m/s2 , due north
Key definition: Acceleration is the change in velocity per
Velocity unit time.
Velocity is the distance travelled in unit time in a given Example: For a steady increase of velocity from 20 m/s to
direction. Ie. Velocity = Speed given in a specific direction. 50 m/s in 5 seconds: Acceleration = (50−20),m/s
5s
= ​

2
Speed is the distance travelled in unit time. 6m/s
Example: If two trains travel due north at 20 m/s, they Acceleration is a vector, and its magnitude and direction
have the same speed and velocity due north. If one should be stated.
travels north and the other south, their speeds are the For motion in a straight line, the magnitude of the
same, but not their velocities. velocity equals the speed, and the magnitude of the
Key definition: Velocity is the change in displacement acceleration equals the speed change in unit time.
per unit of time. Example: A car accelerating on a straight road with the
Velocity formula: following speeds:
Velocity = Distance moved in a given direction
= The speed increases by 5 m/s every second, and the
Time taken
​

Displacement acceleration is constant at 5 m/s².

T ime
​

Velocity is the speed in a given direction. Acceleration is positive if the velocity increases.
A body's velocity is uniform or constant if it moves at a Acceleration is negative if the velocity decreases (also
steady speed in a straight line. called deceleration or retardation).
Velocity is not uniform if the body moves in a curved Speed-Time Graphs
path.
Speed and velocity units are the same: km/h, m/s. Speed-time graphs plot the speed of an object against
time.
Note: Speed is a scalar quantity and velocity a vector Used to solve motion problems.
quantity. Displacement is a vector, unlike distance which
is a scalar Constant Speed
Acceleration
Example: AB is a speed-time graph for an object moving
When the velocity of an object changes, the object with a constant speed of 25 m/s.
accelerates.
Acceleration is defined as the change of velocity in A straight horizontal line on a speed-time graph indicates
unit time: constant speed.

Acceleration = Δv
Δt
​

Time (s) Speed (m/s)

0 0
1 5
2 10
3 15
4 20
5 25
6 30

Constant Acceleration

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Speed increases over time, but by a smaller amount each

second, indicating decreasing acceleration.

Using Gradient to Calculate Acceleration

The gradient of a speed-time graph represents the

acceleration.
For constant speed, the gradient is zero, indicating zero
acceleration.
For constant acceleration, the gradient is given by: \n
Δy Y <i>2−Y </i>1
Gradient = Δx = X<i>2−X</i>1 ​

For changing acceleration, the gradient changes,

indicating changing acceleration.
The linear shape (AB) of the graph indicates constant An object accelerates if the speed increases and
acceleration. decelerates if the speed decreases with time.
The speed increases by 4 m/s every second, indicating
constant acceleration. Area Under a Speed-Time Graph

Variable Acceleration
Example 1: The figure shows acceleration from rest,
constant speed, and deceleration.

Measures the distance travelled.

The rule applies even if acceleration is not constant.
The distance equals the shaded area under the graph.
Example 2: The figure shows changing acceleration with Equations for constant acceleration
a curved shape.
First Equation
If an object is moving with constant acceleration ( a )
in a straight line and its speed increases from ( u ) to (
v ) in time ( t ):
Acceleration is given by:

a= v−u
t
​

Rearranging gives:

v = u + at (Equation 1)

Second Equation
For an object moving with constant acceleration, its
average speed equals half the sum of its initial and
final speeds:
u+v
Average speed = 2
​

If (s) is the distance moved in time (t), then:

s
Average speed = t
​

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Combining these, we get When air resistance equals the object's weight, it falls at
a terminal velocity.
s
t
​
= u+v
2
​

Terminal velocity depends on the object's size, shape,

and weight.
Rearranging gives:
A small, dense object has a high terminal velocity and
s = (u+v) ⋅ t (Equation 2) accelerates for a longer distance.
2 A light object or one with a large surface area, like a
​

Air Resistance and Free Fall

raindrop or parachute, has a low terminal velocity and
In the air, a coin falls faster than a small piece of paper accelerates over a shorter distance.
due to air resistance. Following is the velocity-time graph for a falling
In a vacuum, both fall at the same rate. parachutist:
Air resistance has a greater effect on light bodies
Explanation:
compared to heavy bodies.
Air resistance is negligible for dense, heavy objects at low Initial Phase: When the parachutist jumps out of the
speeds. plane, they experience free fall. During this phase, their
velocity increases steadily due to the acceleration of
Acceleration of Free Fall 2
gravity (approximately 9.8m/s acting downwards. The
All bodies falling freely under gravity accelerate graph slopes upwards steeply.
uniformly if air resistance is negligible. Slowing down of Parachute: Air resistance increases
This uniform acceleration is called the acceleration of significantly when the parachutist deploys their
free fall, denoted by ( g ). parachute. This causes a decrease in acceleration,
The value of (g) varies slightly but is about 9.8 m/s² on leading to a less steep slope on the graph. The
average. parachutist’s velocity continues to increase but at a
The velocity of a free-falling body increases by about slower rate compared to free fall.
9.8m/s every second. Terminal Velocity: As the parachutist continues to fall,
their velocity eventually reaches a maximum constant
A ball shot upwards with a velocity of 30 m/s decelerates value known as terminal velocity. At terminal velocity, the
by about 9.8 m/s every second, reaching its highest point forces of gravity and air resistance (drag) balance out,
after 3 seconds. resulting in zero net acceleration. On the velocity-time
As an object falls, air resistance increases, reducing its graph, this appears as a horizontal line where the
acceleration. velocity remains constant.

1.3. Mass and Weight

Mass

The mass of an object is the measure of the amount of

matter in it. It is a measure of the quantity of matter in
an object at rest relative to an observer.
The standard unit of mass is the kilogram (kg), with the
gram (g) being one-thousandth of a kilogram: 1g =
10−3 kg = 0.001kg
Mass is different from weight, which is a gravitational
force on an object with mass.

Weight

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Weight is the gravitational force acting on an object that

has mass.
The weight of an object can vary with location due to
differences in gravitational field strength.
The unit of force is the Newton (N). Weight is measured
in newtons and can be determined using a spring
balance.

Aspect Mass Weight

Measure of the Gravitational force
Definition amount of matter in acting on an object
an object with mass
Kilogram (kg), gram
Units Newton (N)
(g) Method 2: Displacement Can. Fill the can until the spout.
This can be measured Measured using a Immerse the object in the water and find the volume of
Measurement
using a balance spring balance or scale water displaced. That volume of water is the volume of
Independent of Depends on location the object.
Dependency location and and gravitational field
gravitational field strength
Symbol in
m (W ), or, (Fg )
Equations
​

Gravitational Field

Gravity acts through space, causing objects not in

contact with the Earth to fall towards it.
Gravitational field strength (g) is the force per unit mass
and is a vector quantity with magnitude and direction.
On Earth's surface, g = 9.8 N/kg or 9.8 m/s^2,
representing both the acceleration due to gravity and the
gravitational field strength.
Liquid: To determine the mass of an empty container,
add liquid, measure total mass, and subtract to find the
1.4. Density mass of the liquid. Divide by the known volume to find
density.
Definition
Air: Measure the mass of a flask filled with air, then
Density (ρ) is the measure of mass per unit volume remove the air with a vacuum pump. Calculate air
density by dividing the mass difference by volume
ρ= m measured using water displacement.
V
​

Standard units for density include kilograms per cubic Example Calculations
meter (kg/m³) or grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm³). Example 1: Calculate the density of copper given a mass
63 g
Calculation Methods of 63 g and a volume of 7 cm³ ρ = mV = 7 cm³ =
​ ​

9 g/cm³
Regular Shape: Measure mass (m) using a balance, and Example 2: Determine the mass of an aluminium sheet
measure volume (V ) by direct measurement of with a volume of 73 cm³ and a density of 2.7 g/cm³
dimensions. m = ρ × V = 2.7 g/cm³ × 73 cm³ = 197.1 g
Irregular Shape: Measure mass (m) using a balance.
Measure volume (V ) using displacement methods: Floating and Sinking:

Method 1: Immerse the object in a measuring cylinder filled

with water, record the initial and final water levels to find
volume.

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Objects float or sink in liquids based on their density Forces have magnitude and direction, represented by
relative to the liquid's density. A higher-density object arrows in diagrams.
sinks in a lower-density liquid and vice versa. Multiple forces acting on an object can be balanced (e.g.
weight and support force) or have a resultant force.
1.5. Forces The resultant force is the single force that has the same
effect as all forces acting together.
Force A resultant force can change the velocity of an object by
altering its speed or direction of motion.
A force is a push or a pull that can change the motion,
speed, or shape of an object.
It can cause objects at rest to move or alter the direction
of moving objects.

Extension in Springs

Springs follow Hooke's Law, where extension is

proportional to the stretching force up to the limit of
proportionality.
Symbolically, extension ∝ stretching force

Spring Constant Newton’s First Law

The spring constant (k) measures the force needed to An object remains at rest or continues to move at a
cause a unit extension in a spring. constant speed in a straight line unless acted upon by a
k = Fx , where (F ) is the force applied and (x) is the
​

resultant force.
resulting extension. This means that no force is required to maintain
constant velocity if no external forces act on the object.
Load-Extension Graphs

Used to graphically represent the relationship between

applied force (load) and resulting extension in materials
like springs.
Non-linear graphs beyond the limit of proportionality
indicate permanent deformation.

Friction and Air Resistance

Forces like friction and air resistance cause objects to

slow down and eventually come to rest.
In their absence, objects would continue moving
indefinitely with constant speed.

Newton’s Second Law

States that the acceleration of an object is directly

proportional to the force acting on it and inversely
proportional to its mass.
Forces and Resultants Mathematically expressed as:
F = ma
where (F ) is the resultant force in newtons (N ), (m) is
the mass in kilograms (kg ), and (a) is the acceleration in
meters per second squared (m/s2 ).

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Proportional Relationships

Acceleration (a) is directly proportional to the force (F )

when mass (m) is constant
a∝F
Acceleration (a) is inversely proportional to mass (m)
when force (F ) is constant
a ∝ m1 ​

Units and Constant (k )

The unit of force, the newton (N ), is defined as the force

that gives a 1 kg mass an acceleration of 1m/s2
Acceleration in Circular Motion
k in F = kma equals 1 when m = 1kg and a = 1 m/s2
Despite constant speed, circular motion involves
Resultant Force and Motion acceleration because velocity direction changes
Resultant force (F ) causes an object to accelerate in the continuously.
Acceleration towards the centre of the circle is necessary
direction of the force.
When forces are balanced, there is no acceleration, but to maintain circular motion.
changes in shape may occur due to internal forces within Factors Affecting Centripetal Force
the object. Centripetal force magnitude depends on the following:
Friction Speed (v): Increasing speed increases centripetal force.
Friction is the force that opposes the motion o of one Radius (r): Decreasing radius increases centripetal
surface over another. force.
It is essential for walking and gripping surfaces but can Mass (m): Increasing mass increases centripetal force.
prevent proper movement on surfaces like ice.
Role of Centripetal Force
Types of Friction
It ensures the object maintains a constant distance from
Static Friction: The frictional force that opposes the the centre of the circle.
starting of motion between surfaces in contact.
Kinetic Friction: The frictional force that opposes the Moment of a Force
motion of surfaces sliding past each other. The turning effect of a force around a pivot point is called
Fluid Friction (Drag): Resistance encountered by an the moment of the force.
object moving through a fluid (air or liquid), increasing It depends on both the magnitude of the force and the
with speed and reducing acceleration.
perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line of
Effect of Force and Mass on Friction action of the force.
Mathematically, the moment is given by:
Increasing the force pressing surfaces together increases M =F ×d
friction initially. where d is the perpendicular distance from the pivot to
Friction converts kinetic energy into thermal energy, the line of action of the force.
causing a rise in temperature when contacting surfaces. The unit of moment is the Newton metre (N m).

Centripetal Force

In a circular motion, an object moves in a curved path

due to a force directed towards the centre of the circle.

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Balancing a Beam and the Law of Equilibrium

To balance a beam around a pivot point, the principle of
Stability and Toppling
moments (or law of moments) is used.
The law states that for a beam in equilibrium, the sum of The stability of an object depends on the position of its
clockwise moments about any point equals the sum of centre of gravity relative to its base.
anticlockwise moments about the same point. An object is stable if its centre of gravity remains over its
This principle is essential for designing and base of support.
understanding the equilibrium of lever systems and Toppling occurs when the vertical line through the centre
other balanced structures. of gravity falls outside the base of support.
Increasing the base area and lowering the centre of
Conditions for Equilibrium
gravity improves stability.
An object is in equilibrium if:
Types of Equilibrium
The sum of all forces acting on it equals zero (static
equilibrium). Stable Equilibrium: An object returns to its original
The sum of all moments (clockwise and anticlockwise) position when displaced slightly (e.g., a ball in a bowl).
around any point is zero (rotational equilibrium). Unstable Equilibrium: An object moves further away
from its original position when displaced slightly (e.g., a
Centre of Gravity
ruler balanced on its edge).
The centre of gravity (or centre of mass) of an object is Neutral Equilibrium: An object remains in its new
the point through which the entire weight of the object position when displaced (e.g., a ball sitting on a flat
acts. surface).
It behaves as if all the mass were concentrated at this
single point.
For a uniform object, such as a ruler, the centre of gravity
is at its geometric centre.

Determining the Centre of Gravity

Finding the centre of gravity of an irregularly shaped

lamina involves suspending the object from different
points and using a plumb line to mark the vertical line Momentum
through which it hangs. The centre of gravity is where
these lines intersect. Momentum (p) is the product of an object's mass (m)
and its velocity (v ).
Mathematically, p = mv
It is a vector quantity, meaning it has both magnitude
and direction.
The SI unit of momentum is kilogram metre per second
(kgm/s) or newton second (N s).

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Conservation of Momentum
Chemical Energy: Energy stored in chemical bonds of
The total momentum of a closed system of objects substances like food, fuels (oil, gas, coal, wood).
remains constant if no external forces act on it (such as Gravitational Potential Energy: Energy an object
friction or air resistance). possesses due to its position relative to a reference point
This principle is known as the conservation of (usually the Earth's surface).
momentum. Elastic Strain Energy: Energy stored in an object when it
Momentum is conserved in collisions (both elastic and is compressed, stretched, or deformed.
inelastic) and explosions. For example, in a collision, the Kinetic Energy: Energy possessed by a moving object.
total momentum before and after the collision remains Electrostatic Energy: Energy stored in charged objects
the same. due to their separation in an electric field.
Nuclear Energy: Energy stored in the nucleus of an
pinitial = pfinal
​ ​

atom..
Internal (Thermal) Energy: Total energy stored in the
Example: microscopic motions and interactions of particles within
A trolley of mass m1 = 3 kg moving with velocity u1 = 5
​ ​

a substance.
m/s collides and couples with a stationary trolley of mass
m2 = 2 kg. They move off together with the same
​ Energy Transfers
velocity (v). We need to find (v).
Mechanical Working: Transfer of energy by the action
1. Calculate initial momentum (pinitial ): ​

of a force, like lifting a weight.

pinitial = m1 ⋅ u1 = 3 kg ⋅ 5 m/s = 15 kgm/s
​ ​ ​

Electrical Working: Transfer of energy by an electric

2. Calculate final momentum (pfinal ): ​

current, such as in batteries or electric motors.

Since they move off together with velocity (v): Waves (Electromagnetic and Sound): Transfer of
pfinal = (m1 + m2 ) ⋅ v = (3 kg + 2 kg) ⋅ v =
​ ​ ​
energy through waves, like light or sound waves.
Heating: Transfer of energy through thermal processes,
5 kg ⋅ v
like heating water in a boiler.
3. Apply conservation of momentum (pinitial = ​

pfinal ):
​
Principle of Conservation of Energy
15 kgm/s = 5 kg ⋅ v
Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only
4. Solve for (v): transformed from one form to another. Thus the total
15 kgm/s
v = 5 kg = 3 m/s ​

amount of energy is constant.

So, the velocity (v ) of the two trolleys moving together
Energy Forms
after the collision is 3 m/s ​

Kinetic Energy (Ek ): Energy possessed by an object due

​

Impulse to its motion.

Ek = 12 mv 2 , where (m) is mass and (v) is velocity.
Impulse (J ) is the change in momentum (Δp) of an
​ ​

Example Calculation: For a football of mass 0.4 kg

object when a force acts on it over a period of time (Δt).
moving at 20 m/s:
Mathematically, J = F Δt = Δp Ek = 12 × 0.4 × (20)2 = 80 J
​ ​

Impulse is also a vector quantity and has the same Potential Energy (Ep ):Energy an object has due to its
direction as the force causing it.
​

position or condition or configuration.

Force and Momentum: Ep = mgh , where (m) is mass, (g ) is acceleration
​

due to gravity, and (h) is height.

Relation of force to the rate of change of momentum: Example Calculation: For a 0.1 kg mass raised vertically
(F = Δp Δt
), which is an alternative form of Newton's
​

by 1 m:
second law. Ep = 0.1 × 9.8 × 1 = 0.98 J
​

1.6. Energy, work and power Work

Types of energy stores

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How Fossil Fuels are used in Power Stations
Work (W ) is done when a force (F ) displaces a body
through a distance (d) in the direction of the force. Coal: In coal-fired power stations, coal is burned in a
Formula: W = F ⋅ d boiler to produce heat.
Natural Gas: In gas-fired power stations, natural gas is
Unit: The unit of work is the joule (J), where 1 J = 1 N ⋅
burned directly in a gas turbine.
m The heat generated from burning these fuels is used to
boil water, creating high-pressure steam.
The steam drives turbines connected to electrical
generators.
Turbines are designed with sets of blades (rotor)
mounted on a shaft, which rotates when steam is
directed onto them.
As steam expands through the turbine, its energy is
transferred to the rotor, causing it to spin.
The spinning rotor generates electricity through
electromagnetic induction in the generator.
Example Calculation
How hydroelectric power stations work
If a force of 50 N is used to move a crate 3 m
horizontally: They run using the kinetic energy generated from the
W = 50 N × 3 m = 150 J flow of water moving downstream.
If lifting a mass of 3 kg vertically by 2 m (where g ≈ This kinetic energy spin turbines which are connected to
10 m/s2 ): generators.
These generators then produce electricity that can be
W = 30 N × 2 m = 60 J
used by households.
Energy resources How Nuclear Fuels (uranium) are used in Power Stations

Nuclear power stations use controlled nuclear fission

reactions with uranium to generate heat.
This heat is used to produce steam indirectly through a
heat exchanger.
The steam, similar to fossil fuel stations, drives turbines
connected to generators to produce electricity.
The operation involves the steam passing through a
turbine's fixed blades (stator) onto the rotating blades
(rotor), where the expansion of steam energy is
converted into rotational motion.
The rotational motion of the rotor then drives the
electrical generator, producing electricity for
consumption.

Power

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The power of a device is the work it does per second, or Sankey diagrams are used to represent energy transfers
the rate at which it does work. and efficiencies visually.
Power also represents the rate at which energy is They show how input energy is divided into useful output
transferred from one store to another. energy and wasted energy.
Formula: The width of the arrows in a Sankey diagram is
work done proportional to the amount of energy they represent.
power = time taken
​

P = t where W is the work done in time t

W​
A wide arrow represents a large amount of energy, while
P = ΔE a narrow arrow represents a small amount.
t where ΔE is the energy transferred in time
​

t
Key definition: Power is the work done per unit time
and the energy transferred per unit time.
Unit of power: watt (W ), where 1 W = 1 J/s
Larger units:
1 kW = 1000 W = 103 W
1 M W = 1,000,000 W = 106 W
Example: If a machine does 500 J of work in 10 s, its
power is:
500J
10s = 50W
​

Efficiency

% Efficiency formula for energy 1.7. Pressure

Efficiency (%) = ( Useful
Total Energy Input ) × 100%
Energy Output ​

Pressure is the force per unit area.

Formula:
% Efficiency formula for power pressure = force
area
​

Key definition: Pressure is the force per unit area.

Efficiency (%) = ( Useful
Total Power Input ) × 100%
Power Output​

Unit of pressure: pascal (P a), where 1 P a = 1 N /m²

Example a: Electric Motor Greater area over which a force acts results in less
pressure.
Given:
Liquid Pressure
Energy input = 400 J
Work done on load = 300 J
Calculate Efficiency:
Efficiency = ( 300 J
400 J ) × 100 = 75%
​

Example b: Electric Drill

Given:

Power input to drill = 300 J/s

Useful power output (excluding thermal losses) = 200 J/s

Calculate Efficiency:

Efficiency = ( 200
300 J/s )
J/s
× 100 = 66.67%
​

Sankey Diagrams

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Pressure in a liquid increases with depth because the

further down you go, the greater the weight of liquid
above.
Pressure at one depth acts equally in all directions.
Pressure depends on the density of the liquid; the
denser the liquid, the greater the pressure at any given
depth.
The change in pressure Δp at a depth Δh below the
surface of a liquid with density ρ is determined by
considering a horizontal area A. Matter consists of tiny particles like molecules and
Force acting vertically downwards on area A equals the atoms.
weight of the liquid column of height Δh and cross- Matter exists as solids, liquids, or gases, each with
different characteristics.
sectional area A above it. Solids have a definite shape and volume, and particles
Volume of the liquid column: ΔhA are close together in fixed positions.
Mass of the liquid column: m = ρΔhA (mass = Liquids have a definite volume and take the shape of
density × volume) their container. The particles are further apart and can
Weight of the liquid column: mg = ρΔhAg slide over each other.
Force on area A: ρΔhAg Gases have no definite shape or volume, and particles
move much further apart and freely.
Pressure due to the liquid column:
pressure = force
area
​

Brownian Motion
ρΔhAg
A
​
= ρgΔh
Formula: Δp = ρgΔh
Δp is the change in pressure beneath the surface of the
liquid at depth Δh due to the weight of a liquid of
density ρ
g is the gravitational field strength
This pressure acts equally in all directions at depth
Δh and depends only on Δh and ρ.
Value will be in pascals (P a) if Δh = is in meters (m) and
(ρ) is in kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m³).

Describes random motion of particles in fluids (liquids

and gases) and is caused by collisions with smaller,
faster-moving particles.

Temperature and kinetic energy

Particles in solids vibrate in fixed positions at room

temperature.
Heating solids increases particle vibrations, raising their
2. Thermal Physics average kinetic energy.
Cooling a solid reduces particle vibrations until absolute
zero (-273°C or 0 K) stops all motion.
2.1. Kinetic Particle Model of Matter Absolute zero is the lowest possible temperature
achievable.
States of Matter
Pressure and Kinetic Energy

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Gases have particles moving randomly at high speeds. Absolute zero, at −273°C or 0 K, is the lowest possible
Each gas particle collision with a container wall changes temperature.
its momentum, creating a force. Kelvin scale temperatures are derived by adding 273 to
The average force per unit area on container walls Celsius temperatures: (T (K) = θ(°C) + 273)
remains constant at a constant temperature. In the Kelvin scale, all temperatures are always positive
Increasing temperature raises collision frequency, and directly proportional to the average kinetic energy of
increasing average force and gas pressure. particles.
Effect on Pressure of a Change in Temperature (Constant
Volume) 2.2. Thermal properties and
Heating a gas increases the kinetic energy of its particles.
temperature
Higher kinetic energy leads to more frequent and
Thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases
energetic collisions with the container walls.
Increased collisions result in higher pressure according Solids and Liquids: When heated, particles vibrate more,
to a gas law: causing them to push apart slightly, resulting in
expansion.
( PV = nRT )
Gases: Heating increases particle speed and collisions
Effect on Pressure of a Change in Volume (Constant
with container walls, which causes container expansion
Temperature)
to maintain pressure.

Applications
Bimetallic Strips: Made from metals with different
expansion rates (e.g., copper and iron). Used in:
Fire Alarms: Bends to complete an electrical circuit
when exposed to heat, triggering alarms.
Thermostats: Maintains temperature by bending to
break or complete electrical circuits

Reducing the volume of a gas increases the

concentration of particles.
More particles per unit volume lead to more collisions
with the container walls.
The pressure increases proportionally to the decrease in
volume:

Variations in Gas Pressure with Volume Shrink-fitting: Cooling components contracts them, fitting
tightly into other parts upon warming. Used in
Boyle's Law states that at constant temperature, the manufacturing for tight connections without fasteners.
product of pressure and volume is constant: Lid Removal: Expanding metal lids with hot water
loosens them from glass jars, leading to easier opening.
(p1 V1 = p2 V2 )
​ ​ ​ ​

Precautions
Graphing pressure ( p ) against the reciprocal of volume
( V1 ) gives a straight line. Expansion joints are spaces left between rail tracks used
in railways, and pipes to allow for thermal expansion
​

Absolute Zero and Kelvin Temperature Scale: without damage

Internal Energy and Heating

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Internal energy increases when an object is heated. c = 20000

50
​

Different materials require varying amounts of heat to c = 400J/(kg°C)

raise their temperatures due to differences in specific
heat capacity. Change of State
Specific heat capacity (c) measures the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of a substance by 1 Heating can change a solid to a liquid (melting) and a
degree Celsius per unit mass. liquid to a solid (freezing).
Pure substances melt and freeze at specific
Temperature and Thermal Energy temperatures, such as water at 0°C.
Melting involves particles of a solid overcoming
Temperature is related to the average kinetic energy of intermolecular forces to become a liquid.
particles. Solidification (freezing) involves the transfer of potential
Thermal energy is the total energy of particles in a energy from particles to surroundings as a liquid
substance, and more particles can hold more total becomes solid.
thermal energy even if they have lower individual particle Vaporisation requires substantial energy to overcome
energies. intermolecular forces in a liquid to become gas (vapour).
Condensation involves gas particles losing potential
Heat Transfer and Equilibrium
energy to their surroundings as they return to a liquid
Heat transfers from higher to lower temperature bodies state.
until thermal equilibrium is reached.
This transfer is caused by collisions between particles,
making their average kinetic energies equal.
Specific Heat Capacity

Specific heat capacity (c) is defined as the energy

required per unit mass per unit temperature increase,
measured in joules per kilogram per degree Celsius
(J/(kg°C)
The formula relating heat energy (ΔE ), mass (m),
specific heat capacity (c), and temperature change (Δθ)
is: \n ΔE = mcΔθ
Specific heat capacity quantifies how much heat energy Evaporation
is needed to raise the temperature of a substance.
Higher temperatures, larger surface areas, and wind or
Materials with higher specific heat capacities require
draughts increase the rate of evaporation.
more heat energy per unit mass to achieve the same
Energy is transferred to the surroundings from the liquid
temperature change.
during evaporation, cooling the liquid.
Worked Example Calculation Evaporation cools the body through sweat, helping to
Given: maintain a constant temperature.

Heat energy supplied, (ΔE = 20000, J) Differences between boiling and evaporation
Mass of the substance, (m = 5, kg)
Temperature change, (Δθ = 10°C)
Calculate the specific heat capacity (c) of the substance.

Formula:

The specific heat capacity (( c )) is given by:

ΔE
c = mΔθ ​

Substituting the given values:

c = 20000
5×10
​

Calculation:

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Feature Boiling Evaporation
Occurs at any Warm fluids rise because they expand and become less
Occurs at a specific dense.
Temperature temperature below
boiling temperature. Cooler, denser fluids sink and replace the rising warm
the boiling point.
Bubbles of vapour Occurs at the surface fluid.
Process
form within the liquid. of the liquid.
Requires less heat This movement of fluids due to temperature differences is
Requires sufficient known as a convection current.
Energy and occurs due to
heat to reach boiling
Requirement energetic particles
point.
escaping.
Rapid compared to Slower compared to
Speed
evaporation. boiling.
Happens throughout
Throughout Happens only at the
the entire volume of
Liquid? liquid's surface.
the liquid.

2.3. Transfer of thermal energy

Conduction

Conduction is heat transfer through matter from hot to

cold without moving matter. Radiation
Metals conduct heat well (e.g., copper, aluminum);
insulators (wood, plastic) are poor conductors. A method of thermal energy transfer which occurs
Metals feel colder due to rapid heat transfer from the without matter, even in vacuum.
hand compared to insulators at the same temperature. Emits as electromagnetic waves, travels at speed of light.
Liquids and gases conduct heat slowly because the
particles are further apart and need time to transfer Absorption and Reflection
energy to each other. Surfaces vary in radiation absorption.
Metals transfer heat via fast-moving free electrons, Black surfaces absorb more than shiny white ones.
raising temperatures in cooler areas and lattice
vibrations. Emission
Non-metals transfer heat through slower atomic or Surface Absorption of Emission of
Reflectivity
molecular vibrations, lacking free electrons. Type Radiation Radiation
Shiny
Poor absorber Poor emitter High
White
Dull Black Good absorber Good emitter Low

Surfaces emit radiation differently when hot.

Dull black surfaces emit more than shiny surfaces.
All bodies emit radiation above absolute zero.

Greenhouse effect

Greenhouse gases trap heat similar to glass in a

Convection greenhouse.
Balance between incoming solar radiation and emitted
Heat transfer method in fluids like liquids and gases. Earth radiation crucial for climate stability.
Transfer of thermal energy by movement of the matter Increased carbon dioxide and methane upset this
itself. balance and absorb more infrared which cannot escape.

Convection Currents

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Wavefront: A straight line where the wave has the same

phase at all points.
Ray: Line drawn at right angles to a wavefront showing
direction of travel.

3. Waves
3.1. General properties of waves
Reflection of a wave at a plane surface
Progressive waves carry energy from one place to
another without transferring matter. Straight water waves (transverse waves) hit a metal strip
in a ripple tank at x° angle.
Two Angle of incidence (i) and angle of reflection (r)are both
types of progressive waves:
x° .
Transverse waves Angle of incidence equals angle of reflection: (i = r)
Longitudinal waves Same wavelength as reflected wave
Same wave speed

Wavelength (λ): Distance between 2 successive crests/

troughs.
Frequency (f ): Number of complete waves created per
second, measured in hertz (Hz).
Wave speed (v): Distance moved by a crest or any point
on the wave in 1 second.
Amplitude (a): Height of a crest or depth of a trough Refraction
from the undisturbed or mean position. Continuous straight waves in shallow water have shorter
Phase: Particles in ‘phase’ have the same speed and wavelengths than in deeper water.
direction of vibration. Waves in shallower water have a smaller speed and
smaller wavelength.
Wave equation When waves move from shallow to dense regions, they
bend towards the normal, and when they move from
Faster vibration produces a shorter wavelength.
dense to shallow regions, they bend away from the
Therefore, higher frequency results in a smaller
normal.
wavelength.
Wave equation:

v = fλ
Wavefronts and rays

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The normal is the perpendicular to the mirror at the

point where the incident ray strikes.
The angle of incidence (i) is between the incident ray
and the normal.
The angle of reflection (r) is between the reflected ray
and the normal.

The law of reflection states: The angle of

incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

Diffraction

Straight water waves meet narrow gaps and create

circular wavefronts.
Diffraction can also occur at edges of obstacles causing
wave spreading.

Real and virtual images

A real image can be produced on a screen and is formed

by rays that pass through the screen.
A virtual image cannot be formed on a screen.
A virtual image is produced by rays that seem to come
from it but do not actually pass through it.
The image in a plane mirror is virtual. Rays from an
object are reflected at the mirror and appear to come
from a point behind the mirror where the rays would
meet when extrapolated (extended) backward.
3.2. Reflection and refraction of light
Light travels in a path called a ray.
A beam is a stream of light shown by several rays.
Beams can be parallel, diverging, or converging.

Speed of light
Refractive Index
The speed of light is about 1 million times faster than the
speed of sound.
The speed of light is 3 × 108 meters per second.

Reflection of light against a plane mirror

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Light refracts due to speed change when entering a A converging (or convex) lens is thickest in the center and
different medium. bends light inwards.
In air, light travels at 300, 000 km/s (3 × 10⁸ m/s) A diverging (or concave) lens is thinnest in the center and
In glass, it slows to 200,000 km/s (2 × 10⁸ m/s) spreads light out.
Refractive index (n) is the ratio of light speed in air to The center of a lens is its optical center (C) and the line
light speed in the medium. through C at right angles to the lens is the principal axis.
For glass: n = 300,000km/s = 32 = 1.5
200,000km/s Principal focus
​ ​

Refractive index is the ratio of speeds of a wave in two

different regions. When a beam of light (parallel to the principal axis)
sin(i)
Experimentally it is true that n = sin(r)
​
where (i) is the passes through a converging lens, it refracts to converge
angle in air and (r) is the angle in glass. at a point called the principal focus (F ).
Higher refractive index means greater bending of light as The principal focus of a converging lens is a real focus.
it slows down more. A diverging lens has a virtual principal focus behind the
lens, from which the refracted beam appears to diverge.
Critical Angle A lens has two principal focuses, one on each side, each
equidistant from the optical center (C).
When light passes from an optically denser to an The distance (CF ) is the focal length (f ) of the lens.
optically less dense medium at small angles of incidence,
there is a strong refracted ray and a weak reflected ray.
Increasing the angle of incidence increases the angle of
refraction.
Critical angle (c) occurs when the angle of refraction is
90°.
For angles of incidence greater than (c), light undergoes
total internal reflection.
Total internal reflection means that the light does not
cross the boundary and reflects inside the denser
medium. Ray diagrams
For the critical angle: sin(c) = n1 where n is the
​

refractive index. A ray parallel to the principal axis is refracted through

the principal focus (F ).
A ray through the optical center (C) is undeviated (not
refracted) for a thin lens.
A ray through the principal focus (F ) is refracted parallel
to the principal axis.
The intersection of rays (in one beam) after refraction
gives the location of the image.

How to draw a ray diagram step-by-step

Parallel Ray (Ray 1):

3.3. Lenses
Converging and diverging lenses

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Image
Draw a straight line (parallel to the principal axis). Object Position Image Position Image Size
Nature
Start the line from the top of the object towards the lens. Real,
After refraction through the lens, draw this directly ray At 2F At 2F Same size
inverted
through the focal point F on the opposite side of the Between 2F and Real,
Beyond 2F Larger
lens. F inverted
Real, Infinitely
At F At infinity
inverted large
Between F and On the same side of Virtual,
Larger
lens lens upright

Central Ray (Ray 2):

Draw a straight line from the top of the object through

the optical center C of the lens.
This ray will continue in the same direction without
bending at all.

3.4. Dispersion of light

Refraction by a prism
Image formed:
In a triangular glass prism, a ray bends due to refraction
These two will intersect on the opposite side of the lens at each surface.
to form the image of the object. The bending at the first surface combines with the
bending at the second surface.
This combined change in direction is called the
deviation.
Unlike in a parallel-sided block, where the emergent
(exiting) ray remains parallel to the incident ray, these
bendings do not cancel out in a prism.

Dispersion
Magnification

The linear magnification (M ) is given by:

image size
M = object size
​

Magnification can also be expressed as:

distance of image from lens
M = distance of object from lens
​

Image properties at different object positions are shown

below:

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When white light)passes through a triangular glass prism, Electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light in
it separates into a band of colors known as a spectrum. vacuum, approximately 3 × 108 m/s.
This separation of colors is called dispersion and occurs They can undergo reflection, refraction, and diffraction
because the refractive index of glass varies with the and are transverse waves.
wavelength of light. They follow the wave equation v = f λ, where (v ) is the
White light consists of many colors with different speed of light, (f ) is the frequency, and (λ) is the
wavelengths, and the prism separates them based on
wavelength.
their refractive indices.
Higher frequency means smaller wavelength and
The colors of the visible spectrum, from longest to
therefore more energy carried.
shortest wavelength, are: red, orange, yellow, green,
blue, indigo, and violet Radio Waves and Microwaves
Red light, with the longest wavelength and lowest
frequency, is refracted the least by the prism. Radio waves are longest-wavelength electromagnetic
Violet light, with the shortest wavelength and highest waves used for communication, radio and television
frequency, is refracted the most by the prism. transmission, astronomy and radio frequency
identification.
Microwaves have shorter wavelengths than radiowaves
and are used in telecommunications, satellite
communication, radar, and microwave ovens.

Infrared Radiation

Detected as heat by the body; used in thermal imaging,

heating, and remote controls.
Also used in communication (optical fibers), electric grills
and intruder alarms.
However, high-intensity infrared can cause burns and
eye damage.
3.5. Electromagnetic spectrum
Visible Light
Light waves and Electromagnetic Spectrum
Red light has the longest wavelength, and violet light has
Light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum, which the shortest.
extends beyond visible light in both directions (with Monochromatic light consists of one color (single
greater wavelength vs. smaller wavelength) frequency), where frequency is more responsible than
The spectrum includes gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet, wavelength to express the colour.
infrared, microwaves, and radio waves. Visible light enables vision and is used for illumination
Wavelength increases from gamma rays to radio waves, and photography.
while frequency increases from radio waves to gamma Optical instruments like microscopes and telescopes use
rays. light properties to form images.

Ultraviolet Radiation
Shorter wavelengths than visible light; causes sunburn
and skin damage.
Properties of Electromagnetic Waves Used in fluorescent applications (e.g., security marking,
water treatment, artificial skin-tanning) and sterilising
water.
Can be harmful in high doses.

X-rays and Gamma Rays

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X-rays have smaller wavelengths than ultraviolet rays

and are used in medical imaging, security screening, and
industrial inspection.
Gamma rays are highly penetrating (smallest wavelength
and largest frequency) and used in cancer detection
cancer treatment to kill cells, sterilization, and material
inspection.

Communication Systems
3.6. Sound
Below are the differences between digital and analog
signals: Longitudinal waves

Aspect Digital Signals Analog Signals Sound waves are longitudinal

Continuous, varying Particles in the medium (like air or water molecules)
Discrete, binary (0s
Signal Type amplitude and vibrate back and forth parallel to the direction of wave
and 1s)
frequency propagation.
Limited by bandwidth This creates areas of compression (where molecules are
Transmission Higher transmission and signal closer together) and rarefaction (where they are far
Rate rates degradation over
apart) as the wave travels through the medium.
distance
The movement of particles transfers energy through the
Digital data, internet Audio signals, analog
Examples signals, computer television, older
medium.
memory telephone systems This vibration causes sound to be heart

Compressions and Rarefactions

Sound waves are made of compressions (C ) and

rarefactions (R) as they move through a medium.
Compressions are regions where air molecules are
densely packed together and the regions have higher
pressure.
Rarefactions are regions where air molecules are less
densely packed and the regions have lower pressure.

Infrared Optical Fibers

Infrared optical fibers use the principle of total internal

reflection to make infrared or light travel along the fiber
without much loss. Frequency and Wavelength
Used for long-distance data transmission, offering high
bandwidth and low signal loss compared to electrical Frequency (f ) of a sound wave is the number of
transmission. complete wave cycles per second, and is measured in
Hertz (Hz ).
Higher frequencies mean higher pitch sounds, while
lower frequencies mean lower pitch sounds.
Wavelength (λ) is the distance between two consecutive
compressions or rarefactions in a sound wave.
The speed of sound (v ) in a medium is determined by the
product of its frequency and wavelength: (v = f λ).

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Limits of hearing
Note: Twice the distance is used because the
Humans can only hear sound frequencies ranging from sound travels away from you and then back
about 20Hz (low pitch) to 20,000Hz (high pitch). again, covering the entire distance two times.
The upper limit of audibility decreases with age due to
changes in the sensitivity of the ear. Direct Method
Audibility can also be affected by the intensity (loudness) Place two microphones a known distance (like 10 meters)
of the sound which is determined by amplitude. apart.
Connect microphones to an oscilloscope to detect the
Reflection of sound (Echo)
sound.
Sound waves reflect off hard and flat surfaces like how Produce a sound source equidistant from both points
light reflects off a mirror. and start timing when the sound is produced.
When sound reflects, it creates an echo, which is a Stop timing when the sound is detected at the second
repetition of the original sound heard after a short delay. point.
Use the formula (v = dt ), where (d) is the known distance
​

between the two microphones and (t) is the measured

time interval between detection at the two points.

Speed of Sound

The speed of sound in air is approximately 330–350

meters per second (m/s) at room temperature. Musical Notes
In other materials, such as water (with a speed of
approx. 1500m/s) or steel (with a speed of approx. 5100
m/s), the speed of sound may vary due to differences in
the density.
Temperature affects the speed of sound in air nd it
increases with temperature because warmer air
molecules move faster.
Measurement of the Speed of Sound

Echo Method
Stand at a known distance (like more than 300 meters)
from a large wall.
Clap hands or produce a sharp sound and start a
stopwatch simultaneously.
Wait for the distinct echo from the surface and stop the
stopwatch when you hear it.
Calculation: Use the formula (v = 2dt ), where (d) is the
​

distance to the surface and (t ) is the time interval

measured with the stopwatch.

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Pitch of the note is determined by the frequency of the Similar poles (N − N or S − S ) repel each other.
sound wave (higher frequencies produce higher pitch Opposite poles (N − S ) attract each other.
notes). The attraction or repulsion decreases as poles move
Loudness is determined by the amplitude of vibrations ( farther apart.
greater amplitude produces louder sounds)
Quality (timbre) of a sound its its unique shape or
texture, causes by the instrument's construction.

Induced Magnetism

Magnetic materials can become magnetized when near a

magnet.

Magnetisation of Iron and Steel

Iron nails and steel paper clips can be magnetised by

hanging them from a magnet.
Ultrasound Each nail or clip magnetises the next in a chain, with
unlike poles attracting each other.
Ultrasound refers to sound waves with frequencies Removing an iron chain by pulling the top nail causes it
above the upper limit of human hearing (> 20, 000Hz ). to collapse because iron shows temporary magnetism.
It is used in medical imaging and industrial applications Steel chains do not collapse when removed because they
for precision and non-destructive testing. have permanent magnetism.
Ultrasound waves behave similarly to audible sound Soft materials (e.g. iron) are easily magnetised but lose
waves but can penetrate materials and provide detailed magnetism quickly.
imaging without harmful effects. Hard materials (e.g. steel) are harder to magnetise but
remain magnetised longer.

4. Electricity and Magnetism

4.1. Simple Phenomena of Magnetism
Magnetic Materials

Ferromagnetic materials like iron can be made into

magnets.
Magnetic materials are naturally attracted to magnets
even when not magnetized..

Magnetic Poles
Magnetic and Non-magnetic Materials
Magnetic poles attract magnetic materials and are found
near the ends of magnets. Magnetic materials (iron, steel, nickel, cobalt) are
Poles always come in pairs: north and south. attracted to magnets and can be magnetised.
Every magnet has a North Pole (N ) and a South Pole (S ). Non-magnetic materials (e.g., aluminium, wood) are not
The North Pole of a magnet points towards the Earth's attracted to magnets and cannot be magnetised.
geographic North Pole.
Magnetic Fields
Law of Magnetic Poles

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A magnetic field is the region around a magnet where

magnetic forces act. 4.2. Electrical quantities
Field strength is higher where magnetic field lines are
closer together and lower where they are further apart. Electric Charge
Magnetic fields are shown using lines of force, showing Like/same charges (+ and + or – and – ) repel, while
the direction from North to South poles. unlike charges (+ and –) attract.
The density of these lines indicates field strength: closer
lines represent stronger magnetic fields. Force Between Charges

The force between electric charges decreases as their

separation increases.
Positive charges repel other positive charges and attract
negative charges.
Negative charges repel other negative charges and
attract positive charges.

Electromagnets
Charges, Atoms, and Electrons
They are formed from a coil of wire through which an
electrical current passes. Atoms consist of a central nucleus with protons (positive)
Magnetism is temporary and can be switched on and off, and electrons (negative) orbiting around it.
unlike permanent magnets. Protons and electrons have equal but opposite charges,
They contain a core of soft iron that only becomes making atoms electrically neutral overall.
magnetised when current flows through the coil.
Production of Charges
Factors Affecting Electromagnet Strength
Charges are produced by friction, which transfers
Current Increase: Higher current in the coil results in electrons between materials.
stronger magnetism. Electrons move between materials during rubbing;
More Turns: Increasing the number of turns in coils protons remain in the nuclei and do not move.
around the core increases magnet strength.
Closer Poles: Moving the magnetic poles closer together Units of charge
increases electromagnet strength.
Charge is measured in coulombs (C ) and defined in
terms of the ampere (A)
The charge on an electron is (e = 1.6 × 10−19 ) C .

Electrons, Insulators, and Conductors

Insulators: Electrons are firmly bound to atoms; rubbing

can charge them statically.
Conductors: Electrons can move freely; they require
insulation to hold a charge.
Type Description Examples
Electrons are firmly
Plastics (polythene,
bound to atoms; rubbing
Insulators cellulose acetate),
can charge them
Perspex, nylon
statically.
Electrons can move
Conductors freely; require insulation Metals, carbon
to hold a charge.

Electric Fields

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Direct Current (d.c.) Alternating Current (a.c.)
When charges are near each other, they experience a Electrons flow continuously in Electrons regularly change
force known as the electric force. one direction. their direction of flow.
Electric field is a region where a charge feels a force due Provided by batteries Produced by generators.
to nearby charges.
Uniform electric field exists between oppositely charged Frequency of Alternating Current
parallel metal plates, shown by evenly spaced lines
perpendicular to the plates. Frequency refers to the number of complete cycles per
Electric field direction is indicated by arrows, showing the second.
force acting towards a small positive charge (acting away It is measured in Hertz (Hz ), where 1 Hz equals one
from negative charges). cycle per second.

The Ampere and the Coulomb (units of current and

charge)
Electric Current is defined as charge passing a point per 4.3. Voltage, Resistance and Power
unit time, symbolized as
(I = Qt ).
​ Electromotive Force (e.m.f .)
Unit of current is the ampere (A), with one milliampere (
Chemical actions inside a battery produce electron
mA) equal to one-thousandth of an ampere and is
excess at the negative terminal and shortage at the
measured by an ammeter. positive terminal
Unit of charge is the coulomb (C ), defined as the charge Battery maintains electron flow (electric current) in a
passing a point when a steady current of 1 ampere flows connected circuit as long as chemical actions last.
for 1 second (1C = 1As). The battery does work when moving the charge around
the circuit.
Charge Calculation Electromotive force (e.m.f .) is the electrical work done
Q=I ×t by a source in moving unit charge around a complete
where Q is charge, I is current, and t is time in seconds. circuit.
Conventional Current Electromotive force is measured in volts (V ).
Conventional current flows from positive to negative Potential Difference
terminals of a battery, opposite to electron flow.
Circuit diagrams show conventional current direction Electric current transfers energy from a battery to circuit
with arrows, while electrons move in the opposite components and surroundings.
direction. Potential difference (p.d.) is the work done by unit
charge passing through a component
Direct and Alternating Current
P .d. is measured in volts.
Voltage is sometimes used instead of p.d.
1 volt = 1 joule per coulomb 1 V = 1 CJ ) ​

Formula: V = W Q or W = Q × V
​

Resistance

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Electrons move more easily through some conductors Metals and some alloys give I–V graphs that are straight
when p.d. is applied. lines through the origin, showing that I is directly
Resistance is the opposition of a conductor to current. proportional to V or that I ∝ V .
Good conductors have low resistance while poor Doubling V doubles I .
conductors have high resistance
Such conductors obey Ohm’s law: V = IR
Ohm (Ω) is the unit of resistance.
Formula: R = VI Ohmic or linear conductors are the conductors where
resistance does not change with V .
​

Variable Resistors

They can change current in a circuit (rheostat mode) or

act as a potential divider by dividing voltage across
components as desired.

Semiconductor Diode
Resistance depends on the length, cross-sectional area,
and material of the wire Diode has small resistance when connected one way and
Resistance increases with length but decreases with a very large resistance when p.d. is reversed.
larger cross-sectional area It conducts electricity in one direction only, and it is a
Formula: (R ∝ Al ) ​
non-ohmic conductor.

I–V graphs and Ohm’s Law

Filament Lamp

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Non-ohmic conductor at high temperatures Power defined as work done or energy transferred per
I–V graph curve flattens as V and I increase, showing time taken: P = Wt ​

increasing resistance with increasing current and P is power in watts (W ), W is work done in joules (J ), t
increasing temperature. is time in seconds (s)
For a steady current (I) in a device with a potential
difference (V ) across it, the work done has a formula
W =I ×t×V
Substituting work done with the power P = IV
multiplied by time in seconds (t), the energy transferred
is: E = Pt = IV t

Example

Lamp with 240 V supply and 0.25 A current

Power = P = IV = 240 V × 0.25 A = 60 W
60 J of energy transferred to the lamp each second
Thermistor
Voltage in terms of power and current
An increase in temperature generally increases the
resistance of metals. Volt can be defined as a watt per ampere: V = PI ​

Thermistors' resistance is different and decreases with If all energy transferred to thermal energy in a resistor of
rising temperature. resistance R:
It is a non-ohmic conductor P = V × I = IR × I = I 2 R
Doubling the current produces four times the thermal
energy per second P = I 2 R
Larger unit for energy: kilowatt-hour (kWh)
1 kWh = 1000 Js × 3600 s = 3600000 J = 3.6 M J
​

The cost of electricity in houses is calculated by using

kWh where each kWh has a fixed price and is multiplied
by the units you consume.

4.4. Electric Circuits

Electrical component symbols

Light-dependent Resistor (LDR)

Resistance of some semiconductors decreases with

increased light intensity.
Light-dependent resistors (LDRs) use this property to
function.
I–V graph for an LDR is similar to that of a thermistor
LDR is also a non-ohmic conductor.
Power in Electric Circuits Current in a Series Circuit

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In a series circuit, there is a single path for the current to For a 4.5 V battery across resistors of 3 Ω, 4 Ω and 5 Ω in
flow. series:
The current remains the same throughout: Combined resistance: R0 = R1 + R2 + R3 = 3 Ω + 4 Ω ​ ​ ​

Current (I ) is consistent at every point in the series + 5 Ω= 12 Ω

circuit. Current (I ): I = VR = 4.5V
12Ω = 0.375 A
​ ​

The reading on an ammeter will be identical no matter p.d. across 4 Ω resistor: V2 = I × R2 = 0.375 A × 4 Ω =
where it is placed in the circuit.
​ ​

1.5 V
Current in a Parallel Circuit
Resistors in Parallel
In a parallel circuit, components are connected side by
side, providing alternative paths for current flow. The combined resistance (R0 ) of resistors in parallel is ​

The total current is the sum of the currents through given by: R10 = R11 + R12 + R13 …
​
​

​
​

​
​

​
​

each branch Two resistors R1 and R2 have resistance of R10 = R11 + R12
​ ​

​
​

​
​

​
​

1 ×R2
If the total current from the source is (I0 ), and the ​
= R0 = R
R1 +R2
​
​

​
​

​
​

current through each branch is I1 , I2 and I3 then I0 =

​ ​ ​ ​

Properties of Parallel Circuits

I1 + I2 + I3
​ ​ ​

1. The current from the source is greater than the

current in each branch.
2. The combined resistance of parallel resistors is less
than that of any individual resistor.

4.5. Applications of electric circuits

Increase in Resistance of a Conductor

In metals, current is carried by free electrons. As the

temperature of the metal increases:
The atoms vibrate more, making it harder for electrons
to move.
Potential Difference (p.d.) in Series and Parallel Circuits This results in an increase in resistance.
In a series circuit, the total potential difference across From Ohm's Law V = IR , if resistance (R) increases while
the components is the sum of the individual potential
maintaining a constant current(I), the potential difference (
differences: V0 = V1 + V2 + V3
V ) across the conductor also increases.
​ ​ ​ ​

In a parallel circuit, the potential difference across each

component is the same as the potential difference across Variable Potential Divider
one branch: Vacross each branch = V0 ​ ​

Cells, Batteries, and Electromotive Force (e.m.f .)

Cells in series increase the total e.m.f . of the battery.

For example, if two 1.5 V cells are connected in series
then the e.m.f .= 1.5 V + 1.5 V = 3.0 V

Resistors in Series

In a series circuit, the total resistance (R0 ) is the sum of ​

the individual resistances: R0 = R1 + R2 + R3

​ ​ ​ ​

Given resistors R1 , R2 , and R3 the total voltage (V )

​ ​ ​

across them is: V = I × R

Worked Example

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In a thermistor, resistance decreases with increasing An LDR’s resistance decreases with increasing light
temperature. intensity.
When it’s used in a potential divider circuit: In a circuit, as light intensity increases:
As temperature rises, the thermistor's resistance The LDR’s resistance decreases, allowing more
decreases. current to flow.
This lowers the combined resistance of the two This increase in current can light a lamp or cause
resistors, increasing the current if the supply voltage other actions.
remains constant.
The potential difference across the fixed resistor
increases relative to that across the thermistor.
A variable resistor can also act as a potential divider by
adjusting the position of the contact, changing the
output potential difference.

Thermistor

A thermistor's resistance decreases significantly with

temperature increase.
In a series circuit with a thermistor:
As temperature rises, its resistance drops, decreasing
Potential Divider the potential difference across it.
For two resistors R1 and R2 in series with a supply voltage This causes an increase in voltage across a series
resistor, which can trigger a relay or alarm.
​ ​

(V ):

The total current (I) is given by: I = ​

V
R1 +R2 ​
​

Light-Dependent Resistor (LDR)

Relays

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A relay allows a small current to control a larger current Damaged Insulation: Exposes wires, increasing shock
needed to operate an appliance. and fire risk.
In a switching circuit: Overheated Cables: Can lead to fire.
If the switching circuit output is high, a small current Damp Conditions: Increase shock severity due to
flows through the relay, closing the mains switch. reduced resistance.
This isolates the low voltage circuit from the high Excess Current: From overloaded plugs, extension leads,
voltage mains supply. and multiple sockets.
Electric Shock: Current flows from an electric circuit
Light-Emitting Diode (LED) through a person's body to earth.
An LED emits light when forward-biased (cathode Dry Skin: Resistance ~10,000 Ω and current around
connected to the negative terminal): 24 mA (it is safe).
Wet Skin: Resistance ~1,000 Ω and current ~240 mA
Reverse bias (anode connected to the negative
terminal) does not emit light and can damage the (can be deadly).
Larger currents are more dangerous.
LED if the reverse voltage exceeds 5 V .
Longer exposure increases risk.
A suitable resistor R (e.g. 300 Ω on a 5 V supply) is
needed to limit the current. Reducing Risk

Semiconductor Diode Turn off power before repairs.

Use earth pin and cord grips.
A diode allows current to pass in only one direction: Keep appliances dry and away from water.
Forward-biased: current flows when the anode is Avoid trailing cables and damage, especially with cutting
connected to the positive terminal and the cathode tools.
to the negative terminal.
Reverse-biased: the diode does not conduct and has First Aid for Electric Shock
high resistance.
Switch off the power if the person is still in contact with
the equipment.
Call for medical assistance.

Causes of fires
Flammable materials near hot appliances or wiring.
Overheated wiring produces excessive current and can
lead to fire.
Preventive Measures:
Match fuse rating to appliance.
Do not overload sockets or use too many adapters.
Use thick wires for high-power appliances.

House Circuits
4.6. Electrical safety
Dangers of Electricity

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Live and Neutral Wires: Both supply electricity and the Straight Wire and U-shaped Magnet
neutral is earthed. Wire held still between magnet pole leads to no induced
Earth Wire: Provides safety by connecting metal cases to current.
earth. Moving wire vertically (up or down) between poles
induces current because of changing magnetic flux
(cutting magnetic field lines)
Upward movement: current flows in one direction.
Downward movement: current flows in the opposite
direction.
Deflection on meter is temporary and occurs only while
wire is moving.

Switches and Fuses

Switches and fuses are in the live wire to prevent shocks.

Fuse breaks the circuit if the current exceeds safe levels.

Circuit Breakers

Electromagnetism breaks the circuit when current

exceeds a preset level.
Advantages: Faster operation and can be reset.
Bar Magnet and Coil (solenoid)
Earthing
Inserting magnet into coil (solenoid) induces current in
Prevents shock by providing a path for fault currents. one direction.
Earth pin connects appliance metal cases to earth, Removing magnet from solenoid induces current in the
preventing them from becoming live. opposite direction.
No current is induced when magnet is stationary inside
Double Insulation solenoid.
Appliances with two layers of insulation don’t need an Current direction reverses with the direction of magnet
earth wire. movement.
This also works if the solenoid is moved instead of the
magnet.
4.7. Electromagnetic induction
Process of generating electricity from a changing
magnetic field.

Electromagnetic Induction Experiments

Factors Affecting Induced e.m.f .

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Faster movement of magnet or coil increases induced Straight Wire:

e.m.f. When current flows through a vertical wire, iron
More turns in the coil increase the induced e.m.f. filings around it form circles.
Stronger magnets increase the induced e.m.f. Meaning that around a straight wire, there are
e.m.f . is directly proportional to the rate at which the circular magnetic field lines.
conductor cuts through magnetic field lines. Field direction changes with current direction
(upwards or downwards through the wire)
Direction of Induced e.m.f . (Lenz’s Law) Use right-hand grip rule: direction of thumb (upwards
or downwards) indicates magnetic field direction by
Induced e.m.f . always opposes the change causing it. the remaining fingers (clockwise or anti-clockwise).
If a magnet approaches a coil, the induced current
generates a magnetic field that opposes the motion.
If a magnet is withdrawn, the coil’s induced current
generates a field that attracts the magnet.

Magnetic Fields

Solenoid
A long cylindrical coil produces a magnetic field
similar to a bar magnet.
End A behaves like the north pole, and end B behaves
like the south pole.
Right-hand grip rule: grip solenoid in current
direction, thumb points to the north pole.
Magnetic field inside the solenoid is stronger and
denser compared to outside.

Variation of Magnetic Field Strength

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Magnetic field strength decreases with distance from the A reed switch uses magnetic fields to control a circuit.
wire. Operated by current flowing through a coil, which
Field lines spread out as distance increases. magnetizes reeds of magnetic material.
Increasing current strengthens the magnetic field and Current flows: Reeds become magnetized, attract each
lines become closer together. other, and close the circuit.
Reversing current direction reverses the direction of the Current stops: Reeds lose magnetization, separate, and
magnetic field. open the circuit.

4.8. Applications of electromagnetic

effects
Relay
A relay is a switch that operates using an electromagnet.
It allows one circuit to control another
When current flows through the coil, it magnetizes the
soft iron core.
The magnetized core attracts the L-shaped iron
armature. Loudspeaker
The armature rocks on its pivot and closes contacts in
another circuit. It converts electrical signals into sound waves.
Varying currents pass through a coil placed in a magnetic
field.
Magnetic fields interact, causing the coil to vibrate.
A paper cone attached to the coil moves with it.
Vibrations create sound waves in the surrounding air.
Components
Coil: Receives electrical signals and vibrates.
Magnet: Provides the magnetic field for interaction.
Paper Cone: Moves with the coil to produce sound.

Components
Coil: Creates the magnetic field.
Soft Iron Core: Magnetized by the coil, attracts the
armature.
L-shaped Iron Armature: Moves to close or open
contacts.
Contacts: Switches the second circuit on or off.

Reed Switch
Electric Bell

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A device that produces sound by ringing is an electric bell Components

Pressing the bell push completes the circuit. Rectangular coil: Fixed up on an axle that can rotate.
Current flows through electromagnet coils, magnetizing C-shaped magnet: Provides the magnetic field.
them. Split-ring commutator: A copper ring split into two
Electromagnet attracts a soft iron bar (armature), halves, connected to the ends of the coil. It rotates
causing the hammer to hit the gong. with the coil.
The circuit breaks at contact screw point Brushes: Carbon blocks pressed against the commutator
Electromagnet loses magnetism, armature returns to its to supply current continuously.
original position.
The springy metal strip reconnects the circuit, and the
cycle repeats as long as the bell push is pressed.

Operation
When direct current (d.c.) flows through the coil, a force
acts on the coil due to the interaction with the magnetic
field.
4.9. Motors and generators This force creates a turning effect, causing the coil to
rotate.
Simple d.c. Electric Motor The split-ring commutator reverses the direction of
current in the coil as it rotates, making sure there is
continuous rotation by maintaining the direction of
force.

Fleming’s Left Hand Rule is used for the d.c.

motor

The a.c Generator

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Components
Rectangular coil: Positioned between the poles of a C- 4.10. Transformers
shaped magnet.
Slip rings: Connected to the ends of the coil, rotate with The transformer changes alternating voltage to different
values.
the coil.
Consists of primary and secondary coils on a soft iron
Carbon brushes: Press against the slip rings to conduct
current. core.
Coils can be wound on top of each other or separate
limbs.
Mutual Induction

This occurs when current changes in one coil, inducing a

voltage in a neighboring coil.
Magnetic field lines from the primary cut through the
secondary coil, inducing voltage.
Induced voltage increases with a soft iron rod or
complete iron ring core due to increased magnetic field
lines.

Operation

As the coil rotates in the magnetic field, it cuts through

the field lines, inducing an electromotive force (e.m.f .)
The e.m.f . varies as the coil moves
Vertical Position: No e.m.f . as the coil cuts the least
number of field lines.
Horizontal Position: Maximum e.m.f . as the coil cuts the
most field lines.
The direction of e.m.f . reverses as the coil continues to
rotate, producing alternating current (a.c.) in the circuit.
Transformer Equation
The frequency of the a.c. is determined by the rotation
speed of the coil. For example, a coil rotating twice per The alternating voltage applied to the primary induces an
second generates an a.c. with a frequency of 2 Hz. alternating voltage in the secondary.
V N
Relationship given by Vps = Nps
​ ​

​ ​

Fleming’s Right Hand Rule is used for the a.c.

​ ​

Vp and Vs the primary and secondary voltages.

​ ​

generator. Np and Ns are the primary and secondary turns.

​ ​

Step-up transformer: More turns are on secondary

(Vs > Vp ). ​ ​

Step-down transformer: fewer turns on secondary, (

Vs < Vp ).
​ ​

Worked Example

A transformer steps down the mains supply from 230V

to 10V.
Turns ratio: Nps = 230V 23
N
10V = 1
​

​ ​ ​

If the secondary has 80 turns, the primary has 80 × 23=

182 turns.

Energy Losses

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If V s stepped up, current I is stepped down

proportionally.
Ideal transformer (100% efficient): Ip Vp = Is Vs
​ ​ ​ ​

Ip and Is are primary and secondary currents.

​ ​

If V is doubled, I is halved.

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CAIE IGCSE
Physics

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