0.
1 INTEGRATION USING PARTIAL FRAC-
TIONS
0.1.1 Recall
1) A polynomial is a function in an indeterminate x of the form p(x) = a0 +
a1 x + a2 x2 + . . . an xn , where a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . , an are constants. n is called
the degree of the polynomial.
f (x)
2) A rational function in an indeterminate x is a function of the form q(x) = g(x)
,
where f (x) and g(x) are polynomials. If degree of f (x) is less than the degree
of g(x), then q(x) is called a proper rational function. If degree of f (x) is
greater than or equal to the degree of g(x), then q(x) is called an improper
rational function.
2x+3
Examples. q(x) = x2 −3x+2
is a proper rational function while
5x−3 4x3 −x2 +7x+3
q(x) = 3x+2
and q(x) = 3x2 +4x+2
are improper rational functions.
WE first study how to write a rational functions as partial fractions.
0.1.2 Partial fraction decomposition
This is a method by which a more complicated rational function is written as the
sum of simpler rational functions. The technique is based on the following theorem.
Theorem
f (x)
If q(x) = g(x)
is a proper rational function where f (x) and g(x) have no common
factors, then q(x) can be written as a partial fraction decomposition in the form
q(x) = q1 (x) + q2 (x) + · · · + qk (x)
where each qi (x) has one of the forms
A Bx+C
(ax+b)n
or (ax2 +bx=c)m
.
The procedure for finding a partial fraction decomposition of a rational expres-
f (x)
sion q(x) = g(x)
depends on the factors of the denominator g(x). There are four
1
possibilities.
1) Non-repeated lLinear Factors in the Denominator
To each linear factor ax + b occuring once in the denominator, there corre-
A
sponds a single partial fraction of the form ax+b
, where A is a constant to be
determined.
Example
3x−1 A B C
x(3x+4)(x−2)
≡ x
+ 3x+4
+ x−2
A(3x+4)(x−2)+Bx(x−2)+Cx(3x+4)
≡ x(3x+4)(x−2)
=⇒ 3x − 1 = A(3x + 4)(x − 2) + Bx(x − 2) + Cx(3x + 4)
= A(3x2 − 2x − 8) + Bx2 − 2Bx + 3Cx2 + 4Cx
= (3A + B + 3C)x2 + (−2A − 2B + 4C)x − 8A
Equating coefficients, we have the system of equations
3A + B + 3C = 0
−2A − 2B + 4C = 3
−8A = −1
Solving this system we obtain A = 81 , B = − 38 , C = 14 .
2) Repeated Linear Factor in the Denominator
To each linear factor ax + b occuring n times in the denominator, there cor-
respond a sum of n partial fractions of the form
A1 A2 An
ax+b
+ (ax+b)2
+ ... + (ax+b)n
,
where the Ai s are constants to be determined.
Example
x2 +2x+7 A B C
x(x−1)2
≡ x
+ x−1
+ (x−1)2
A(x−1)2 +Bx(x−1)+Cx
≡ x(x−1)2
=⇒ x2 + 2x + 7 = A(x − 1)2 + Bx(x − 1) + Cx
= A(x2 − 2x + 1) + Bx2 − Bx + Cx
= (A + B)x2 + (−2A − B + C)x + A
2
Equating the coeficients we obtain the system
A+B = 1
−2A − B + C = 2
A = 7
and solving this system we have A = 7, B = −6, C = 10.
x2 +2x+7 7 6 10
Hence x(x−1)2
≡ x
− x−1
+ (x−1)2
.
3) Distinct Irreducible Quadratic Factors in the Denominator
Recall: A quadratic expresion is irreducible if it can not be written as a prod-
uct of two linear factors e.g x2 + 1
To each irreducible quadratic factor ax2 + bx + c in the denominator, there
corresponds a single partial fraction of the form
Ax+B
ax2 +bx+c
where A and B are constants to be determined.
Example
x3 +x2 +x+2 Ax+B Cx+D
(x2 +1)(x2 +2)
≡ x2 +1
+ x2 +2
(Ax+B)(x2 +2)+(Cx+D)(x2 +1)
≡ (x+ 1)(x2 +2)
=⇒ x3 + x2 + x + 2 = (Ax + B)(x2 + 2) + (Cx + D)(x2 + 1)
= Ax3 + 2Ax + Bx2 + 2B + Cx3 + Cx + Dx2 + D
= (A + C)x3 + (B + D)x2 + (2A + C)x + (2B + D)
Equating the coefficients, we obtain the system
A+C = 1
B+D = 1
2A + C = 1
2B + D = 2
and solving this system we have A = 0, B = 1, C = 1, D = 0.
x3 +x2 +x+2 1 x
Hence (x2 +1)(x2 +2)
≡ x2 +1
+ x2 +2
.
3
4) Repeated Irreducible Quadratic Factors in the Denominator
To each irreducible quadratic factor occuring n times in the denominator,
there corresponds a sum 0f n partial fractions of the form
A1 x+B1 A2 x+B2 An x+Bn
ax2 +bx=c
+ (ax2 +bx=c)2
+ ... + (ax2 +bx=c)n
where the Ai s and Bi s are constants to be determined.
Example
2x2 +3 Ax+B Cx+B
(x2 +1)2
≡ x2 +1
+ (x2 +1)2
(Ax+B)(x2 +1)+(Cx+D)
≡ (x2 +1)2
=⇒ 2x+ 3 = (Ax + B)(x2 + 1) + (Cx + D)
= Ax3 + Ax + Bx2 + B + Cx + D
= Ax3 + Bx2 + (A + C)x + (B + D)
Equating coefficients, we obtain the system A = 0, B = 2, A + C = 0, B +
D=3
and solving this system we have A = 0, B = 2, C = 0, D = 1.
2x2 +3 2 1
Hence (x2 +1)2
= x2 +1
+ (x2 +1)2
.
Exercise
Write as partial fractions.
3x+50
1) x2 −7x−18
(Hint: x2 − 7x − 18 = (x − 9)(x + 2))
8x2 −19x
2) (x+1)(x−2)2
5x3 +2x2 +6x+4
3) (x2 +1)(2x2 +3)
3x3 −x2 =11x−3
4) (x2 +3)2
0.1.3 Integration using partial fractions
Certain rational functions can only be resolved into partial fractions before inte-
grating them. The following are examples.
Examples
4
1
R
1) Find x2 +7x+6
dx.
Solution
1 1 A B
x2 +7x+6
= (x+1)(x+6)
≡ x+1
+ x+6
=⇒ 1 = A(x + 6) + B(x + 1)
= Ax + 6A + Bx + B
= (A + B)x + (6A + B)
Equating coefficients, we have A+B = 0, 6A+B = 1 =⇒ A = 15 , B = − 15 .
1
R 1 1
− 15 x+6
1
R
Therefore 2
x +7x+6
dx = 5 x+1
dx
= 15 1
dx − 51 1
R R
x+1 x+6
dx
= 15 ln(x + 1) − 15 ln(x + 6) + K.
x
R
2) Find (x−2)2
dx.
Solution
x A B
(x−2)2
≡ x−2
+ (x−2)2
=⇒ x = A(x − 2) + B
= Ax − 2A + B
= Ax + (−2A + B)
Equating coefficeints, we have A = 1 and −2A + B = 0 =⇒ B = 2.
x
R R 1 2
Hence (x−2)2
dx = x−2
+ (x−2) 2 dx
R 1 R 2
= x−2
dx + (x−2) 2 dx
2
R
= ln(x − 2) + (x−2) 2 dx.
2
R
We use algebraic substitution to find (x−2)2
dx.
2
du = 2 u−2 du =
R R 2 R
Let u = x − 2 =⇒ du = dx and thus (x−2) 2 dx = u2
2[−u−1 ] = − u2 = − x−2
2
.
x 2
R
Therefore (x−2)2
dx = ln(x − 2) − x−2
+ K.
1
R
3) Find x3 +x
dx.
Solution
1 1 A Bx+C
But x3 +x
= x(x2 +1)
≡ x
+ x2 +1
=⇒ 1 = A(x2 + 1) + (Bx + C)x
= Ax2 + A + Bx2 + Cx
5
= (A + B)x2 + Cx + A.
Equating coefficients we have A + B = 0, C = 0, A = 1 =⇒ B = −1 i.e.
1 1 x
x3 +x
≡ x
− x2 +1
.
1 1 x
R R
x3 +x
dx = x
− x2 +1
dx
1 x
R R
= x
dx − x2 +1
dx
= ln x − 12 ln(x2 + 1) + K.
2x3 +x2 +4
R
4) Find (x2 +1)2
dx,
Solution
2x3 +x2 +4 Ax+B Cx+D
(x2 +1)2
≡ x2 +1
+ (x2 +1)2
=⇒ 2x3 + x2 + 4 = (Ax + B)(x2 + 1) + Cx + D
= Ax3 + Ax + Bx2 + B + Cx + D
= Ax ∗ 3 + Bx2 + (A + C)x + (B + D).
Equating coefficient,
A = 3, B = 1, A + C = 0, B + D = 4, =⇒ C = −3, D = 3.
3 2 −3x+3
Hence 2x(x2+x +4
+1)2
≡ 3x+1
x2 +1
+ (x 2 +1)2
R 2x3 +x2 +4 R 3x+1 −3x+3
=⇒ (x2 +1)2
dx = x2 +1
+ (x 2 +1)2 dx
R 3x+1 R −3x+3
= x2 +1
dx + (x 2 +1)2 dx
R 3x
dx + x21+1 dx − 3 x 3
R R R
= x2 +1 (x2 +1)2
dx + (x2 +1)2
dx
. . . (?).
We integrate each of the integrals in ?.
R 3x
x2 +1
dx = 23 ln(x2 + 1),
R 1
x2 +1
dx. We use the subsitution x = tan θ
=⇒ dx = sec2 θ dθ = (1 + tan2 θ)dθ. Hence
1 dθ = θ = tan−1 x.
R 1 R 1 2
R
2
x +1
dx = 2
1+tan θ
(1 + tan θ)dθ =
x
R
(x2 +1)2
dx, We use the substitution u = x2 + 1 =⇒ du = 2xdx.
R −2
x
u du = − 12 u−1 = − 12 ( u1 ) =
R x du
= 21
R 1
du = 12
R
(x2 +1)2
dx = u2 2x u2
− 12 x21+1 .
3
R
(x2 +1)2
dx. Let x = tan θ =⇒ dx = sec2 θdθ.
3 1 1
R R 2
R 2
R 1
2
(x +1)2 dx = 3 2
(1+tan θ) 2 sec θ dθ = 3 2
(sec θ)2 sec θdθ = 3 sec2 θ
dθ =
3 cos2 θ dθ = 3 1+cos 2θ
dθ = 32 1 + cos 2θ dθ = 23 [θ + 21 sin 2θ].
R R R
2
6
But x = tan θ =⇒ θ = tan−1 x. Hence
3
dx = 23 [θ + 21 sin 2θ] = 32 [tan−1 x + 12 sin(2 tan−1 x)]
R
(x2 +1)2
2x3 +x2 +4 3x 1 x 3
R R R R
(x2 +1)2
= x2 +1
dx + x2 +1
dx − 3 (x2 +1)2
dx + (x2 +1)2
dx
= 32 ln(x2 + 1) + tan−1 x + 32 ( x21+1 ) + 23 [tan−1 x + 12 sin(2 tan−1 x)] + K