Computer

A computer is an electronic device that receives input, stores or processes the input as per user
instructions and provides output in desired format. Computers have become an integral part of our
lives because they can accomplish easy tasks repeatedly without getting bored and complex ones
repeatedly without committing errors. In this tutorial we will discuss in detail about the different
parts of computer that enable it to carry out tasks efficiently and correctly. We will also discuss about
microprocessors, the brain of computers, which actually do all the assigned tasks.

Input-Process-Output Model
Computer input is called data and the output obtained after processing it, based on user’s
instructions is called information. Raw facts and figures which can be processed using arithmetic
and logical operations to obtain information are called data.

The processes that can be applied to data are of two types −

• Arithmetic operations − Examples include calculations like addition, subtraction,

differentials, square root, etc.

• Logical operations − Examples include comparison operations like greater than, less than, equal to,
opposite, etc.

The corresponding figure for an actual computer looks something like this −
The basic parts of a computer are as follows −

• Input Unit − Devices like keyboard and mouse that are used to input data and instructions to
the computer are called input unit.

• Output Unit − Devices like printer and visual display unit that are used to provide
information to the user in desired format are called output unit.

• Control Unit − As the name suggests, this unit controls all the functions of the computer.
All devices or parts of computer interact through the control unit.

• Arithmetic Logic Unit − This is the brain of the computer where all arithmetic operations
and logical operations take place.

• Memory − All input data, instructions and data interim to the processes are stored in the
memory. Memory is of two types – primary memory and secondary memory. Primary
memory resides within the CPU whereas secondary memory is external to it.

Control unit, arithmetic logic unit and memory are together called the central processing unit or
CPU. Computer devices like keyboard, mouse, printer, etc. that we can see and touch are the
hardware components of a computer. The set of instructions or programs that make the computer
function using these hardware parts are called software. We cannot see or touch software. Both
hardware and software are necessary for working of a computer.

Functionalities of a Computer
If we look at it in a very broad sense, any digital computer carries out the following five functions −
Step 1 − Takes data as input.
Step 2 − Stores the data/instructions in its memory and uses them as required.
Step 3 − Processes the data and converts it into useful information.
Step 4 − Generates the output.
Step 5 − Controls all the above four steps.

Characteristics of Computer
To understand why computers are such an important part of our lives, let us look at some of its
characteristics −

• Speed − Typically, a computer can carry out 3-4 million instructions per second.

• Accuracy − Computers exhibit a very high degree of accuracy. Errors that may occur are
usually due to inaccurate data, wrong instructions or bug in chips – all human errors.

• Reliability − Computers can carry out same type of work repeatedly without throwing up
errors due to tiredness or boredom, which are very common among humans.

• Versatility − Computers can carry out a wide range of work from data entry and ticket
booking to complex mathematical calculations and continuous astronomical observations. If
you can input the necessary data with correct instructions, computer will do the processing.

• Storage Capacity − Computers can store a very large amount of data at a fraction of cost of
traditional storage of files. Also, data is safe from normal wear and tear associated with
paper.

Advantages of Computers
Following are certain advantages of computers.

High Speed
• Computer is a very fast device.
• It is capable of performing calculation of very large amount of data.
• The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even the picosecond.
 • It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to man who will spend
many months to perform the same task.

Accuracy
• In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate.
• The calculations are 100% error free.
• Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that the input is correct.

Storage Capability
• Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.
• A computer has much more storage capacity than human beings.
• It can store large amount of data.
• It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio, etc.

Diligence
• Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness, and lack of
concentration.
• It can work continuously without any error and boredom.
• It can perform repeated tasks with the same speed and accuracy.

Versatility
• A computer is a very versatile machine.
• A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.
• This machine can be used to solve the problems related to various fields.
• At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very next moment it
may be playing a card game.

Reliability
• A computer is a reliable machine.
• Modern electronic components have long lives.
• Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.

Automation
• Computer is an automatic machine.
 • Automation is the ability to perform a given task automatically. Once the computer receives
a program i.e., the program is stored in the computer memory, then the program and
instruction can control the program execution without human interaction.

Reduction in Paper Work and Cost

• The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to reduction in paper work
and results in speeding up the process.
• As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the problem of maintenance
of large number of paper files gets reduced.
• Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high, it substantially reduces the
cost of each of its transaction.

Disadvantages of Computers
Following are certain disadvantages of computers.

No I.Q.
• A computer is a machine that has no intelligence to perform any task.
• Each instruction has to be given to the computer.
• A computer cannot take any decision on its own.

Dependency
• It functions as per the user’s instruction, thus it is fully dependent on humans.

Environment
• The operating environment of the computer should be dust free and suitable.

No Feeling
• Computers have no feelings or emotions.
• It cannot make judgment based on feeling, taste, experience, and knowledge unlike humans.

Types of computer
Historically computers were classified according to processor types because development in
processor and processing speeds were the developmental benchmarks. Earliest computers used
vacuum tubes for processing, were huge and broke down frequently. However, as vacuum tubes
were replaced by transistors and then chips, their size decreased and processing speeds increased
manifold.

All modern computers and computing devices use microprocessors whose speeds and storage
capacities are skyrocketing day by day. The developmental benchmark for computers is now their
size. Computers are now classified on the basis of their use or size −

• Desktop

• Laptop

• Tablet

• Server

• Mainframe

• Supercomputer

Let us look at all these types of computers in detail.

Desktop
Desktop computers are personal computers (PCs) designed for use by an individual at a fixed
location. IBM was the first computer to introduce and popularize use of desktops. A desktop unit
typically has a CPU (Central Processing Unit), monitor, keyboard and mouse. Introduction of
desktops popularized use of computers among common people as it was compact and affordable.
Riding on the wave of desktop’s popularity many software and hardware devices were developed
specially for the home or office user. The foremost design consideration here was user friendliness.

Laptop
Despite its huge popularity, desktops gave way to a more compact and portable personal computer
called laptop in 2000s. Laptops are also called notebook computers or simply notebooks. Laptops
run using batteries and connect to networks using Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) chips. They also have
chips for energy efficiency so that they can conserve power whenever possible and have a longer
life.
Modern laptops have enough processing power and storage capacity to be used for all office work,
website designing, software development and even audio/video editing.

Tablet
After laptops computers were further miniaturized to develop machines that have processing power
of a desktop but are small enough to be held in one’s palm. Tablets have touch sensitive screen of
typically 5 to 10 inches where one finger is used to touch icons and invoke applications.
Keyboard is also displayed virtually whenever required and used with touch strokes. Applications
that run on tablets are called apps. They use operating systems by Microsoft (Windows 8 and later
versions) or Google (Android). Apple computers have developed their own tablet called iPad which
uses a proprietary OS called iOS.

Server
Servers are computers with high processing speeds that provide one or more services to other
systems on the network. They may or may not have screens attached to them. A group of computers
or digital devices connected together to share resources is called a network.
Servers have high processing powers and can handle multiple requests simultaneously. Most
commonly found servers on networks include −

• File or storage server

• Game server

• Application server

• Database server

• Mail server

• Print server

Mainframe
Mainframes are computers used by organizations like banks, airlines and railways to handle
millions and trillions of online transactions per second. Important features of mainframes are −

• Big in size

• Hundreds times Faster than servers, typically hundred megabytes per second

• Very expensive

• Use proprietary OS provided by the manufacturers

• In-built hardware, software and firmware security features

Supercomputer
Supercomputers are the fastest computers on Earth. They are used for carrying out complex, fast
and time intensive calculations for scientific and engineering applications. Supercomputer speed or
performance is measured in teraflops, i.e. 1012 floating point operations per second.

Chinese supercomputer Sunway TaihuLight is the world’s fastest supercomputer with a rating of
93 petaflops per second, i.e. 93 quadrillion floating point operations per second.
Most common uses of supercomputers include −

• Molecular mapping and research

• Weather forecasting

• Environmental research

• Oil and gas exploration

Software

As you know, the hardware devices need user instructions to function. A set of instructions that
achieve a single outcome are called program or procedure. Many programs functioning together to
do a task make a software.

For example, a word-processing software enables the user to create, edit and save documents. A
web browser enables the user to view and share web pages and multimedia files. There are three
categories of software −

• System Software

• Application Software

• Utility Software

Let us discuss them in detail.

System Software
Software required to run the hardware parts of the computer and other application software are
called system software. System software acts as interface between hardware and user applications.
An interface is needed because hardware devices or machines and humans speak in different
languages.

Machines understand only binary language i.e. 0 (absence of electric signal) and 1 (presence of
electric signal) while humans speak in English, French, German, Tamil, Hindi and many other
languages. English is the pre-dominant language of interacting with computers. Software is required
to convert all human instructions into machine understandable instructions. And this is exactly what
system software does.

Based on its function, system software is of three types −

 • Operating System

• Language Processor

• Device Drivers

Operating System
System software that is responsible for functioning of all hardware parts and their interoperability to
carry out tasks successfully is called operating system (OS). OS is the first software to be loaded
into computer memory when the computer is switched on and this is called booting. OS manages a
computer’s basic functions like storing data in memory, retrieving files from storage devices,
scheduling tasks based on priority, etc.

Language Processor
As discussed earlier, an important function of system software is to convert all user instructions into
machine understandable language. When we talk of human machine interactions, languages are of
three types −

• Machine-level language − This language is nothing but a string of 0s and 1s that the
machines can understand. It is completely machine dependent.

• Assembly-level language − This language introduces a layer of abstraction by defining

mnemonics. Mnemonics are English like words or symbols used to denote a long string of
0s and 1s. For example, the word “READ” can be defined to mean that computer has to
retrieve data from the memory. The complete instruction will also tell the memory address.
Assembly level language is machine dependent.

• High level language − This language uses English like statements and is completely
independent of machines. Programs written using high level languages are easy to create,
read and understand.

Program written in high level programming languages like Java, C++, etc. is called source code. Set
of instructions in machine readable form is called object code or machine code. System software
that converts source code to object code is called language processor. There are three types of
language processors−

• Assembler − Converts assembly level program into machine level program.

• Interpreter − Converts high level programs into machine level program line by line.

• Compiler − Converts high level programs into machine level programs at one go rather than
line by line.
Device Drivers
System software that controls and monitors functioning of a specific device on computer is called
device driver. Each device like printer, scanner, microphone, speaker, etc. that needs to be attached
externally to the system has a specific driver associated with it. When you attach a new device, you
need to install its driver so that the OS knows how it needs to be managed.

Application Software
A software that performs a single task and nothing else is called application software. Application
software are very specialized in their function and approach to solving a problem. So a spreadsheet
software can only do operations with numbers and nothing else. A hospital management software
will manage hospital activities and nothing else. Here are some commonly used application software
−

• Word processing

• Spreadsheet

• Presentation

• Database management

• Multimedia tools

Utility Software
Application software that assist system software in doing their work is called utility software. Thus
utility software is actually a cross between system software and application software. Examples of
utility software include −

• Antivirus software

• Disk management tools

• File management tools

• Compression tools

• Backup tools
Evolution of computer

The history of the computer dates back to several years. There are five prominent generations of
computers. Each generation has witnessed several technological advances which change the
functionality of the computers. This results in more compact, powerful, robust systems which are
less expensive. The brief history of computers is discussed below −

First Generation (1940-1956)

The first generation computers had the following features and components −

Hardware
The hardware used in the first generation of computers was: Vacuum Tubes and Punch Cards.

Features
Following are the features of first generation computers −
• It supported machine language.
• It had slow performance
• It occupied large size due to the use of vacuum tubes.
• It had a poor storage capacity.
• It consumed a lot of electricity and generated a lot of heat.

Memory
The memory was of 4000 bits.

Data Input
The input was only provided through hard-wired programs in the computer, mostly through punched
cards and paper tapes.

Examples
The examples of first generation computers are −

• ENIAC
• UNIVACTBM 701
Second Generation (1956-1963)
Several advancements in the first-gen computers led to the development of second generation
computers. Following are various changes in features and components of second generation
computers −

Hardware
The hardware used in the second generation of computers were −

• Transistors
• Magnetic Tapes

Features
It had features like −
• Batch operating system
• Faster and smaller in size
• Reliable and energy efficient than the previous generation
• Less costly than the previous generation

Memory
The capacity of the memory was 32,000 bits.

Data Input
The input was provided through punched cards.

Examples
The examples of second generation computers are −

• Honeywell 400
• CDC 1604
• IBM 7030

Third Generation (1964-1971)

Following are the various components and features of the third generation computers −
Hardware
The hardware used in the third generation of computers were −
• Integrated Circuits made from semi-conductor materials
• Large capacity disks and magnetic tapes

Features
The features of the third generation computers are −
• Supports time-sharing OS
• Faster, smaller, more reliable and cheaper than the previous generations
• Easy to access

Memory
The capacity of the memory was 128,000 bits.

Data Input
The input was provided through keyboards and monitors.

Examples
The examples of third generation computers are −

• IBM 360/370
• CDC 6600
• PDP 8/11

Fourth Generation (1972-2010)

Fourth generation computers have the following components and features −

Hardware
The Hardware used in the fourth generation of computers were −

• ICs with Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) technology

• Semiconductor memory
• Magnetic tapes and Floppy
Features
It supports features like −

• Multiprocessing & distributed OS

• Object-oriented high level programs supported
• Small & easy to use; hand-held computers have evolved
• No external cooling required & affordable
• This generation saw the development of networks and the internet
• It saw the development of new trends in GUIs and mouse

Memory
The capacity of the memory was 100 million bits.

Data Input
The input was provided through improved hand held devices, keyboard and mouse.

Examples
The examples of fourth generation computers are −

• Apple II
• VAX 9000
• CRAY 1 (super computers)

Fifth Generation (2010-Present)

These are the modern and advanced computers. Significant changes in the components and
operations have made fifth generation computers handy and more reliable than the previous
generations.

Hardware
The Hardware used in the fifth generation of computers are −
• Integrated Circuits with VLSI and Nano technology
• Large capacity hard disk with RAID support
• Powerful servers, Internet, Cluster computing

Features
It supports features like −
 • Powerful, cheap, reliable and easy to use.
• Portable and faster due to use of parallel processors and Super Large Scale Integrated
Circuits.
• Rapid software development is possible.

Memory
The capacity of the memory is unlimited.

Data Input
The input is provided through CDROM, Optical Disk and other touch and voice sensitive input
devices.

Examples
The examples of fifth generation computers are −

• IBM
• Pentium
• PARAM

COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER

All types of computers follow the same basic logical structure and perform the following five basic
operations for converting raw input data into information useful to their users.

S.No. Operation Description

1 Take Input The process of entering data and instructions into the computer system.

Saving data and instructions so that they are available for processing as
2 Store Data
and when required.
 Performing arithmetic, and logical operations on data in order to convert
3 Processing Data
them into useful information.

Output The process of producing useful information or results for the user, such as
4
Information a printed report or visual display.

Control the Directs the manner and sequence in which all of the above operations are
5
workflow performed.

Input Unit
This unit contains devices, with the help of which we enter data into the computer. This unit creates
a link between the user and the computer. The input devices translate the information into a form,
which is understandable by the computer.

CPU (Central Processing Unit)

CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all types of data processing
operations. It stores data, intermediate results and instructions (program). It controls the operation of
all parts of the computer.

CPU itself has the following three components −

• ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

 • Memory Unit

• Control Unit

Central Processing Unit (CPU) consists of the following features −

• CPU is considered as the brain of a computer.

• CPU performs all types of data processing operations.

• It stores data, intermediate results and instructions (program).

• It controls the operation of all parts of a computer.

Output Unit
The output unit consists of devices with the help of which we get the information from the
computer. This unit is a link between the computer and the users. Output devices translate the
computer's output into a form understandable by the users.

Memory or Storage Unit

This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This unit supplies information to
other units of the computer when needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or the main
memory or the primary storage or Random Access Memory (RAM).

Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory are two types
of memories in the computer. Functions of the memory unit are −

• It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.

• It stores intermediate results of processing.

 • It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.

• All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.

Control Unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry out any actual data
processing operations.

Functions of this unit are −

• It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a
computer.

• It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.

• It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of the
computer.

• It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.

• It does not process or store data.

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

This unit consists of two subsections namely,

• Arithmetic Section

• Logic Section

Arithmetic Section
Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division. All complex operations are done by making repetitive use of the above
operations.

Logic Section
Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting, matching, and
merging of data.

Following are some of the important input devices which are used in a computer −
 • Keyboard

• Mouse

• Joy Stick

• Light pen

• Track Ball

• Scanner

• Graphic Tablet

• Microphone

• Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)

• Optical Character Reader(OCR)

• Bar Code Reader

• Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

Keyboard
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps to input data to the
computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are some
additional keys provided for performing additional functions.

Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or 108 keys
are also available for Windows and Internet.

The keys on the keyboard are as follows −

S.No Keys & Description

Typing Keys
1
These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (09) which generally give the
same layout as that of typewriters.

Numeric Keypad

2 It is used to enter the numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it consists of a set
of 17 keys that are laid out in the same configuration used by most adding machines
and calculators.

Function Keys

3 The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which are arranged in a row at
the top of the keyboard. Each function key has a unique meaning and is used for some
specific purpose.

Control keys

4 These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four directional arrow keys.
Control keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down,
Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).

Special Purpose Keys

5
Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps Lock,
Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.

Mouse
Mouse is the most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a small
palm size box with a round ball at its base, which senses the movement of the mouse and sends
corresponding signals to the CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.
Generally, it has two buttons called the left and the right button and a wheel is present between the
buttons. A mouse can be used to control the position of the cursor on the screen, but it cannot be
used to enter text into the computer.

Advantages

• Easy to use

• Not very expensive

• Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of the keyboard.

Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor position on a monitor screen. It
is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball moves in
a socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions.
The function of the joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided
Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.

Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item or draw
pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small
tube.

When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen button is pressed, its
photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding signal to the
CPU.

Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a mouse.
This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on the ball, the pointer can be moved.

Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A track ball
comes in various shapes like a ball, a button, or a square.
Scanner
Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some
information is available on paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disk of the computer for
further manipulation.

Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into a digital form that can be
stored on the disk. These images can be edited before they are printed.

Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer can
convert a signal from the television or camera into a series of numbers that could be stored in a
computer. They can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had been
pointed at.
Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it converts graphics and pictorial data into
binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for fine works of drawing and image manipulation
applications.

Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in a digital form.

The microphone is used for various applications such as adding sound to a multimedia presentation
or for mixing music.

Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

MICR input device is generally used in banks as there are large number of cheques to be processed
every day. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques with a special
type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are machine readable.
This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The main advantages of
MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.

Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text.

OCR scans the text optically, character by character, converts them into a machine readable code,
and stores the text on the system memory.

Bar Code Readers

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the form of light and dark
lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books, etc. It may be a
handheld scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner.

Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value, which is then fed
to the computer that the bar code reader is connected to.

Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or pencil.
It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked.

It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having multiple choice questions.

Following are some of the important output devices used in a computer.

• Monitors

• Graphic Plotter

• Printer
Monitors
Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a
computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form. The
sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels.

There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.

• Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

• Flat-Panel Display

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels, the
better the image clarity or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form a whole
character, such as the letter ‘e’ in the word help.

A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be divided into a
series of character boxes - fixed location on the screen where a standard character can be placed.
Most screens are capable of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically.

There are some disadvantages of CRT −

• Large in Size

• High power consumption

Flat-Panel Display Monitor
The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and power
requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on your wrists.
Current uses of flat-panel displays include calculators, video games, monitors, laptop computer, and
graphics display.

The flat-panel display is divided into two categories −

• Emissive Displays − Emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into light.
For example, plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).

• Non-Emissive Displays − Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight or

light from some other source into graphics patterns. For example, LCD (Liquid-Crystal
Device).

Printers
Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.

There are two types of printers −

• Impact Printers

• Non-Impact Printers

Impact Printers
Impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon, which is then pressed on the
paper.
Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following −

• Very low consumable costs

• Very noisy

• Useful for bulk printing due to low cost

• There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image

These printers are of two types −

• Character printers

• Line printers

Character Printers

Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.

These are further divided into two types:

• Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)

• Daisy Wheel

Dot Matrix Printer

In the market, one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are popular
because of their ease of printing and economical price. Each character printed is in the form of
pattern of dots and head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which come out
to form a character which is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.
Advantages

• Inexpensive

• Widely Used

• Other language characters can be printed

Disadvantages

• Slow Speed

• Poor Quality

Daisy Wheel

Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy (flower)
which is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally used for word-processing
in offices that require a few letters to be sent here and there with very nice quality.

Advantages

• More reliable than DMP

• Better quality

• Fonts of character can be easily changed

Disadvantages

• Slower than DMP

• Noisy

• More expensive than DMP

Line Printers
Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.

These are of two types −

• Drum Printer

• Chain Printer

Drum Printer

This printer is like a drum in shape hence it is called drum printer. The surface of the drum is
divided into a number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to the size of the paper, i.e. for a paper width
of 132 characters, drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on the track. Different
character sets available in the market are 48 character set, 64 and 96 characters set. One rotation of
drum prints one line. Drum printers are fast in speed and can print 300 to 2000 lines per minute.

Advantages

• Very high speed

Disadvantages

• Very expensive

• Characters fonts cannot be changed

Chain Printer

In this printer, a chain of character sets is used, hence it is called Chain Printer. A standard character
set may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.

Advantages
 • Character fonts can easily be changed.

• Different languages can be used with the same printer.

Disadvantages

• Noisy

Non-impact Printers
Non-impact printers print the characters without using the ribbon. These printers print a complete
page at a time, thus they are also called as Page Printers.

These printers are of two types −

• Laser Printers

• Inkjet Printers

Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

• Faster than impact printers

• They are not noisy

• High quality

• Supports many fonts and different character size

Laser Printers

These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to form the
characters to be printed on a page.
Advantages

• Very high speed

• Very high quality output

• Good graphics quality

• Supports many fonts and different character size

Disadvantages

• Expensive

• Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing

Inkjet Printers

Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They print
characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high quality output
with presentable features.
They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing modes
available. Color printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers can produce multiple
copies of printing also.

Advantages

• High quality printing

• More reliable

Disadvantages

• Expensive as the cost per page is high

• Slow as compared to laser printer

A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer memory is
the storage space in the computer, where data is to be processed and instructions required for
processing are stored. The memory is divided into large number of small parts called cells. Each
location or cell has a unique address, which varies from zero to memory size minus one. For
example, if the computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024 = 65536 memory
locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.

Memory is primarily of three types −

• Cache Memory

• Primary Memory/Main Memory

• Secondary Memory
Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up the CPU. It acts as
a buffer between the CPU and the main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and program
which are most frequently used by the CPU. The parts of data and programs are transferred from the
disk to cache memory by the operating system, from where the CPU can access them.

Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows −

• Cache memory is faster than main memory.

• It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.

• It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.

• It stores data for temporary use.

Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows −

• Cache memory has limited capacity.

• It is very expensive.

Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the computer is currently working.
It has a limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally made up of
semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and instruction required
to be processed resides in the main memory. It is divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM.

Characteristics of Main Memory

• These are semiconductor memories.

• It is known as the main memory.

• Usually volatile memory.

• Data is lost in case power is switched off.

• It is the working memory of the computer.

• Faster than secondary memories.

• A computer cannot run without the primary memory.

Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than the main
memory. These are used for storing data/information permanently. CPU directly does not access
these memories, instead they are accessed via input-output routines. The contents of secondary
memories are first transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can access it. For example,
disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.
Characteristics of Secondary Memory

• These are magnetic and optical memories.

• It is known as the backup memory.

• It is a non-volatile memory.

• Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.

• It is used for storage of data in a computer.

• Computer may run without the secondary memory.

• Slower than primary memories.

RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program, and
program result. It is a read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working. As soon as
the machine is switched off, data is erased.
Access time in RAM is independent of the address, that is, each storage location inside the memory
is as easy to reach as other locations and takes the same amount of time. Data in the RAM can be
accessed randomly but it is very expensive.

RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a power
failure. Hence, a backup Uninterruptible Power System (UPS) is often used with computers. RAM
is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can hold.

RAM is of two types −

• Static RAM (SRAM)

• Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Static RAM (SRAM)

The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being supplied.
However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix of
6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM need
not be refreshed on a regular basis.

There is extra space in the matrix, hence SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same amount
of storage space, making the manufacturing costs higher. SRAM is thus used as cache memory and
has very fast access.

Characteristic of Static RAM

• Long life

• No need to refresh

• Faster

• Large size

• Expensive

• High power consumption

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data. This is done by
placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per second.
DRAM is used for most system memory as it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are made up of
memory cells, which are composed of one capacitor and one transistor.

Characteristics of Dynamic RAM

• Short data lifetime

• Needs to be refreshed continuously

• Slower as compared to SRAM

• Used as RAM

• Smaller in size

• Less expensive

• Less power consumption

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot write
on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such memories
during manufacture. A ROM stores such instructions that are required to start a computer. This
operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in the computer but also in other
electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven.

Let us now discuss the various types of ROMs and their characteristics.

MROM (Masked ROM)

The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or
instructions. These kind of ROMs are known as masked ROMs, which are inexpensive.

PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)

PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank PROM
and enters the desired contents using a PROM program. Inside the PROM chip, there are small fuses
which are burnt open during programming. It can be programmed only once and is not erasable.

EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes.
Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming, an electrical charge is
trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is retained for more than 10 years because the charge
has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a quartz crystal
window (lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During normal use, the quartz
lid is sealed with a sticker.

EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only

Memory)
EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten
thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond). In EEPROM,
any location can be selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a
time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of reprogramming is flexible but slow.

Advantages of ROM
The advantages of ROM are as follows −

• Non-volatile in nature

• Cannot be accidentally changed

• Cheaper than RAMs

• Easy to test

• More reliable than RAMs

• Static and do not require refreshing

 • Contents are always known and can be verified

The motherboard serves as a single platform to connect all of the parts of a computer together. It
connects the CPU, memory, hard drives, optical drives, video card, sound card, and other ports and
expansion cards directly or via cables. It can be considered as the backbone of a computer.

Features of Motherboard
A motherboard comes with following features −

• Motherboard varies greatly in supporting various types of components.

• Motherboard supports a single type of CPU and few types of memories.

• Video cards, hard disks, sound cards have to be compatible with the motherboard to function
properly.

• Motherboards, cases, and power supplies must be compatible to work properly together.

Popular Manufacturers
Following are the popular manufacturers of the motherboard.

• Intel

• ASUS

• AOpen
 • ABIT

• Biostar

• Gigabyte

• MSI

Description of Motherboard
The motherboard is mounted inside the case and is securely attached via small screws through pre-
drilled holes. Motherboard contains ports to connect all of the internal components. It provides a
single socket for CPU, whereas for memory, normally one or more slots are available. Motherboards
provide ports to attach the floppy drive, hard drive, and optical drives via ribbon cables.
Motherboard carries fans and a special port designed for power supply.

There is a peripheral card slot in front of the motherboard using which video cards, sound cards, and
other expansion cards can be connected to the motherboard.

On the left side, motherboards carry a number of ports to connect the monitor, printer, mouse,
keyboard, speaker, and network cables. Motherboards also provide USB ports, which allow
compatible devices to be connected in plug-in/plug-out fashion. For example, pen drive, digital
cameras, etc.

Memory unit is the amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit. This storage capacity is
expressed in terms of Bytes.

The following table explains the main memory storage units −

S.No. Unit & Description

Bit (Binary Digit)

1
A binary digit is logical 0 and 1 representing a passive or an active state of a
component in an electric circuit.

Nibble
2
A group of 4 bits is called nibble.
 Byte

3 A group of 8 bits is called byte. A byte is the smallest unit, which can represent a data
item or a character.

Word

A computer word, like a byte, is a group of fixed number of bits processed as a unit,
which varies from computer to computer but is fixed for each computer.
4
The length of a computer word is called word-size or word length. It may be as small
as 8 bits or may be as long as 96 bits. A computer stores the information in the form of
computer words.

The following table lists some higher storage units −

S.No. Unit & Description

Kilobyte (KB)
1
1 KB = 1024 Bytes

Megabyte (MB)
2
1 MB = 1024 KB

GigaByte (GB)
3
1 GB = 1024 MB

TeraByte (TB)
4
1 TB = 1024 GB

PetaByte (PB)
5
1 PB = 1024 TB

PORT
A port is a physical docking point using which an external device can be connected to the computer.
It can also be programmatic docking point through which information flows from a program to the
computer or over the Internet.

Characteristics of Ports
A port has the following characteristics −

• External devices are connected to a computer using cables and ports.

• Ports are slots on the motherboard into which a cable of external device is plugged in.

• Examples of external devices attached via ports are the mouse, keyboard, monitor,
microphone, speakers, etc.

Let us now discuss a few important types of ports −

Serial Port
• Used for external modems and older computer mouse

• Two versions: 9 pin, 25 pin model

• Data travels at 115 kilobits per second

Parallel Port
• Used for scanners and printers

• Also called printer port

• 25 pin model

• IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port

PS/2 Port
• Used for old computer keyboard and mouse

• Also called mouse port

• Most of the old computers provide two PS/2 port, each for the mouse and keyboard

• IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port

Universal Serial Bus (or USB) Port

• It can connect all kinds of external USB devices such as external hard disk, printer, scanner,
mouse, keyboard, etc.

• It was introduced in 1997.

• Most of the computers provide two USB ports as minimum.

• Data travels at 12 megabits per seconds.

• USB compliant devices can get power from a USB port.

VGA Port
• Connects monitor to a computer's video card.

• It has 15 holes.

• Similar to the serial port connector. However, serial port connector has pins, VGA port has
holes.

Power Connector
• Three-pronged plug.
 • Connects to the computer's power cable that plugs into a power bar or wall socket.

Firewire Port
• Transfers large amount of data at very fast speed.

• Connects camcorders and video equipment to the computer.

• Data travels at 400 to 800 megabits per seconds.

• Invented by Apple.

• It has three variants: 4-Pin FireWire 400 connector, 6-Pin FireWire 400 connector, and 9-Pin
FireWire 800 connector.

Modem Port
• Connects a PC's modem to the telephone network.

Ethernet Port
• Connects to a network and high speed Internet.

• Connects the network cable to a computer.

• This port resides on an Ethernet Card.

• Data travels at 10 megabits to 1000 megabits per seconds depending upon the network
bandwidth.

Game Port
• Connect a joystick to a PC

• Now replaced by USB

Digital Video Interface, DVI port

• Connects Flat panel LCD monitor to the computer's high-end video graphic cards.

• Very popular among video card manufacturers.

Sockets
• Sockets connect the microphone and speakers to the sound card of the computer.
Hardware represents the physical and tangible components of a computer, i.e. the components that
can be seen and touched.

Examples of Hardware are the following −

• Input devices − keyboard, mouse, etc.

• Output devices − printer, monitor, etc.

• Secondary storage devices − Hard disk, CD, DVD, etc.

• Internal components − CPU, motherboard, RAM, etc.

Relationship between Hardware and Software

• Hardware and software are mutually dependent on each other. Both of them must work
together to make a computer produce a useful output.

• Software cannot be utilized without supporting hardware.

• Hardware without a set of programs to operate upon cannot be utilized and is useless.

• To get a particular job done on the computer, relevant software should be loaded into the
hardware.
 • Hardware is a one-time expense.

• Software development is very expensive and is a continuing expense.

• Different software applications can be loaded on a hardware to run different jobs.

• A software acts as an interface between the user and the hardware.

• If the hardware is the 'heart' of a computer system, then the software is its 'soul'. Both are
complementary to each other.

Charles Babbage Machine

The development of computing technology has a rich history, with many inventions and
innovations leading to the creation of the modern computer. Two such machines, the Difference
Engine and Analytical Engine, were created by the English mathematician and inventor Charles
Babbage in the 19th century. While these machines share some similarities, they are
fundamentally different in their design, functionality, and impact on computing history. In this
article, we will explore the differences between the Difference Engine and Analytical Engine.

1. Analytical Engine :
Analytical engine Is a fully controlled general-purpose computer which includes automatic
mechanical digital computer into it. Any of the calculation set is being programmed with the help
of punch cards. It also includes integrated memory and programs flow control and also ALU into
it. It is the first general mechanical computer system were Any of the other finite calculations are
being carried or performed by it.

Advantages of the Analytical Engine:

Flexibility: Unlike the Difference Engine, the Analytical Engine was designed to be
programmable, which gave it a much wider range of functionality and made it adaptable to a
variety of tasks.
Storage: The machine had a “memory” in the form of punched cards, which allowed it to store
and recall data for future use.
Potential for automation: The Analytical Engine had the potential to be fully automatic, which
would have made it even more efficient and accurate than the Difference Engine.

Disadvantages of the Analytical Engine:

Complexity: The Analytical Engine was even more complex than the Difference Engine, which
made it even more expensive to build and maintain.
Lack of funding: Babbage struggled to secure funding for the project, which ultimately led to its
abandonment.
Technological limitations: The technology of the time was not advanced enough to fully realize
the potential of the Analytical Engine, which made it difficult to build and test.

2. Difference Engine :

The word difference engine is derived from the Latin method of divide difference. A difference
engine is the type of automatic mechanical calculators that are designed or developed to calculate
or tabulate the polynomial function. It can calculate in a way to tabulate the polynomial functions
by using the small sets of coefficients.

Advantages of the Difference Engine:

Accuracy: The Difference Engine was designed to be highly accurate, capable of performing
complex mathematical calculations with a high degree of precision.
Speed: The machine was capable of performing calculations much faster than humans could,
which made it a valuable tool for scientific research, engineering, and other fields that required
rapid computation.
Automation: The Difference Engine was designed to be fully automatic, eliminating the need for
manual calculation and reducing the possibility of errors.

Disadvantages of the Difference Engine:

Limited functionality: The Difference Engine was designed to perform a specific set of
calculations, and could not be easily adapted to other tasks.
Complexity: The machine was highly complex and expensive to build, which made it difficult to
produce and maintain.
Lack of funding: Babbage struggled to secure funding for the project, which ultimately led to its
abandonment.

Difference between Difference Engine and Analytical Engine :

Analytical Engine Difference Engine

It can do the 4 basic mathematical operation. It can only do one mathematical operation.

It can perform addition, subtraction,

It can only perform the addition function.
multiplication, and division.

It is a general-purpose computer system. It is a type of simple mechanical computer.

Analytical Engine Difference Engine

It is created in a way to tabulate the

It is an intendedly controlled machine.
mechanical functions.

It is a type of automatic mechanical digital It includes the material expression of any

computer. indefinite function.

It is performed to calculate the polynomial

It can perform any calculation sets before it.
functions.

In this engine, it is not intended for tabulating It is intended to tabulate the results of a
the results for a particular function particular function.

It contains the memory and storage which is It includes the other operations which are
equal to the CPU. done by the addition operation.

The basic arithmetic operations in this are It can perform various calculations that the
independent of each other. analytical engine can not perform.

It is slower in speed. It is faster in speed.

Analytical Engine is not been constructed

Difference Engines are constructed.
because of its mechanical complexities.

It is very heavily detailed and technical in

It is very impressive in nature.
nature.

It does not provide much overview of the It helps in solving the various types of
designs general-purpose. complex problems.

Analytical Engine designed by Charles Difference Engine designed by also Charles

Babbage in 1837. Babbage but in 1820.
The Difference Engine and Analytical Engine are two early mechanical computers designed by
the English mathematician and inventor Charles Babbage in the 19th century. Although both
machines were designed to perform mathematical calculations, they had some key differences.
Difference Engine:
The Difference Engine was designed by Babbage in the early 1820s to compute polynomial
functions. It was a large, mechanical calculator that used the method of finite differences to
calculate tables of numbers. It was intended to automate the process of creating mathematical
tables, which was a tedious and error-prone task that was prone to human error. The Difference
Engine consisted of a series of gears and levers that could be programmed to perform a specific
calculation, and was powered by hand-crank.
Analytical Engine:
The Analytical Engine was a more advanced machine designed by Babbage in the mid-1830s,
which was intended to be a general-purpose computer. It was designed to use punched cards for
input and output, and was capable of performing arithmetic operations, logical operations, and
conditional branching. It was also the first machine that could store instructions in its memory
and perform different operations based on those instructions. The Analytical Engine was never
built during Babbage’s lifetime due to funding issues and technical difficulties, but it laid the
groundwork for modern computing.
Some key differences between the Difference Engine and Analytical Engine include:
Purpose: The Difference Engine was designed to calculate polynomial functions, while the
Analytical Engine was intended to be a general-purpose computer capable of performing a wide
range of calculations.
Complexity: The Analytical Engine was a much more complex machine than the Difference
Engine, with more advanced features like conditional branching and memory storage.
Input/output: The Difference Engine had no input/output capabilities, while the Analytical
Engine used punched cards for input and output.
Automation: The Difference Engine was designed to automate the process of creating
mathematical tables, while the Analytical Engine was intended to automate a wider range of
tasks.
In summary, the Difference Engine and Analytical Engine were two early mechanical computers
designed by Charles Babbage. The Difference Engine was a large calculator designed to compute
polynomial functions, while the Analytical Engine was a more advanced general-purpose
computer that used punched cards for input and output, and was capable of performing a wide
range of calculations.
Von-Neumann Model

Von-Neumann proposed his computer architecture design in 1945 which was later known as
Von-Neumann Architecture. It consisted of a Control Unit, Arithmetic, and Logical Memory
Unit (ALU), Registers and Inputs/Outputs.

Von Neumann architecture is based on the stored-program computer concept, where instruction
data and program data are stored in the same memory. This design is still used in most computers
produced today.

A Von Neumann-based computer:

o Uses a single processor
o Uses one memory for both instructions and data.
o Executes programs following the fetch-decode-execute cycle

Components of Von-Neumann Model:

o Central Processing Unit

o Buses
o Memory Unit

Central Processing Unit

The part of the Computer that performs the bulk of data processing operations is called the
Central Processing Unit and is referred to as the CPU.

The Central Processing Unit can also be defined as an electric circuit responsible for executing
the instructions of a computer program.

The CPU performs a variety of functions dictated by the type of instructions that are
incorporated in the computer.

The major components of CPU are Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit (CU) and a
variety of registers.

Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

The Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) performs the required micro-operations for executing the
instructions. In simple words, ALU allows arithmetic (add, subtract, etc.) and logic (AND, OR,
NOT, etc.) operations to be carried out.

Control Unit

The Control Unit of a computer system controls the operations of components like ALU,
memory and input/output devices.

The Control Unit consists of a program counter that contains the address of the instructions to be
fetched and an instruction register into which instructions are fetched from memory for
execution.

Registers

Registers refer to high-speed storage areas in the CPU. The data processed by the CPU are
fetched from the registers.

Following is the list of registers that plays a crucial role in data processing.

Registers Description

MAR (Memory Address This register holds the memory location of the data that
Register) needs to be accessed.

MDR (Memory Data This register holds the data that is being transferred to or
Register) from memory.
AC (Accumulator) This register holds the intermediate arithmetic and logic
results.

PC (Program Counter) This register contains the address of the next instruction to
be executed.

CIR (Current Instruction This register contains the current instruction during
Register) processing.

Buses

Buses are the means by which information is shared between the registers in a multiple-register
configuration system.

A bus structure consists of a set of common lines, one for each bit of a register, through which
binary information is transferred one at a time. Control signals determine which register is
selected by the bus during each particular register transfer.

Von-Neumann Architecture comprised of three major bus systems for data transfer.

Bus Description

Address Address Bus carries the address of data (but not the data) between the
Bus processor and the memory.

Data Bus Data Bus carries data between the processor, the memory unit and the
input/output devices.

Control Control Bus carries signals/commands from the CPU.

Bus

Memory Unit

A memory unit is a collection of storage cells together with associated circuits needed to transfer
information in and out of the storage. The memory stores binary information in groups of bits
called words. The internal structure of a memory unit is specified by the number of words it
contains and the number of bits in each word.
Two major types of memories are used in computer systems:

1. RAM (Random Access Memory)

2. ROM (Read-Only Memory)

Data and Information

Data can be defined as a representation of facts, concepts, or instructions in a formalized

manner, which should be suitable for communication, interpretation, or processing by human or
electronic machine.

Data is represented with the help of characters such as alphabets (A-Z, a-z), digits (0-9) or
special characters (+,-,/,*,<,>,= etc.)

What is Information?

Information is organized or classified data, which has some meaningful values for the receiver.
Information is the processed data on which decisions and actions are based.

For the decision to be meaningful, the processed data must qualify for the following
characteristics −

• Timely − Information should be available when required.

• Accuracy − Information should be accurate.
• Completeness − Information should be complete.