1.

Microcontrollers and Microprocessors

• Use: The brain of any embedded system, microcontrollers (MCUs) or microprocessors

(MPUs) process input data, control peripherals, and execute tasks in an embedded
system.

• Features:

o Microcontrollers: Single-chip solutions with built-in memory (Flash, SRAM,

EEPROM), I/O, and communication peripherals.

o Microprocessors: Typically require external memory and have more processing

power.

o Popular Examples: ARM Cortex, AVR (ATmega), PIC, ESP32, STM32, Raspberry
Pi (MPU).

• Interview Questions:

o Difference between a microcontroller and microprocessor?

o How does interrupt handling work in microcontrollers?

o How would you choose between an ARM Cortex and an AVR for a project?

2. Power Supply & Voltage Regulators

• Use: Provide stable and controlled power to the system, ensuring that components
receive the right voltage and current levels.

• Features:

o Voltage Regulators (Linear & Switching): Regulate input voltage to provide

stable output for sensitive components.

o Power Converters: DC-DC converters for step-up or step-down power

conversion.

o Batteries: Li-ion, Li-Po for portable systems, or other battery types for energy
storage.

• Interview Questions:

o What is the difference between linear and switching regulators?

o Explain how a buck converter works.

o How do you select a power supply for an embedded project?

3. Sensors (Analog & Digital)

• Use: Sensors collect real-world data (temperature, humidity, light, etc.) and convert it
into electrical signals that can be processed by the microcontroller.
 • Features:

o Analog Sensors: Provide continuous output (e.g., temperature sensors like

LM35).

o Digital Sensors: Provide discrete output, often through protocols like I2C or SPI
(e.g., motion sensors, distance sensors).

o Examples: DHT11 (Temperature/Humidity), LDR (Light sensor), Ultrasonic

sensor, Accelerometer, Gyroscope.

• Interview Questions:

o What is the difference between an analog and digital sensor?

o How do you interface an analog temperature sensor with a microcontroller?

o What are common issues when using sensors in embedded systems?

4. Actuators (Motors, Relays, Servos)

• Use: Actuators perform mechanical actions, like moving a motor or switching a relay.

• Features:

o Motors: DC motors, Stepper motors, Servo motors for movement.

o Relays: Electrically controlled switches to control higher current or voltage

devices.

o Servos: Precisely controlled motors for positioning.

• Interview Questions:

o How does a servo motor work? How would you control it with a microcontroller?

o What is a relay, and how do you interface it with a microcontroller?

o What is the difference between a stepper motor and a DC motor?

5. Communication Modules (Wired & Wireless)

• Use: Facilitate communication between microcontrollers and external devices, such as

other microcontrollers or IoT networks.

• Features:

o Wired: UART, SPI, I2C protocols for short-range communication.

o Wireless: Bluetooth (BLE), Wi-Fi (ESP8266, ESP32), Zigbee, LoRa, NRF24L01 for
longer-range communication.

• Interview Questions:

o What is the difference between I2C and SPI?

 o How does UART communication work?

o How would you set up wireless communication in an embedded system (e.g.,

using Wi-Fi or Bluetooth)?

6. Displays (LED, LCD, OLED, Touchscreen)

• Use: Displays provide feedback and output data to users, visualizing information in
embedded systems.

• Features:

o LEDs: Basic indicator lights (single, RGB LEDs).

o LCD: Alphanumeric and graphical displays (e.g., 16x2 LCD, 20x4 LCD).

o OLED: High-quality graphical displays with lower power consumption.

o Touchscreen: Used for user interface in more complex systems.

• Interview Questions:

o What is the difference between an LCD and an OLED display?

o How would you interface a 16x2 LCD display with a microcontroller?

o How does a touchscreen work in an embedded system?

7. Memory (RAM, Flash, EEPROM)

• Use: Store data temporarily (RAM) or permanently (Flash, EEPROM).

• Features:

o RAM (Random Access Memory): Temporary storage for runtime data.

o Flash Memory: Non-volatile memory used to store firmware, data that needs to
persist.

o EEPROM: Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory, often used for

storing settings or calibration data.

• Interview Questions:

o What is the difference between SRAM and DRAM?

o When would you use EEPROM over Flash memory?

o How does memory-mapped I/O work?

8. Oscillators & Clocks

• Use: Provide timing signals for the operation of digital circuits, especially in
microcontrollers.
 • Features:

o Crystal Oscillators: Provide a precise clock signal for the microcontroller.

o Internal Oscillators: Built-in oscillators for low-power or cost-sensitive

applications.

• Interview Questions:

o What is the purpose of an oscillator in an embedded system?

o Explain how you would choose an oscillator for a microcontroller.

o What is the impact of clock speed on embedded system performance?

9. Voltage Reference ICs

• Use: Provide a stable reference voltage for analog-to-digital or digital-to-analog

conversions.

• Features:

o Used in ADCs, DACs for precise measurements.

o Ensure consistent voltage levels for high accuracy.

• Interview Questions:

o What is the role of a voltage reference IC in an ADC circuit?

o How would you ensure accuracy in ADC conversion in an embedded system?

10. Debugging Tools (JTAG, SWD, Logic Analyzers)

• Use: Debugging and testing embedded systems.

• Features:

o JTAG: Used for programming, debugging, and testing microcontrollers.

o SWD (Serial Wire Debug): A two-wire interface for debugging ARM-based

systems.

o Logic Analyzers: Used to capture and analyze signals in digital circuits.

• Interview Questions:

o What is JTAG and how does it help in debugging?

o Explain how you would use a logic analyzer to debug a communication protocol
like SPI or I2C.

11. Capacitors, Resistors, Diodes, and Transistors

 • Use: Basic electronic components used for signal conditioning, filtering, and switching
applications.

• Features:

o Capacitors: Store and release electrical energy, used in filtering and decoupling
circuits.

o Resistors: Limit current and divide voltage.

o Diodes: Allow current to flow in one direction (rectification, protection).

o Transistors: Act as switches or amplifiers, used in power management, logic

gates, etc.

• Interview Questions:

o How do you calculate the value of a resistor in a voltage divider circuit?

o What is the role of a transistor in a digital circuit?

o How would you use a diode for reverse voltage protection?

12. Printed Circuit Board (PCB)

• Use: Mechanical support and electrical connections for components.

• Features:

o Single-Layer & Multi-Layer PCBs: Used for routing signals, power distribution,
and component mounting.

o Through-hole vs. Surface Mount Components: Techniques for mounting

components on the PCB.

• Interview Questions:

o What is the difference between a single-layer and multi-layer PCB?

o How do you select components for a PCB?

o Explain how you would design a PCB for an embedded project.