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Proof: Macro Electrochemical Milling and Its Hybrid Variants

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You are on page 1/ 35

CJA 2880 No.

of Pages 35
19 December 2023
Chinese Journal of Aeronautics, (2023), xxx(xx): xxx–xxx
1

Chinese Society of Aeronautics and Astronautics

& Beihang University
Chinese Journal of Aeronautics
[email protected]
www.sciencedirect.com

2 REVIEW

of
4 Macro electrochemical milling and its hybrid
5 variants

o
6 Ningsong QU a,*, Xiaolong FANG a, Junzhong ZHANG a, Huanghai KONG a,

Pr
7 Yang LIU b, Minglu WANG c, Xiaokang YUE d, Yuehong MA a, Zhihao SHEN a,
8 Jiajie CHEN a

a
9 College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 210016, China
b
School of Mechanical Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212003, China
10
11
12
c
d
ed
School of Mechanical Engineering, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang 212003, China
School of Mechanical Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei 230009, China

13 Received 12 August 2023; revised 10 December 2023; accepted 10 December 2023

14
ct
16 KEYWORDS Abstract Macro electromechanical milling has recently attracted increasing attention because
re

17
18 Electrochemical machining; numerous large thin-walled structures composed of difficult-to-cut materials are employed in the
19 Electrochemical milling; aerospace field. This paper reviews recent developments in state-of-the-art macro electromechanical
20 Material removal rate; milling. The fundamental aspects of material removal mechanisms, such as the generation and
21 Surface quality; breakdown behaviors of passive oxide films of typical difficult-to-cut materials, were discussed.
or

22 Electrochemical discharge Rapid methods for breaking down passive films are summarized, and simulation methods for the
23 milling; machining process coupling multiple physical fields are introduced. Specific electrochemical milling
24 Electrochemical mill- methods, including fly mode electrochemical milling and sink electrochemical milling, are classified.
25 grinding Efforts made to improve process performance, such as the material removal rate, surface quality,
and machining accuracy, are discussed. In addition, the main hybrid electrochemical milling meth-
nc

ods, including electrochemical discharge milling, mechano-electrochemical milling, and electro-

chemical mill grinding, are also presented.
26 Ó 2023 Production and hosting by Elsevier Ltd. on behalf of Chinese Society of Aeronautics and
Astronautics. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
U

1. Introduction 27

* Corresponding author. Electrochemical machining (ECM) is a non-traditional 28

E-mail address: [email protected] (N. QU). machining process that removes material atom by atom 29
Peer review under responsibility of Editorial Committee of CJA. through anodic dissolution and has tremendous advantages, 30
including indifference to material hardness, no cutting force, 31
no recast layer, and good surface quality. 1–4 32
It has been proven to be an economical and effective 33
Production and hosting by Elsevier method for machining aerospace components 5–8 such as tur- 34

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cja.2023.12.015
1000-9361 Ó 2023 Production and hosting by Elsevier Ltd. on behalf of Chinese Society of Aeronautics and Astronautics.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

35 bine blades, blisks, and casings, which are usually made of research of electrochemical milling, some scholars have con- 69
36 difficult-to-cut materials and are designed with complex ducted in-depth explorations and found that this technology 70
37 geometries. has great industrial application prospects. Rajurkar et al. 12 71
38 Electrochemical machining typically produces a negative and Kozak et al. 13,14 pointed out that the ball head electrode 72
39 mirror image using a preformed tool electrode. As shown in moving under the control of numerical control systems could 73
40 Fig. 1(a), this machining mode is called copy machining, and fabricate complex surface structures. Ruszaj and Zybura- 74
41 tool design plays a key role in ECM. Generally, the tool elec- Skrabalak 15 proposed that the flat bottom electrode could 75
42 trode must be empirically adjusted for practical production, produce larger planar structures in one electrochemical milling 76
43 and this iterative procedure is time consuming, resulting in process. 77
44 costly machining and long lead times. Thus, ECM in the copy Macro electromechanical milling has recently attracted 78
45 mode is suitable for mass production. With the development of increasing attention because numerous large thin-walled struc- 79
46 aerospace technology, exact tool design is facing more chal- tures made of difficult-to-cut materials are employed in the 80

of
47 lenges owing to the emergence of new complex components aerospace ﬁeld. Especially compared to electric discharge 81
48 made of difﬁcult-to-cut materials. Electrochemical milling machining (EDM) and conventional milling machining, macro 82
49 has been developed to reduce lead time because it can avoid electromechanical milling has certain advantages in machining 83
50 the problems of long-term tool design. As shown in Fig. 1 weakly rigid structures and hard-to-cut materials, as shown in 84
51 (b), a simple tubular or rod-like tool electrode is used to per- Table 1.16–18 Compared with micromachining, more electroly- 85

o
52 form partial electrochemical dissolution on the workpiece sur- sis products and electrolytes exist in the machining gap, which 86
53 face and generate a complex shape according to a have signiﬁcant and complex effects on shape prediction, mate- 87
54 predetermined motion using a numerical control (NC) pro- rial removal rate, and machined surface quality. Thus, macro 88

Pr
55 gram. Because of its machining flexibility, considerable atten- electromechanical milling faces challenges in the simulation 89
56 tion has been paid to electrochemical milling. of the machining process, enhancement of MRR, and surface 90
57 According to the tool electrode size, electrochemical milling quality. 91
58 can be roughly divided into micro and macro electrochemical This paper presents a review of recent developments and 92
59 milling. Much research has focused on micro electrochemical state-of-the-art macro electromechanical milling. The funda- 93
60 milling, and many achievements have been made. Schuster ed mental aspects of macro electrochemical milling are discussed 94
61 et al. 9 prepared a high-magnification image of a thin Cu ton- in Section 2. Section 3 presents the specific electrochemical 95
62 gue (2.5 lm 10 lm 15 lm) by micro electrochemical milling methods, and hybrid machining processes are discussed 96
63 milling. Hackert-Oschatzchen et al. 10 used a tube electrode in Section 4. An outlook of macro electromechanical milling is 97
64 with an inner diameter of 0.1 mm to produce a microreactor provided in Section 5. 98
65 on a stainless-steel surface and machined cavities with
66 Rz = 1.1 lm and Ra = 0.1 lm. Clare et al. 11 demonstrated 2. Fundamentals of macro electrochemical milling 99
ct
67 that milling precision can be considerably increased by chang-
68 ing the nozzle angle or by profiling the nozzle tip. In the early 2.1. Dissolution characteristics of passivating materials 100

The process performance of ECM, including the material

101
removal rate, machining accuracy, and surface quality, is clo- 102
sely related to the electrochemical dissolution characteristics of 103
the materials. They can be classiﬁed as passivating or non- 104
passivating materials. For some passivating materials, metals 105
or

are readily oxidized at the electrode–electrolyte interface and 106

form a spontaneous passive oxide ﬁlm under appropriate con- 107
ditions. Most passive oxide ﬁlms are electrochemically inert 108
and poorly conductive, thereby protecting the bulk material 109
from dissolution. In the ECM of passivating materials, the cor- 110
nc

rosion resistance of the oxide ﬁlm directly governs the material 111
Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of different ECM modes. removal process. To attain normal dissolution, the breakdown 112
U

16–18
Table 1 Comparison of machining performance for different milling processes.
Type Mechanical milling Electrical discharge milling Electrochemical milling
Machining of surface recast layers None Existence None
Tool wear Existence Existence None
Machining eﬃciency of weakly rigid structures Relatively low Relatively low High
Machining eﬃciency for hard-to-cut materials Relatively low High High
Complex structure machining capability High High High
Machining accuracy High Relatively low Relatively low
Material removal rate (MRR) 28552 mm3/min18 21494 mm3/min16 9800 mm3/min17

113 and removal of the passive oxide film are prerequisites. Unlike 2.1.2. Breakdown and removal of passive oxide films 157
114 ECM in copy mode, the removal of the passive oxide film in In the common materials for ECM, titanium and its alloys are 158
115 electrochemical milling cannot be completed in a short initial the representative passivating materials. Unlike stainless steels 159
116 period but is a continuous process. As shown in Fig. 2, the and nickel-based superalloys, titanium and its alloys are espe- 160
117 growth and breakdown of the passive oxide film occur contin- cially troubled by the passivation because their passive oxide 161
118 uously as the cathode tool travels. Thus, the breakdown of the film is difficult to remove under the normal ECM voltage 162
119 passive oxide film is the key to electrochemical milling. (10 V). 33 Meanwhile, titanium alloys have been widely applied 163
in the aerospace and biomedical industries owing to their high 164
120 2.1.1. Passive oxide film specific strength and corrosion resistance. 34 The removal of 165
121 Passive oxide films are usually composed of oxides or hydrox- the passive oxide film is the key issue for the industrial appli- 166
122 ides and possess the electronic properties of semiconductors. cation of ECM of titanium alloys. Considerable research has 167
123 Schultze and Lohrengel 19 summarised passive oxide films of been conducted on passive oxide films of titanium. Liu et al. 168

of
35
124 different metal elements and their properties. The chemical investigated the anodic behaviour of a TB6 titanium alloy 169
125 composition and electrochemical properties of passive oxide during electrochemical milling using NaCl solution. The 170
126 films differ from those of the substrate metals. Passive oxide authors developed a time-dependent model including oxide 171
127 films typically comprise multiple oxides. Several typical layer formation, oxide layer breakdown, and base metal disso- 172
difficult-to-cut materials such as titanium alloys, stainless steel, lution to describe the material removal process, as shown in

o
128 173
129 and superalloys are passivating materials. Fig. 3 lists the chem- Fig. 4. Pitting corrosion occurs when the oxide ﬁlm is localised, 174
130 ical compositions of the passive oxide ﬁlms of some typical and steady dissolution of the material occurs after the total 175

Pr
131 passivating materials and their applicability difficulty for removal of the oxide film. 176
132 ECM. 20–27 The charged electricity quantity of the oxide layer was con- 177
133 The stability of passive oxide films depends not only on the sidered the threshold for determining whether steady dissolu- 178
134 components and properties of the film, but also on environ- tion began. A value of 492C/cm2 was obtained by calculating 179
135 mental conditions, such as the electric field, electrolyte type, the time integration of the current density from the initial time 180
136 pH, and temperature of the electrolyte. A passive oxide film until the steady dissolution state was formed, 35 as shown in 181
137 is easily formed during the ECM of titanium. All the current Fig. 5(a). Wang and Qu 36 investigated the amount of electric- 182
138
139
140
is consumed during the formation of the oxide film when the
current density is lower than 4 10-5 A/cm2. 28 As the current
density increases, the current is spent on oxide growth and
ed ity required for passive oxide film breakdown in the ECM of
TC4 with a NaNO3 solution. The authors found that the quan-
tity of electricity is not constant but varies with the anodic cur-
183
184
185
141 oxygen evolution until material dissolution begins. 29 Baehre rent density. Kong et al. 37 investigated the influence of the 186
142 et al. 30 investigated the influence of pH on the electrochemical anodic current density on the breakdown of passive oxide films 187
143 dissolution of titanium alloys and found that the corrosion in the ECM of NaCl solutions. The electricity quantity showed 188
ct
144 potential of titanium alloys decreased significantly with an a downward trend with increasing current density, as shown in 189
145 increase in the pH value, and a higher pH value was conducive Fig. 5(b). The charged electricity quantity stabilised at approx- 190
146 to the fast and homogeneous dissolution of titanium alloys. imately 90C/cm2 when the current density exceeded 200 A/ 191
147 The localized breakdown of a passive oxide film is generally cm2. 192
re

148 explained by three theories which focus on passive film pene- In the electrochemical milling of titanium alloys, uniform 193
149 tration, film breaking, and adsorption. 31 Compared with dissolution of materials is difficult to achieve with an extremely 194
150 non-halide-containing electrolytes, halide-containing solutions fast travel rate because the electricity quantity required for 195
151 lead to lower corrosion and dissolution potentials in the ECM passive oxide film breakdown cannot be satisfied in an insuffi- 196
or

152 of titanium alloys. 30 The activity of halogens also affects pas- cient dwelling time. For uniform material removal, the elec- 197
153 sive oxide film breakdown, which is related to the electrolyte trode travel rate is typically limited during electrochemical 198
154 temperature. In the NaCl solution, the passive oxide film is milling. 38 In contrast, a high anodic current density can effec- 199
155 more easily broken at higher temperatures because the activity tively reduce the breakdown time of the passive oxide film. 39 200
156 of Cl- is improved. 32 Speidel et al. 40 achieved uniform dissolution at high travel 201
nc

rates (up to 18 mm/min) in the electrochemical milling of a 202

Ti-6Al-4 V alloy using applied current densities larger than 203
200 A/cm2. Fast removal of the passive oxide ﬁlm is the key 204
to improving the material removal rate in the electrochemical 205
milling of passivating materials, and both aggressive elec- 206
U

trolytes and bipolar pulsed currents have been introduced to 207

accelerate the breakdown of the passive oxide film, in addition 208
to the high current density. 209
In the ECM of titanium alloys, it is difficult to remove the 210
passive oxide film in oxidative electrolytes, such as NaNO3 211
solution. Walther et al. 33 reported that the ECM of pure Ti 212
is difficult at a current density of 35 A/cm2 in NaNO3 solution 213
because the surface is blocked by anodic surface oxides. Liu 214
and Qu 41 reported that the removal of the oxide films from 215
TB6 requires a long time (more than 60 s) at a current density 216
Fig. 2 Derivation process of passive oxide film in electrochem- of 40 A/cm2 in a NaNO3 solution. Halide-containing elec- 217
ical milling.

o of
Pr
20–27
Fig. 3 Passive oxide ﬁlms of typical passivating materials.

ed
ct
re
or

Fig. 4 Material removal mechanism in ECM of the TB6 titanium alloy.35

nc
U

35,37
Fig. 5 Electricity quantity required for the breakdown of passive ﬁlms.

218 trolytes are preferred for the ECM of passivating materials 2.2. Modeling and simulation 258
219 because halogen ions such as Cl- and Br- are conducive to
220 the localised breakdown of passive oxide films, such as Cl- The electrochemical milling simulation can be divided into 259
221 and Br-. Speidel et al. 42 investigated the influence of different three main parts: electric field simulation, flow field simulation, 260
222 sodium halide and sodium nitrate solutions on the electro- and fluid-electric coupling simulation. Single-field and 261
223 chemical milling of Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloys. In these elec- multiple-field simulations have their own advantages and a 262
224 trolytes, each sodium halide solution exhibited better positive impact on guiding machining. This section provides 263
225 performance than the sodium nitrate solution. In chloride- a separate review of these simulations. 264
226 based electrolytes (NaCl and NaCl with fluoride dopants), less In an electric field, the current density and its distribution 265
227 passivation was observed, and the material removal rate was on the workpiece surface determine material removal rate, 266
228 higher, as shown in Fig. 6(a). 42 A chloride-based electrolyte machining depth, surface morphology, and processing quality. 267
229 with fluoride dopants is recommended to reduce the overcut. Relevant research typically describes the electrochemical 268
Speidel et al. 40 investigated the performance of mixtures of

of
230
milling process by establishing physical and mathematical 269
231 halide-containing electrolytes in the electrochemical milling models. The electric potential distribution in the machining 270
232 of Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloys. Compared with pure solutions gap conforms to Laplace’s equation as follows: 271
233 of the same dopant chemistries (NaCl, 2.3 M; NaI, 2.3 M; 272
234 NaBr, 2.3 M), mixtures of halide-containing electrolytes @ u @ u
2 2
þ ¼0 ð1Þ

o
235 (NaCl, 1.61 M & NaBr 0.69 M) perform better terms of mate- @x2 @y2 274
236 rial removal rate as a consequence of the synergistic response 275
237 of the dopant and base anions. Fig. 6(b) shows the charge- uanode ¼ U Ea ð2Þ 277

Pr
238 speciﬁc removal of different electrolytes, which reﬂects side 278
239 reactions other than anodic dissolution. 40 ucathode ¼ Ec ð3Þ 280

240 In addition, bipolar pulsed currents have been proposed for 281

241 the electrochemical milling of passivating materials such as uanode ucathode ¼ u ð4Þ 283

242 WC-Co composites, 43 tungsten, 44 and niobium. 45 With bipo- where U is the power supply voltage, Ea is the overpotential of 284
243 lar pulsed currents, the cathodic pulse promotes the break- ed the anode, Ec is the overpotential of the cathode. 285
244 down of the passive oxide film formed during the anodic In the 1990s, Yonedak and Kunieda 46 first established a 286
245 pulse. Xue et al. 45 described two mechanisms of oxide film simulation model for electrochemical milling, performed 287
246 breakdown induced by a cathodic pulse: electrochemical numerical calculations, and obtained the distribution charac- 288
247 breakdown and mechanical breakdown. The electrochemical teristics of the current and potential. The results showed that 289
248 breakdown is explained by the electrochemical reduction of the current on the workpiece surface exhibited a Gaussian dis- 290
249 the oxide film, which manifests as nanopitting, local oxide distribution that was high in the middle and low on both sides. 291
ct
250 solution, and reduction of the film impedance. Mechanical Kozak et al. 47 suggested that the current density distribution 292
251 breakdown is induced by hydrogen incorporation into the varied at different ratios between the inter electrode gap and 293
252 oxide and the oxide/metal interface, which manifests as crack- nozzle radius. Moreover, they provided a mathematical model 294
253 ing, flaking-off, and exfoliation of the oxide film. In the elec- for the effect of Joule heating on the electrolyte conductivity 295
re

254 trochemical milling of passivating materials using bipolar and pointed out that the limit value of the material removal 296
255 pulsed currents, material removal is an alternating cyclic pro- rate is affected by the boiling effect of the electrolyte in the 297
256 cess involving the formation and reduction of an oxide ﬁlm, machining gap. 298
257 as shown in Fig. 7. 45 In electrochemical milling, the structure formation is deter- 299
or

mined by the electric ﬁeld provided by the tip end of the tool 300
nc
U

Fig. 6 Performance of different halide containing electrolytes.40,42

o of
Pr
Fig. 7
ed
Schematic diagram of electrochemical milling of passivating materials with bipolar pulsed currents. 45

301 electrode, which follows the principle of electrostatics. the current density can be decreased at this large curvature 332
ct
302 Researchers have attempted to predict machined proﬁles by area. Zhang et al. 51 performed calculations and proposed that 333
303 analysing the current density distribution on the workpiece. the optimum step-over for multiple passes is exactly the same 334
304 Using an FEM simulation, Zhang et al. 48 proposed that in as the width of the nozzle rim, that is, a step-over ratio of 335
305 macro electrochemical milling, the frontal nozzle tip plays a 100%, as shown in Fig. 8(b). The machined trace between 336
re

306 major role in material removal, whereas the back-nozzle tip two trajectories exhibits a ‘‘valley and peak” shape which is 337
307 plays a secondary role. This is because the back nozzle tip like the geometry of function sin(x). Furthermore, the ﬂatness 338
308 enlarges the machining gap and changes the ﬁnal machined can be improved by increasing the travel rate of the cathode 339
309 shape during milling. Wang and Qu 49 found that the shape tool. 340
310 could only be formed by the front nozzle tip when the The above mentioned studies predicted the machined pro- 341
or

311 machined depth was sufficiently large such that the back tip file based on a non-passivation material, which is not suitable 342
312 detached the electrolyte. for passivation materials such as titanium alloys. Liu et al. 35 343
313 Multiple passes are typically required to generate complex predicted the machined profile by considering the consumption 344
314 surfaces or structures. Electrochemical milling makes it diffi- of the passivation film of TB6, which is obtained using a 345
nc

315 cult to fabricate a flat surface because it always produces an potentiostat test. The passivation film of these workpieces 346
316 uneven profile at the bottom and a round shape at the edges. was simplified as a resistor preventing chemical reactions. 347
317 In addition, a short step-over between multiple passes will cor- Fluid dynamics is another key factor that significantly influ- 348
318 rode the machined surface, whereas a large step-over will ences the machining quality of macro electrochemical milling. 349
319 incompletely remove the material between the two trajectories. In the machining process, an electrolyte with high velocity and 350
320 Although an absolute uniform machined surface cannot be pressure was supplied to carry away electrolytic products and 351
U

321 achieved, adjusting the step-over to overcome the variation refresh the machining gap. Electrolyte flow influences elec- 352
322 in the current–density distribution at the edges is crucial for trolyte conductivity by flushing away the insulating electrolytic 353
323 achieving a flat surface. Hinduja and Pattavanitch 50 built a product and Joule heat. The electrolyte conductivity can be 354
324 boundary element model to predict an electrochemically calculated as follows: 355
356
325 machined profile such as a simple and flat surface. This model n
k ¼ k0 ð1 bÞ ½1 þ nðT T0 Þ ð5Þ 358
326 exhibited excellent accuracy and agreed well with the experi-
327 mental results, as shown in Fig. 8(a). The average error of where k0 is the initial conductivity of the electrolyte, n is a tem- 359
328 between the experimentation and simulation is below 8% in perature coefficient, T is the local electrolyte temperature, b is 360
329 fabrication of flat surface, which is a quite precision method the volume fraction of gas bubbles, and n is a constant. 361
330 is prediction the machining results. The discrepancy at the area In simulations, the electrolyte is usually assumed to be an 362
331 of B is owing to the low efficiency of mass transfer. Moreover, incompressible fluid, following N-S equations. The simulation 363

o of
Pr
ed
ct
re

50,51
Fig. 8 Structures machined by electrochemical milling with multiple passes.

364 of an electrolyte fluid is usually carried out by the FEM can result in a non-uniform distribution of the flow film on 386
or

365 method using commercial software such as ANSYS or COM- the workpiece, which will lead to a non-uniform distribution 387
366 SOL. Moreover, Hackert-Oschatzchen et al. 52 utilised the of electrolyte conductivity and evident flow marks on the 388
367 level set method to obtain an electrolyte profile in the jet mode. machined surface. 389
368 Liu et al. 53 simulated the electrolyte fluid dynamics in 3D elec- Coupling simulations with multiple fields, which leads to 390
nc

369 trochemical milling using a novel cathode tool with a sloping the trend and advancement of simulations, can be more precise 391
370 nozzle. The results indicate that the sloping nozzle tip can in the prediction of experimental results than single-field simu- 392
371 increase mass transfer at the machining gap, which is helpful lations. Considerable research has been conducted to achieve 393
372 for obtaining better surface roughness compared with the con- this goal. In electrochemical milling, the machined surface pro- 394
373 ventional cathode tool. In addition, the relationship between file as well as the distribution of the current density and elec- 395
374 the machining gap and the thickness of the electrolyte film trolyte flow change with time. As shown in Fig. 9, Hackert- 396
U

375 determines whether the end of the nozzle tip contacts the elec- Oschatzchen et al. 52 conducted numerical simulations of the 397
376 trolyte, which can be calculated by fluid field simulation. dynamic process of electrochemical milling and found that 398
377 In the conventional vertical mode, the electrolyte impinging the anode profile could change the electrolyte jet reflection 399
378 on the workpiece forms a stagnant region in the machining morphology during the evolution process. This discovery is 400
379 area. The stagnant region of the electrolyte causes a sudden crucial for realizing precision in ECM. 401
380 change in electrolyte velocity, which severely reduces mass Kong et al. 37 conducted a comprehensive simulation study 402
381 transfer. Zhang et al. 54 studied the electrolyte dynamics at which considered the interaction between the electric field and 403
382 an inclination angle. The electrolyte inclination can increase fluid dynamics in a simulation of electrochemical milling in the 404
383 its velocity at the inter electrode gap and prevent stagnation moving mode, as shown in Fig. 10. The simulation also 405
384 compared to that of the cathode tool in the vertical mode. included the threshold for the breakdown of the passive oxide 406
385 They also found that the cathode tool in the vertical mode film of the titanium alloy, which has interactional relationships 407

of
52
Fig. 9 Multiphysics simulation of the reﬂection of jet dynamics.

o
Pr
Fig. 10
ed
Multiple physical simulation of jet electrochemical milling. 37

408 among multiple physical fields. Clearly, this simulation can 3. Electrochemical milling methods 424
409 more precisely predict the machining profile and current den-
410 sity distribution than the static mode.
ct
In macro electrochemical milling, there are two machining 425
411 Based on experimental test data, some researchers have modes, as shown in Fig. 12. 56 One is electrochemical milling 426
412 obtained machined profiles by superimposing the local current in the fly mode (FEC milling), in which the electrode is set 427
413 density distribution. The testing results also considered the and moved above the workpiece surface. Another method is 428
414 influence of fluid dynamics to some extent. Based on this,
re

sink electrochemical (SEC) milling, in which the electrode is 429

415 Mitchell-Smith et al. 55 obtained a machined proﬁle by adjust- set and moves under the workpiece surface. They are consider- 430
416 ing the shape of the cathode tool in advance, as shown in ably different in terms of the electrode structure and electrolyte 431
417 Fig. 11. They suggested that the machined proﬁle from the for- supply mode and are suitable for different machining 432
418 ward process needs to be considered in the reciprocal travelling demands. The feature of different electrochemical milling 433
or

419 process for a single slot because the enlarged machining gap methods is given in Fig. 13. 434
420 distorts the initial current density distribution. A model was
421 built to predict the three-dimensional surface by superimpos- 3.1. Electrochemical milling in the fly mode 435
422 ing the curved elemental grooves. This can precisely simulate
423 a proﬁle machined using a short aspect ratio.
nc

The ﬂy machining mode is widely used in macro electrochem- 436

ical milling because it ensures that the machining tool lacks 437
U

55
Fig. 11 Proﬁle predicted by superimposing the current density.

o of
56
Fig. 12 Different machining modes of macro electrochemical milling.

Pr
ed
ct
Fig. 13 Schematic showing the feature of different electrochemical milling methods.
re

438 short circuits and damage. A small distance between the tool the ﬂow ﬁeld distribution in the machining area compared to 461
439 electrode and the workpiece was set from the beginning; thus, those with downward-sloping structures. This promoted the 462
440 no tool collision occurred during processing. The three most timely removal of products from the machining area and 463
or

441 concerning issues in electrochemical milling in ﬂy mode are increased the machining current, thereby improving the 464
442 the material removal rate (MRR), stray corrosion, and surface MRR in electrochemical milling. Wang and Qu 58 investigated 465
443 quality. the effect of the jet form of the tool electrode on MRR in the 466
macro electrochemical milling of TC4. The tool structures with 467
444 3.1.1. Material removal rate different jet forms and their corresponding MRRs are shown 468
nc

445 In macro-electrochemical milling, increasing the MRR can in Fig. 15. The jet channel angles ranged from 0° to 20° with 469

446 improve machining efﬁciency. Usually, the greater the input intervals of 5°. When the jet channel angle of the tool elec- 470

447 voltage, the higher the current density and material removal. trode was 15°, the ﬂow ﬁeld was effectively improved com- 471

448 Thus, the MRR might be readily increased by enhancing the pared to that at other angles. A tool electrode with a jet 472

449 input voltage. However, the increment in the input voltage is channel angle of 15° promoted the rapid removal of products 473
U

450 inevitably restricted because of both product removal and in the machining area and increased the machining current, 474

451 power generation. thereby increasing the MRR. In addition, Wang and Qu 59 475

452 At present, changing the end structure of the tool electrodes investigated the effect of the end-face inclined forms of the tool 476

453 to improve the flow field and electric field distributions is an electrode on the MRR. The tool structures with different end- 477

454 effective means of increasing the MRR. In terms of improving face inclined forms and their corresponding MRRs are shown 478

455 the ﬂow ﬁeld distribution, Liu and Qu 57 proposed several in Fig. 16. When a tool electrode with a 5° back-inclined end 479

456 4 mm 5 mm rectangular tool electrodes with different end- face was adopted, the ﬂow ﬁeld at the back-end face of the tool 480

457 face sloping structures for the macro-electrochemical milling electrode improved, resulting in the maximum MRR. 481

458 of TB6 titanium alloy. The corresponding tool electrode struc- In addition, improving the electric ﬁeld distribution is 482

459 tures and MRRs are shown in Fig. 14. They found that tool important for increasing the MRR of macro electrochemical 483

460 electrodes with upward-sloping end structures could improve milling. Generally, the front-end face and inner cavity of the 484

o of
57
Fig. 14 Tool electrodes with different end face sloping structures.

Pr
ed
ct
re

58
Fig. 15 Tool electrodes with different jet forms.
or
nc
U

59
Fig. 16 Tool electrodes with different end face incline forms.

485 tool provide an electric ﬁeld, whereas the back-end face of the
486 tool electrode is not desorbed from the electrolyte. More elec-
487 tricity could be provided by increasing the front-end face area
488 of the tool electrode. Wang and Qu 60 proposed a tool elec-
489 trode with a backmigrating jet channel for macro electrochem-
490 ical milling. The corresponding tool electrode structures with
491 back-migrating jet channels and MRRs are shown in Fig. 17.
492 When the back-migration distance of the jet channel was
493 increased to 1.5 mm, the MRR increased by 41% compared
494 to that of the standard tool with a central jet channel.

495 3.1.2. Surface quality

of
496 In electrochemical machining, a high surface quality can be
497 achieved at a high current density, which can reduce the mate-
498 rial removal difference between different elements in the
63
499 machined material. This has been proven in several studies, Fig. 18 Surface quality with various current density.
61,62
as shown in Fig. 18. 63 These studies provide a critical

o
500
501 and necessary understanding of the surface quality obtained
502 via electrochemical milling. Kawanaka and Kunieda 63 pointed

Pr
503 out that the surface roughness increases when the applied volt-
504 age is higher than 87 A/cm2. This phenomenon was attributed
505 to the variation in the thickness of the diffusion layer. This
506 experiment was conducted with a constant electric quantity,
507 which can steer away the factors of variation in the machining
508 area owing to different current densities.
509 In the practical machining process, the machined surface is
510
511
512
unavoidably broken by the low current density from the trail-
ing edge of the cathode, as shown in Fig. 19. Therefore, com-
pressing the effect of low current density is crucial for realising
ed
513 high-quality surfaces. Kawanaka and Kunieda 63 reduced the
514 effects of low current density by increasing the travelling rate
515 of the cathode tool, which could decrease the dwell time of
ct
516 the low current density and signiﬁcantly reduce the charge
517 quantity of low current density exerted on the machined sur- Fig. 19 Typical distribution of current density in electrochemical
518 face. They designed a very delicate experiment and veriﬁed milling.
519 that a high surface quality could be achieved at a high travel-
re

520 ling rate.

521 Mitchell-Smith et al. 64 proposed an easy-to-operate be eliminated, resulting in a polishing effect on the machined 525

522 method by manipulating the angle of the cathode tool to the surface. Moreover, another advantage is that the inclination 526

523 workpiece to increase the current density at the trail edge, as of the tool electrode can restrain the stagnant region of the 527
electrolyte jet, accelerating the removal of electrolytic products
or

528
524 shown in Fig. 20. Thus, the effect of low current density could
nc
U

60
Fig. 17 Tool electrodes with back-migrating jet channel.

o of
Pr
64
Fig. 20 Improved surface quality with the inclination of tool electrode.

529 and reducing the unfavorable effect. With the optimum incli- surface with a roughness Ra of 0.42 lm. Inspired by the insu- 544
530 nation angel, Clare et al. 11 further increased the current den- lating nozzle and inclination angle, they proposed another tool 545
531 sity distribution at the trail edge by combining the inclination (tool C) to reduce the charge quantity at a low current density 546
532 angel and the sharp-edged tool. Wang and Qu 59 used a tool ed and enhance the mass transfer in the machining zone. Thus, 547
533 with an inclined end surface and improved the surface rough- the (stainless steel) surface roughness Ra of the stainless steel 548
534 ness Ra of TC4 to 0.1168 lm. was improved to 0.12 lm. 549
535 Researchers have attempted to reinforce the low current The aforementioned study improved the surface quality by 550
536 density at the trail edge by changing the tool structure. Zhang suppressing the low current density at the trail edge and opti- 551
537 et al. 54 found that the machined depth of a structure influences mising the fluid dynamics to eliminate the adherence of elec- 552
538 its surface roughness. This is because a large depth can trolytic products to machined surfaces. Recently, Kong and 553
ct
539 increase the distance of the machining gap, which increases Qu 65 proposed a novel method of tailoring the backward flow 554
540 the low-current–density area and results in a poor surface to improve the surface quality in the electrochemical milling of 555
541 quality. They proposed a novel cathode tool (Tool A) to elim- titanium alloys, as shown in Fig. 22. When the backward elec- 556
542 inate the decrease in current density at the trial edge, as shown trolyte flow was tailored, the machined surface was completely 557
re

543 in Fig. 21. Using this method, they obtained a (stainless-steel) separated from the electrolyte through an elastic insulating 558
or
nc
U

54
Fig. 21 Novel tool structure for improving the surface quality.

o of
Pr
65
Fig. 22 High quality surface obtained with a cathode tool with insulating bafﬂes.

559 baffle. Thus, owing to the absence of an electrolyte, the corrosion around the processing area. However, the process 579
560 machined surface was free of stray corrosion. The electrochem- parameter window is small. To control the reflected flow of 580
561
562
563
ical milling process on the workpiece ended with a high current
density, and a surface with a roughness Sa of 0.37 lm could be
obtained on TC4. In addition, tailoring the backward flow
ed the electrolyte easily, Liu and Qu 56,68 proposed a novel cath-
ode by quickly cutting its end into the processing area. From
the simulation results of the gas–liquid two-phase flow, it
581
582
583
564 leads to an extra backpressure which accelerates the electrolyte can be observed that this method can easily control the 584
565 flow in the machining gap, and the MRR is improved by the reflected fluid in the electrolyte. It was sprayed into the air at 585
566 enhanced mass transfer. a large reflection angle without direct impact or corrosion on 586
ct
the surrounding areas (points G and H). Stray corrosion in 587
567 3.1.3. Stray corrosion the non-processed area was reduced, and the groove edges 588

568 In electrochemical milling, the electrolyte ﬂow is divergent, were sharp without obvious stray corrosion. 589

which causes stray corrosion, as shown in Fig. 23. 37,41,66 In Some scholars proposed constraining the diffusion of the 590
re

569
570 particular, titanium alloys are sensitive to changes in ﬂow electrolyte by immersing the electrode and workpiece in kero- 591

571 fields. Constraining the flow field in the processing zone is cru- sene during electrochemical milling, as shown in Fig. 25. 69–71 592

572 cial to solve this problem. Through simulations, it was found Simulation and experimental results indicated that the dis- 593

573 that the reflection angle of the reflected electrolyte flow during persed flow of the electrolyte was significantly restricted by 594
or

574 electrochemical milling changed continuously, as shown in kerosene, and stray corrosion was signiﬁcantly reduced. 70 595

575 Fig. 24. 52,56,67 Wang et al. 67 veriﬁed this discovery experimen- After processing, the mixed liquid can be easily separated 596

576 tally and achieved control of the reﬂection angle by controlling because of the different densities of kerosene and the elec- 597

577 the processing parameters. In addition, they found that con- trolyte, which ensures the sustainability of this method. 71 598

trolling the reﬂection angle of the electrolyte could reduce stray

578
U

37,41,66
Fig. 23 Stray corrosion phenomenon in electrochemical milling.

o of
52,56,67
Fig. 24 Control of electrolyte reﬂected ﬂow direction.

Pr
ed
ct
69–71
Fig. 25 Kerosene constrain of the electrolyte ﬂow.

599 Wang et al. 72–74 used a coaxial high-pressure gas around removed if the electrode scanning speed was too high in elec- 611
re

600 the electrolyte to constrain the flow field in the processing area trochemical milling. The suction force should be sufficiently 612
601 and diminish stray corrosion, as shown in Fig. 26. However, large to quickly remove the processed electrolyte. The suction 613
602 excessive pressure can easily lead to electrolyte fluid disorder forces between adjacent electrodes would affect each other 614
603 in the processing area, whereas low pressure does not work. during multi-electrode electrochemical milling. Therefore, fur- 615
604 Meanwhile, the mutual interference of airflow between adja- ther exploration for a reasonable control of the suction force is 616
or

605 cent electrodes during multitube electrode machining is an required for practical applications. However, if the suction 617
606 issue that cannot be ignored. force is excessively high, the electrolyte ﬂuid loses its stability. 618
607 Guo et al. 75–78 proposed a coaxial suction method to con- Part of the electrolytes should be pumped away before reach- 619
608 strain the disordered ﬂow of the electrolyte and achieve rapid ing the machining area to participate in the reaction. 78 By 620
nc

609 transportation in the machining area, as shown in Fig. 27. designing the layout of the electrode outlet in electrochemical 621
610 They found that part of the electrolyte could not be quickly milling, Zhang et al. 79–81 achieved electrolyte-inclined jet 622
U

72–74
Fig. 26 High pressure airﬂow constrain of the electrolyte ﬂow.

o of
Pr
77,78
Fig. 27 Control of the ﬂow ﬁeld by coaxial suction.

623
624
625
machining and reduced stray corrosion around the processing
area. Some scholars designed the internal ﬂow channel of a
tool electrode to change the electrolyte injection angle, which
ed 3.2. Sinking electrochemical milling 635

Sinking electrochemical milling is another mode of macro elec- 636

626 also reduced stray corrosion, as shown in Fig. 28. 59,81–83 trochemical milling in which the tool is fed and cut into a 637
627 Pulse power supply also plays an important role in electro- workpiece, as shown in Fig. 29. In contrast to electrochemical 638
628 chemical milling. Numerous research results have shown that
ct
milling in the fly mode, the cutting depth in a single pass can be 639
629 the machining accuracy and stability could be significantly significantly improved by SEC milling. However, the feed rate 640
630 improved with the assistance of pulse power supply. 84,85 Van- must be low to avoid short circuits or electrical discharges. In 641
631 derauwera et al. also found that the best performance in terms SEC milling, the MRR is directly proportional to the cutting 642
632 of removal rate, surface quality and accuracy could be depth and feed rate, and the rapid removal of electrolysis prod-
re

643
633 obtained when using a pulsed voltage input during macro elec- ucts from the machining gap can facilitate their increase. 644
634 trochemical milling. 86 Therefore, to increase the electrolyte velocity in the machining 645
or
nc
U

59,81–83
Fig. 28 Changing internal ﬂow channel of the tool electrode.

velocity in the machining gap improved with an increase in 662

the number of outlet hole rows, as shown in Fig. 31. However, 663
the region opposite the outlet hole had a low current density, 664
and the average current density along the axial direction 665
decreased with an increase in the number of outlet holes. 666
Through a series of experiments at different voltages and elec- 667
trolyte pressures, the maximum MRR reached 216.6 mm3/min 668
when using Tool C, with a cutting depth and feed rate of 669
10 mm and 2.5 mm/min, respectively. Although the number 670
of rows and lines of the outlet holes were kept the same, the 671
distributions of the current density and electrolyte could still 672
change signiﬁcantly. As shown in Fig. 32, when the layout of 673

of
the outlet holes was changed from vertical to spiral (Tool E), 674
the lowest average current density along the axial direction 675

Fig. 29 Diagram of SEC milling with inner-jet electrolyte supply increased. 90 In addition, for the electrolyte velocity of the 676

mode. workpiece sidewall, the maximum value decreased and the 677
minimum value increased when adopting tool E. This indicates 678

o
that the distribution uniformities of the current density and 679
646 gap, the inner jet electrolyte supply mode is typically adopted electrolyte velocity were both signiﬁcantly improved. The 680
instead of the external jet electrolyte supply mode. 87 In the experimental results indicated that the ﬂatness of the machined 681

Pr
647
648 1990 s, Zawlstowski 88 carried out research on the machining sidewalls decreased from 549.6 lm to 340.5 lm. 682
649 of simple 2D and 3D structures using tools of different shapes. For the outlet slit, as shown in Fig. 33, a red region with 683
650 Further details, such as tool design, MRR, and machining high velocity and a blue region with dead water were observed 684
651 accuracy, were not mentioned. on the workpiece sidewall in a vertical manner. 91 When a spi- 685
ral vertical manner was employed, the two regions with the 686
652 3.2.1. Material removal rate ed highest and lowest electrolyte velocities disappeared and the 687

653
89
Through a flow field simulation, Li et al. compared the dis- distribution uniformity of the flow field was improved. 688

654 tribution of the electrolyte velocity in the machining gap for Yue et al. 92 found that the equipotential line bent at the 689

655 tools with ﬂat and round ends, as shown in Fig. 30. An evident edge point, and the current density increased, as shown in 690

656 dead-water region was observed in the front-end gap when the Fig. 34. This increase intensiﬁed with an increase in the bend- 691

657 round-end tool was used. This result indicated that the flat- ing angle. In the flow field, a dead-water zone along the edge 692

658 ended tool provided better electrolyte ﬂow properties than line occurred in the left-sided constraint mode. This led to a 693
ct
659 the round-ended tool. signiﬁcant decrease in the electrolyte velocity; therefore, the 694

660 For the layout of the outlet holes, Niu et al. 90 demon- byproducts could not be removed in time, anode dissolution 695

661 strated that both the value and uniformity of the electrolyte was restrained, and the maximum feed rate was restricted. 696
re
or
nc
U

89
Fig. 30 Model and simulation result of electrolyte velocity in gap of SEC milling.

of
90
Fig. 31 Effect of the rows of outlet holes on the distribution of ﬂow and electric ﬁeld.

o
Pr
Fig. 32
ed
Distribution of current density and electrolyte velocity for outlet holes with spiral manner. 90
ct
re

91
Fig. 33 Distribution of electrolyte velocity for the outlet slits with different layouts.
or
nc
U

92
Fig. 34 Distribution of electric field and flow field of SEC milling with one-sided constraint.

697 3.2.2. Bottom flatness decreased from the middle region to the side regions when a 701

698 Bottom ﬂatness is another signiﬁcant indicator of machining cylindrical electrode was adopted, as shown in Fig. 35. This 702

699 accuracy in SEC milling. With respect to the electric ﬁeld, was attributed to the concave shape of the machined bottom 703

700 Niu et al. 93 demonstrated that the obtained electric ﬁeld surface. Based on this, they used tools with total and partial 704

93
Fig. 35 Enhancement of surface ﬂatness with insulated tools.

of
705 bottom insulation to reduce the electric quantity in the middle and a feeding rate of 0.012 mm/min. They also completed a 754
706 region. The experiments indicated that the machined bottom conical structure on 304 SS with a surface roughness of Ra 755
707 ﬂatness decreased by more than 50% when a common tool 0.38 lm and a maximum slope error of 0.08 mm as the feed 756
708 was replaced with an insulated tool. Li et al. 94 claimed that rate was 0.785 mm/min, 97 as shown in Fig. 40(c). 757
the ﬂatness of the machined bottom could be improved by With the complex relative movement between the tool and

o
709 758
710 adding a conical concave to the bottom surface, as shown in workpiece, SEC milling can complete the machining of sculp- 759
711 Fig. 36. With an increase in the distance between the wall sur- tured surfaces. 98 Xu et al. 99 proposed a method for machining 760

Pr
712 face of the tool and the workpiece, the current density of the blisk cascade passages using multiple tube electrodes, as shown 761
713 workpiece surface decreased, and the obtained electric quan- in Fig. 41. To avoid the non-uniform distribution of electrolyte 762
714 tity significantly decreased in the middle region. When using velocity in the machining gap, an electrolyte outlet comprising 763
715 the concaved tool, the flatness of slot bottom decreased from multiple slits of different widths was designed using the law of 764
716 591 lm to 240 lm at the voltage of 15 V. constant inlet flow rate. Consequently, the repeatability errors 765
717 Yue et al. 95 proposed another novel method to improve of different passages were within 0.1 and 0.13 mm. All 90 cas- 766
718 bottom flatness by adding bottom holes, as shown in Fig. 37. cade passages in a blisk can be machined within 20 h, whereas 767
719
720
721
The flow-field simulation indicated that the electrolyte velocity
increased in the edge regions and decreased in the middle
region. Electrochemical dissolution of the material was acceler-
ed more than 45 h would be required using the traditional ECM
method. To improve the machining accuracy of the blade,
Zong et al. 100 fitted the relationship between the channel width
768
769
770
722 ated in the edge regions and hindered in the middle region. and voltage and applied a regulatory voltage strategy to 771
723 Using the new tool, the average flatness was reduced by replace the constant-voltage strategy. As shown in Fig. 42, 772
724 30.8% at 15 V. under the proposed strategy, the allowance differences on the 773
ct
725 Recently, SEC milling has been adopted to machine typical back and basin surfaces of the blade decreased by 47.81% 774
726 structures and components. To machine the end faces of cylin- and 51.57%, respectively. 775
727 drical parts, Liu and Qu 68 proposed a novel method called Gan et al. 101,102 employed SEC milling with a spiral blade 776
728 shallow SEC milling, in which the end face of the tool elec- tool to machine an impeller, as shown in Fig. 43. To increase 777
re

729 trode was designed as a fan shape. The side of the cathode tool the distribution uniformity of electrolyte velocity, they opti- 778
730 was designed to contract inward to reduce the flow resistance mised a single spiral blade tool with a rotation angle of 720° 779
731 of the electrolyte and to promote the removal of electrolytic based on the flow field distribution at the outlet of single 780
732 products. The experimental results indicated that the surface and double spiral blades with different rotation angles. When 781
or

733 smoothness improved when the cutting depth reached the applied voltage and rotation speed were 22 V and 1500 r/ 782
734 0.3 mm. A ﬂat machined surface was obtained at the end face min, respectively, the maximum cutting depth reached 783
735 of the cylindrical part, as shown in Fig. 38. 68 In addition, the 65 mm, and the margin error was controlled to 0.5 mm. 784
736 machining repeatability and surface smoothness were both suf- Zhang et al. 103 achieved good machining accuracy by using 785
737 ﬁciently high to make this method applicable to industrial a pulse power supply in electrochemical milling of deep and 786
nc

738 production. narrow grooves. A complex narrow groove of width 1.32 787
739 As shown in Fig. 39, 96,97 Ge et al. attempted the SEC ± 0.02 mm and depth 8.05 ± 0.01 mm was well fabricated 788
740 milling of the inner surface of a revolving part. Compared with with single-pass pulse electrochemical milling. A spherical 789
741 tools with multi-holes, the tool with a narrow-slit outlet cathode with slant jet was designed to perform pulse electro- 790
742 obtains a more uniform ﬂow ﬁeld. In the experiment, an chemical milling of ball nut raceways with arbitrary lead angles 791
on GCr15 steel workpieces. 80 Under the conditions of machin-
U

743 uneven machined area, noticeable bulges, and depressions 792

744 were observed when a tool with multiple holes was used, ing depth of 2.5 mm and feed rate of 0.3 mm/min, they 793
745 whereas a flatter surface was obtained when a tool with a machined a ball nut raceway with a lead angle of 45°, a race- 794
746 narrow-slit outlet was used. They also verified the machining way surface roughness of 0.54 lm, and a profile accuracy of 795
747 advantages of SEC by milling the outer surface of a revolving ±0.025 mm, as shown in Fig. 44. 80 796
748 part. In summary, although the machining efficiency and surface 797
749 As shown in Fig. 40(a), Niu et al. 86 machined a thin-walled quality of sinking electrochemical milling are not as good as 798
750 structure on GH4169 with a thickness of less than 1 mm at a that of electrochemical milling in the fly mode, it is very suit- 799
751 cutting depth of 3 mm and feeding rate of 2.1 mm/min. As able for situations of large cutting depth machining, as shown 800
752 shown in Fig. 40(b), Ge et al. 96 finished a particular sample in Table 2. 15,54,63,68,80,103 Therefore, more and more researches 801
753 of a cartridge receiver on K423A with a height of 30 mm have been focused on improving its machining performance. 802

94
Fig. 36 Enhancement of surface ﬂatness using a tool with a concave bottom.

o of
Pr
95
Fig. 37 Improvement in bottom ﬂatness by adjusting the electrolyte ﬂow.
ed
ct
re
or
nc

68
Fig. 38 The end face of cylindrical parts machined using a fan-shaped tool.
U

96,97
Fig. 39 Machining of the inner surface using tools with different outlet forms.

86,96,97
Fig. 40 Some typical samples made using SEC milling.

o of
Pr
ed
99
Fig. 41 Machining of the blisk cascade passages with multiple tube electrodes.
ct
re
or
nc

100
Fig. 42 Machining of the blade using SEC milling with different voltage strategies.

803 4. Hybrid macro electrochemical milling methods machining in copying, electrochemical-milling-based hybrid 814
U

processes are easy to implement, and some have proven to 815

804 According to the deﬁnition proposed by the CIRP Committee, be very effective. The major objectives of hybrid electrochem- 816

805 hybrid manufacturing processes are based on the simultaneous ical milling with other process energies are as follows: 817

806 and controlled interaction of process mechanisms and/or

807 energy sources/tools that signiﬁcantly affect process perfor- Improve the localization of material removal of electro- 818

808 mance. 104 They provide new possibilities for machine/process- chemical milling to achieve high dimensional accuracy. 819

809 ing materials or shapes which could not be manufactured Accelerate rapid removal of passivating oxide ﬁlms and 820

810 before or at a lower cost. Considerable attention has been paid enhance the material removal rate. 821

811 to hybrid machining because it can enhance the advantages or Reduce heat-induced defects in other machining technolo- 822

812 minimise the potential disadvantages of individual machining gies based on the thermal principle of material removal, 823

813 techniques. Compared with traditional electrochemical such as EDM and laser machining. 824

of
101,102
Fig. 43 Machining of the impeller using SEC milling with spiral blade tool.

o
Pr
Fig. 44
ed
Ball nut raceways machined by spherical cathode electrolytic milling. 80

15,54,63,68,80,103
Table 2 The comparison of machining performance for different electrochemical milling processes.
ct
Type Electrochemical milling in the ﬂy mode Sinking electrochemical milling
MRR 283 mm3/min 54 129 mm3/min 68
Ra Less than 0.02lm63 0.54lm80
re

Depth of single process About 1.8mm15 8mm103

Application Casing, aircraft skin, reinforced frame, etc. Blisks, titanium alloy joint frame of spacecraft cabins
or

825 A technological overview of electrochemical milling-based

826 hybrid processes is presented in Fig. 45 and discussed in detail
827 in subsequent sections.
nc

828 4.1. Electrochemical discharge milling

829 Electrochemical discharge milling (ECDM) is a hybrid

830 machining process combining electrochemical and electric dis-
831 charge milling. Regardless of whether the workpiece is non-
conductive material, 105 conductive material, 106 or semi-
U

832
833 conductor material, 107 the generation of spark discharge is
834 caused by the electric ﬁeld distortion of bubbles in the gap.
835 During machining, electrical energy is converted into chemical
836 energy and thermal energy, and the material is removed by
837 electrochemical dissolution and the high-temperature effect
838 of electric discharge (conductive material) or only by the
839 high-temperature effect of electric discharge (non-conductive
840 material). Therefore, ECDM not only has a high machining
841 efﬁciency but also has the characteristics of high surface qual- Fig. 45 Technological view of hybrid electrochemical milling
842 ity of ECM, demonstrating good machining performance. methods.

Please cite this article in press as: QU N et al. Macro electrochemical milling and its hybrid variants, Chin J Aeronaut (2023), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cja.2023.12.015
CJA 2880 No. of Pages 35
19 December 2023
22 N. QU et al.
108,109
843 This section reviews the relevant research on the During electrochemical discharge milling, the machined 889
844 machining of conductive and nonconductive materials. surface is prone to the appearance of a recast layer. This prob- 890
lem can be solved by reducing the discharge energy or increas- 891
845 4.1.1. Electrochemical discharge milling of conductive material ing the volume of the electrochemical dissolution. Liu et al. 114 892

846 To process the conductive materials, the workpiece was proposed a simultaneous gas–electrical discharge and electro- 893

847 removed by electrochemical dissolution and high-temperature chemical milling method. Discharge is used to rapidly remove 894

848 spark discharge. Low-conductivity, 110–113 (less than 5wt%) the oxide layer, and a periodic voltage is applied to reduce the 895

849 and high-conductivity solutions 106,114–116 (more than 10wt discharge energy during the machining process, which removes 896

850 %) can both be used in the electrochemical discharge machin- the recast layer and improves the surface quality. The surface 897

851 ing of conductive materials. Under the action of voltage, roughness Ra was reduced from 0.8 lm to 0.177 lm, as shown 898

852 hydrogen bubbles are generated on the surface of the tool elec- in Fig. 49. 114 To enhance the volume of materials removed by 899

853 trode, causing an electric ﬁeld distortion in the inter electrode electrochemical dissolution, Yue et al. 106 demonstrated that 900

of
854 gap. Some areas exceed the breakdown threshold, resulting in the recast layer can be removed by increasing the diameter 901

855 a spark discharge. As shown in Fig. 46, 110 an equivalent cir- of the tool electrode, which can increase the electrochemical 902

856 cuit model for the machining process was established, and dissolution volume. As shown in Fig. 50, the electrochemical 903

857 high-quality machining of 304 stainless steel was achieved by effect was enhanced using a tool electrode with a large inner 904

adjusting the feed rate and processing layer thickness. 110–112 diameter, and a groove without a recast layer was fabricated. 905

o
858
115
859 Low-concentration salt solutions have also been used in the 906

860 electrochemical discharge milling of aluminium-based SiC

composite materials. Liu et al. 113 established an equivalent cir- 4.1.2. Electrochemical discharge milling of non-conductive 907

Pr
861
862 cuit model and an inter electrode gap electric ﬁeld model. The material 908

863 results indicate that the breakdown threshold voltage is inde- The material removal mechanism of ECDM of nonconductive 909
864 pendent of the presence of the reinforcement phase. Owing materials is shown in Fig. 51, 108 where the tool electrode, 910
865 to the conductivity of the medium, bubbles generated in the workpiece, and auxiliary electrode are immersed in the elec- 911
866 inter electrode gap during processing significantly reduce the trolyte; the auxiliary electrode acts as the cathode and forms 912
867 breakdown threshold. a conductive circuit with the tool electrode, resulting in electro- 913
868
869
870
Some researchers have proposed the use of a high-
concentration salt solution as a processing medium to enhance
the electrochemical dissolution effect during processing. Dur-
ed chemical reactions. Because the workpiece does not undergo
electrochemical dissolution, erosion of the workpiece material
is caused by spark discharge in the inter-electrode gap.The
914
915
916
871 ing the machining process, numerous bubbles fill the gap generation of spark discharge is closely related to the beha- 917
872 between the electrodes under the action of the electrochemical viour of the gas film in the electrode gap, and changes in the 918
873 effect, causing a distortion in the electric field distribution and gas film behaviour significantly affect the stability of the dis- 919
ct
874 providing conditions for the generation of spark discharge. charge. The electrolyte (NaOH, 108 KOH 105, 108–109) pro- 920
875 Yue et al. 106 proposed rotary sinking electrochemical dis- vides discharge conditions for electrochemical discharge 921
876 charge milling (RSECDM), which uses a high-conductivity salt machining, and its physical and chemical properties also affect 922
877 solution and a nonpulse DC power supply to enhance the the stability of the discharge. By adding surfactants (such as 923
re

878 effect of electrochemical dissolution. The results show that it SDS and CTAB) to the electrolyte or using mixed alkaline 924
879 can significantly improve material removal rate and effectively working fluids, the discharge stability can be significantly 925
880 remove the surface recast layers, as shown in Fig. 47. Zhou improved, thereby improving the machining accuracy. 117,118 926
881 et al. 116 applied electrolyte-oxygen aerosols as a medium in Ultrasonic vibrations were applied to the electrodes. This sig- 927
or

882 electrochemical discharge ablation compound milling, as can nificantly reduces the thickness of the gas film on the tool elec- 928
883 be seen in Fig. 48. Oxygen is used to achieve a high MRR in trode surface, makes the gas film more uniform, and 929
884 the discharge ablation machining (EDAM) process, whereas significantly reduces the critical discharge voltage. By optimis- 930
885 electrolyte droplets with high conductivity are used to enhance ing the process parameters of the ultrasonic vibration ampli- 931
886 the electrochemical effect. The results indicate that the MRR tude, the consistency of the spark discharge current in 932
nc

887 increased by more than ﬁve times, whereas the relative elec- machining is improved, and typical complex structures, such 933
888 trode wear rate (REWR) was decreased by 94.1%. as sharp-edged grooves and pentagrams, are machined on 934
U

Fig. 46 Material removal, equivalent circuit model, and machining process window of electrochemical discharge milling with deionized
water. 110

o of
Pr
106
Fig. 47 RSECDM with high-conductivity salt solution and non-pulsed direct current.

ed
ct
re
or
nc

116
Fig. 48 Electrochemical discharge ablation compound milling method utilizing electrolyte-oxygen aerosol medium.

glass. 119 The effect of the ultrasonic vibration of tool elec-

935 on the workpiece surface softens the surface hardness of the 944
936 trodes on improving gas ﬁlm behaviour has also been reported material, which helps reduce the wear of the cutting edge dur- 945
937 in Singh’s research. 120 Currently, ECDM for nonconductive ing mechanical milling. Simultaneously, mechanical milling 946
938 materials is primarily focused on microfabrication. can remove the oxide layer generated by electrochemical 947
milling, providing a fresh surface for the substrate and pro- 948
939 4.2. Mechano-electrochemical milling moting the material removal of electrochemical milling, as dis- 949
cussed in Section 2. MECM has great potential for machining 950

940 Mechano-electrochemical Milling (MECM) is a hybrid difﬁcult-to-cut materials that are widely used in the aerospace 951

941 machining technology that combines electrochemical and ﬁeld. 952

942 mechanical milling, as shown in Fig. 52. During the machining Recently, considerable research has been conducted on the 953

943 process, the oxide layer formed by electrochemical reactions feasibility of the MECM. Cheng et al. 121 detected the machin- 954

o of
Pr
114
Fig. 49 Simultaneous gas electrical discharge and electrochemical machining in high-conductivity salt solution.

ed
ct
re

115
Fig. 50 Electrochemical discharge machining of Ti6Al4V with non-pulsed DC power supply.
or
nc
U

108
Fig. 51 Mechanism of electrochemical discharge machining of non-conductive materials.

cess. Wang et al. 125 found that CM can reduce the surface 985
impedance and corrosion resistance, thereby reducing the sur- 986
face breakdown potential and improving the current efﬁciency 987
of the ECM. Meanwhile, ECM reduces the surface micro- 988
hardness, milling force, and excessive wear during the mechan- 989
ical milling of MECM, which is conducive to the reduction of 990
tool wear. The above research provides theoretical guidance 991
for future applications of MECM in the machining of 992
difﬁcult-to-machine materials. 993

4.3. Electrochemical mill-grinding 994

of
Electrochemical mill-grinding (ECMG) is a hybrid machining 995
technique that combines electrochemical milling and mechani- 996
Fig. 52 Schematic diagram of mechano-electrochemical milling. cal grinding, as shown in Fig. 55. 88 During machining, the 997
material undergoes anodic dissolution via electrolytic action 998
and is oxidised into a passivation oxide layer. The passivation

o
999
955 ing current and electrolytic products during the machining
ﬁlm is then promptly scraped away by grinding, leaving a new 1000
956 process and conﬁrmed that ECM participated in the removal
metal exposed on the workpiece surface to continue anodic dis- 1001
957 of surface materials and assisted mechanical milling. Van
solution. 126,127 In this manner, the workpiece surface is alter-

Pr
1002
958 Camp et al. 122 designed an MECM tool with a silicon nitride
nately processed by electrolytic and grinding actions until the 1003
959 ceramic blade embedded at its semicircular bottom to machine
specified requirements are satisfied. The grinding action helps 1004
960 titanium alloys. They found that electrochemical and mechan-
remove the passivation film that impedes anodic dissolution, 1005
961 ical milling occurred simultaneously during MECM. With cur-
facilitating the removal of workpiece material by electrolytic 1006
962 rents of 10 A and 20 A, the MRR of MECM increased by 60%
action, and improving machining accuracy and surface rough- 1007
963 and 48%, respectively, compared to that of electrochemical
ness. 128 Because the hardness of the passivation film created 1008
milling.
964
965
966
Furthermore, Van Camp et al. 123 optimised the bottom
end of the tool electrode and weakened the impact of the pro-
ed by electrolytic action is much lower than that of the workpiece
base material, the grinding action generates very little grinding
force and heat when scraping away the softened workpiece sur-
1009
1010
1011
967 trusion in the middle of the groove, thereby improving the flat-
face, producing no cracks or burns. This significantly improves 1012
968 ness, as shown in Fig. 53. By observing the machining process
the machining efficiency and surface quality while drastically 1013
969 with high-speed and infrared imaging, they also found that the
reducing tool wear. 129,130 1014
ct
970 asymmetrical MECM tool configuration exacerbated the
In electrochemical milling, the coordination between the 1015
971 chaos of the flow field in the machining area and aggravated
electrochemical milling and mechanical grinding parts is cru- 1016
972 the irregular distribution of products, thereby disturbing the
cial in determining the machining accuracy and efficiency. 1017
973 distribution of the electric field and damaging the surface qual- 131,132
To precisely control the electrochemical milling process 1018
re

974 ity. 124

and maximise its advantages, Atkinson and Noble 133–135 1019
975 Wang and Qu 49 conducted in-depth research on the mate-
divided ECMG into four machining stages according to the 1020
976 rial removal mechanism of MECM, as presented in Fig. 54.
relative contributions of electrochemical milling and mechani- 1021
977 They proposed a new hybrid tool structure with double
cal grinding, as shown in Fig. 56. 134 1022
978 semi-circular end faces. The experimental results at different
or

At Stage I, the applied voltage is so small that the current 1023

979 feed rates indicate that the MECM mainly includes three
density is zero, and no electrolytic reaction occurs in the 1024
980 material-removal processes. With an increase in feed speed,
machining area. At stage II, the applied electrolytic voltage 1025
981 the three material removal processes were as follows: ECM,
is slightly greater but insufﬁcient to cause an overcut, and 1026
982 ECM ? CM (conventional mechanical milling) ? ECM, and
the electrolytic action assists mechanical grinding. At stage 1027
CM ? ECM. Compared with CM, ECM leads to a signiﬁcant
nc

983
III, the voltage is much greater, and mechanical grinding 1028
984 proportion of material removal during the entire MECM pro-
U

123
Fig. 53 Tool and machined groove contours in MECM.

o of
Pr
Fig. 54
ed
Hybrid tool electrode structure and its three material removal processes. 49

occurs towards the leading portion of the tool/workpiece inter- 1029

ct
electrode gap. In part of the machining area, only electrolytic 1030
action occurs, and the actual machining depth exceeds the pro- 1031
trusion height of the abrasive grains, creating a local overcut. 1032
At stage IV, the applied voltage is too high and the tool feed 1033
re

rate is too low; thus, material removal is only dependent on 1034

electrolytic action. Stage III is used in rough machining to 1035
improve machining efﬁciency, whereas Stage II is used in ﬁn- 1036
ishing to ensure machining accuracy and surface quality. 136 1037
On this basis, electrolyte erosion also participates in workpiece 1038
or

material removal in addition to electrolytic and grinding 1039

actions, and the effect is too signiﬁcant to be ignored 137,138. 1040
To improve the processing performance in terms of machining 1041

88
localisation, machining efﬁciency, and machining accuracy, 1042
Fig. 55 Schematic diagram of ECMG.
Niu et al. 89,92,139 developed and optimised the bottom struc-
nc

1043
ture of the tool cathode, arrangement of liquid outlet holes, 1044
and setting of abrasive grains in the ECMG, forming a set of 1045
mature processing techniques for thin-walled structures and 1046
large-scale groove structures of high-temperature alloys, as 1047
shown in Fig. 57 92,94 and Fig. 58. 94,139 1048
U

Curtis et al. proposed the use of electrochemical mill grind- 1049

ing for the precision machining of complex turbine/compressor 1050
blade root mounting slots in aeroengine discs. 140 To obtain 1051
the best balance in terms of processing performance, they pre- 1052
ferred electroplated tools over resin-bonded wheels, metal- 1053
bonded wheels, and electroplated tools after experimental ver- 1054
iﬁcation. After focusing on the effects of the process parame- 1055
ters, such as the abrasive grain type, applied voltage, and 1056
feed rate, on the machined surface roughness and overcut 1057

Fig. 56 Schematic diagram of the four machining states of depth, slots with a clear proﬁle and no burrs were successfully 1058

electrochemical grinding. 134 machined, as shown in Fig. 59. 140 Gan et al. 141 studied the 1059

o of
Pr
92,94
Fig. 57 Optimizations of ECMG.

ed
ct
94,139
Fig. 58 Structure of high temperature alloy processed by ECMG.
re

1060 ﬁnish machining of complex aeroengine parts such as twisted to 4.6 cm3/min) and surface quality (Ra 0.63–0.32 lm) while 1070
1061 blades and proposed a method to eliminate overcutting errors reducing diamond consumption (10–15 mg/cm3). 1071
1062 using a conical grinding wheel and a combined ﬁve-axis CNC To further develop the machining effect of electrochemical 1072
or

1063 solution. After experimentally selecting the optimal parame- milling, many scholars have continued to quote new energy 1073
1064 ters, they produced a qualified unparallel-ruled surface whose fields (e.g. acoustic energy and light energy) for assistance, 1074
1065 accuracy was within ± 0.08 mm and surface roughness Ra thereby forming more diversified processing technologies. 1075
1066 reached to 0.8–0.2 lm. Wu et al. 143–144 found that ultrasonic vibration could further 1076
nc

1067 Mogilnikov et al. 142 employed diamond cup wheels to elec- reduce the hardness of the surface oxidised by an electrolytic 1077
1068 trochemically mill–ground sintered hard alloys of WC-Ni, reaction and proposed ultrasonic-assisted pulsed electrochem- 1078
1069 which signiﬁcantly improved the machining performance (up ical grinding, as shown in Fig. 60. 144 This means that ultra- 1079
sonic assistance could further reduce the grinding forces in 1080
electrochemical mill grinding, reduce tool wear, and improve 1081
the machining surface quality and material removal rate. 145 1082
U

Taking advantage of the mechanical grinding and polishing 1083

effects of ceramic abrasives on the workpiece surface, Yehia 1084
et al. 146 integrated an alumina abrasive jet and electrochemical 1085
grinding, which further improved the processing efﬁciency and 1086
surface accuracy. They found that the presence of an Al2O3 1087
abrasive in the electrolyte not only removed the passivation 1088
layer on the workpiece surface but also prevented positive ions 1089
from depositing on the grinding wheel surface and continu- 1090
ously dressing it. Wang et al. 147 proposed the 1091
photocatalytic-assisted electrochemical milling-grinding 1092
140
Fig. 59 Cathode to process blade root mounting slots. (PAECMG) to process silicon carbide-reinforced aluminium 1093

of
144
Fig. 60 Schematic of ultrasonic assisted pulsed electrochemical grinding.

o
1094 matrix composites (SiCp/Al), as shown in Fig. 61. While the 4.4. Electrochemical laser milling 1110
1095 metal aluminium matrix was still removed by ECMG, the
1096 poorly conductive SiC particles ﬁrst chemically reacted with

Pr
Electrochemical laser milling is one method that combines 1111
1097 the hydroxyl radical OH, which was generated by the photo- laser milling technology with electrochemical milling technol- 1112
1098 catalytic reaction, to form a SiO2 layer with lower hardness, ogy, which couples laser thermal energy with electrochemical 1113
1099 and then removed by grinding together with the passivation dissolution. 149,150 During the machining process, the laser 1114
1100 layer. Compared with ECMG, PAECMG has better stability, removes materials using thermal energy, thereby increasing 1115
1101 processing surface quality, and machining precision. Chen the temperature of the machining zone which can promote 1116
1102 et al. 148 proposed electrochemical jet-assisted grinding ed the electrochemical reaction. Electrochemical milling removes 1117
1103 (EJAG) to process single-crystal SiC, as shown in Fig. 62. materials through electrochemical dissolution, and the recast 1118
1104 Through electrochemical jet anodization, the workpiece sur- layer generated on the surface is ablated by laser heat, thus 1119
1105 face was first modified, its local hardness was reduced by improving the quality of the machined surface. 1120
1106 90%, and then the surface was ground with soft abrasives to Electrochemical laser hybrid machining has many variants, 1121
1107 reduce the surface roughness and improve the surface quality. which can be divided into two categories, coaxial machining 1122
1108 The results showed that EJAG can realise complex structures and non-coaxial machining, as shown in Fig. 63. For coaxial 1123
ct
1109 with nanometre-scale surface finishes. machining methods, the machining flexibility is higher, but 1124
re
or
nc
U

147
Fig. 61 PAECMG of SiCp/Al composites.

148
Fig. 62 Schematic of electrochemical jet-assisted grinding.

o of
Pr
Fig. 63
ed
Schematic of electrochemical-laser hybrid machining.

1125 the control of machining stability is difficult. 151,152 The relia- trochemical milling method to process simple grooves, as 1139
ct
1126 bility of laser coupling is easily affected by the stability of the shown in Fig. 64. They found that lower-power laser-assisted 1140
1127 electrolyte jet 153,154 and the superposition of multiple energy electrochemical milling can significantly reduce the surface 1141
1128 fields when multiple energies act on the same area. 155,156 roughness of machined grooves. After optimising the compos- 1142
1129 For noncoaxial machining, machining is easier to control, ite process parameters, a groove with a width of 1.79 mm, 1143
re

1130 and the machining stability is better; 157,158 however, the depth of 6.49 mm, and surface roughness Ra of 2.5 lm was 1144
1131 machining localisation is poor because it is difﬁcult for laser obtained. 1145
1132 energy and electrochemical dissolution to act simultaneously To promote the enormous potential and realise the indus- 1146
1133 at the same location. 159,160 trial production of electrochemical laser milling, it is necessary 1147
Although electrochemical-laser hybrid machining has great to conduct an in-depth exploration of variable multi-energy
or

1134 1148
1135 development potential, 161,162 most studies have focused on the field machining conditions, including the laser thermal field, 1149
1136 mechanism of laser electrochemical coupling, micro-pit electrolyte flow field, and electric field in the machining gap. 1150
1137 machining, and micro-hole machining. 152,163,164 Yang et al. Additionally, it is crucial to improve the stability and sustain- 1151
165
1138 proposed a synchronous hybrid laser and shaped-tube elec- ability through process innovations. 1152
nc
U

165
Fig. 64 Electrochemical-laser hybrid milling.

o of
Pr
ed
Fig. 65 Development of electrochemical milling.
ct
1174
1153 5. Future trend
6. Conclusion 1175
re

1154 As shown in Fig. 65, the related researches on electrochemical

1155 milling started in the 1980s, and then gradually came to the This review presents both current research and development in 1176
1156 attention of scholars all over the world. In the future, consid- macro electromechanical milling, and the following points are 1177
1157 erable research on process stability, efﬁciency, and accuracy concluded. 1178
or

1158 should be conducted.

(1) The generation and breakdown behaviours of passive 1179
1159 (1) Two routes exist for improving material removal rate, oxide films of typical difficult-to-cut materials such as 1180
1160 surface quality, and machining accuracy: one is hybrid titanium alloys have been discussed. In particular, rapid 1181
1161 machining with mechanical methods and the other is methods to break down the passive film are summarised. 1182
nc

1162 localising the stray current on the machined surface. (2) Simulations of the electrochemical milling process, 1183
1163 (2) To realise the machining of large complex structures, the including the electric, flow, and multiple coupling fields, 1184
1164 control of the electrolyte flow and the application of are discussed. 1185
1165 robotics are key points. (3) Details on improving the process performance, such as 1186
1166 (3) To achieve high-efficiency and precise machining of new material removal rate, surface quality, and machining 1187
U

1167 materials such as ceramic matrix composites and car- accuracy in electrochemical milling with fly mode and 1188
1168 bon/carbon composites, a hybrid machining method sink electrochemical milling, are reviewed. 1189
1169 should be proposed. (4) The main methods of hybrid electrochemical milling 1190
1170 (4) To realise green and sustainable machining, the energy have been classified, and state-of-the-art methods are 1191
1171 utilisation efficiency for material removal should be introduced. 1192
1172 improved, and a new hybrid machining process should 1193
1173 be explored.

1194 Declaration of competing interest 16. Liu GD, Zhu YL, Liu SG, et al. Research on conductive- 1253
material-filled electrodes for sidewall insulation performance in 1254
micro electrochemical machining. Adv Manuf 2023;11(3):509–22. 1255
1195 The authors declare that they have no known competing
17. Dai XY, Hu GY, Liu K, et al. Research on milling performance 1256
1196 financial interests or personal relationships that could have of titanium alloy in a new hybrid process combining short electric 1257
1197 appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. arc and electrochemical machining. J Braz Soc Mech Sci Eng 1258
2023;45(1):18. 1259
1198 Acknowledgements 18. Ringgaard K, Mohammadi Y, Merrild C, et al. Optimization of 1260
material removal rate in milling of thin-walled structures using 1261
1199 This study was co-supported by the Defense Industrial Tech- penalty cost function. Int J Mach Tools Manuf 2019;145:103430. 1262

1200 nology Development Program, the Fundamental Research 19. Schultze JW, Lohrengel MM. Stability, reactivity and breakdown 1263

1201 Funds for the Central Universities and the National Natural of passive ﬁlms. Problems of recent and future research. 1264
Electrochim Acta 2000;45(15–16):2499–513. 1265
1202 Science Foundation of China for Creative Research Groups
20. Liu GD, Tong H, Li Y, et al. Passivation behavior of S136H steel 1266

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Please cite this article in press as: QU N et al. Macro electrochemical milling and its hybrid variants, Chin J Aeronaut (2023), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cja.2023.12.015

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Proof: Macro Electrochemical Milling and Its Hybrid Variants

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Proof: Macro Electrochemical Milling and Its Hybrid Variants

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CJA 2880 No.

Chinese Society of Aeronautics and Astronautics

13 Received 12 August 2023; revised 10 December 2023; accepted 10 December 2023

ods, including electrochemical discharge milling, mechano-electrochemical milling, and electro-

* Corresponding author. Electrochemical machining (ECM) is a non-traditional 28

The process performance of ECM, including the material

are readily oxidized at the electrode–electrolyte interface and 106

rates (up to 18 mm/min) in the electrochemical milling of a 202

trolytes and bipolar pulsed currents have been introduced to 207

Fig. 4 Material removal mechanism in ECM of the TB6 titanium alloy.35

Fig. 6 Performance of different halide containing electrolytes.40,42

sink electrochemical (SEC) milling, in which the electrode is 429

The ﬂy machining mode is widely used in macro electrochem- 436

495 3.1.2. Surface quality

520 ling rate.

trolling the reﬂection angle of the electrolyte could reduce stray

Sinking electrochemical milling is another mode of macro elec- 636

velocity in the machining gap improved with an increase in 662

743 uneven machined area, noticeable bulges, and depressions 792

processes are easy to implement, and some have proven to 815

806 and controlled interaction of process mechanisms and/or

Depth of single process About 1.8mm15 8mm103

825 A technological overview of electrochemical milling-based

828 4.1. Electrochemical discharge milling

829 Electrochemical discharge milling (ECDM) is a hybrid

860 electrochemical discharge milling of aluminium-based SiC

glass. 119 The effect of the ultrasonic vibration of tool elec-

941 machining technology that combines electrochemical and ﬁeld. 952

4.3. Electrochemical mill-grinding 994

974 ity. 124

At Stage I, the applied voltage is so small that the current 1023

occurs towards the leading portion of the tool/workpiece inter- 1029

rate is too low; thus, material removal is only dependent on 1034

material removal in addition to electrolytic and grinding 1039

Curtis et al. proposed the use of electrochemical mill grind- 1049

Taking advantage of the mechanical grinding and polishing 1083

1154 As shown in Fig. 65, the related researches on electrochemical

1158 should be conducted.

1226 convex structures on casing surfaces using backwater pressure.

Process Technol 2004;149(1–3):414–8.

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