Hygienic value of solar radiation and the usage of its components for the

prevention of human diseases and remediation of air, water and objects.

The solar radiation is an integral corpuscular flow (consisting of protons,

alfa-elements, electrons, neutrons, neutrinos) and electromagnetic (photon)
radiation.
Solar radiation, reaching the surface of the earth, consists of:
 59% of infrared radiation;
 40% of visible one;
 1% of ultraviolet rays.

Table 1
Electromagnetic spectrum of the solar radiation
Wave length , nanometers
Frequency band > 100 000
Far-infrared region 100 000 – 10 000
Infrared region 10 000 – 760
Visible (optical) region 760 – 400
Ultraviolet region 400 – 120
Terminal ultraviolet region 120 – 10
Soft X-rays 10 – 0,1
High-energy (gamma) rays < 0.1

shorter wavelength longer wavelength

higher frequency lower frequency
higher energy lower energy

Fig. 1. The electromagnetic spectrum.

Infrared irradiation penetrates deeply through the skin and provokes heat
effect, the following increase of tissue temperature, hyperemia and the increased
metabolism in the skin. It strengthens biological action of ultraviolet irradiation.
This feature is used in medicine.
Visible solar radiation performs the same biological action as infra-red one.
Besides, it has photochemical effect. This effect is weaker than ultraviolet one, as
the power of its quanta is enough only for the molecules of some matters. These
matters are optic pigments. Under the influence of visible irradiation the
biochemical reactions, generating electrical impulses, proceed in retina. They
form light sensation.
The light is an important physiological irritant, which activates the
processes of excitement in brain cortex. That's why in good lighting the activity of
the visual and other analyzers is improved. The matters, formed in retina during
photochemical action stimulate the function of hypophysis and the cells of the
central nervous system. That's why the light has a positive influence on the
emotional sphere, improves organism condition and metabolism.
The solar ultraviolet radiation wave length less then 290 nm is completely
absorbed by oxygen and ozone of the upper atmosphere. Atmospheric pollution
causes the ozone layer destruction resulting in appearance of “ozone holes”. The
shortest and the most harmful UV waves reach the earth surface through these
“ozone holes”.
Lighting (illumination) is a system of providing the proper light stream per unit
area on a surface at any given point of premise. Illumination of the premises is an
important achievement of civilization. Our vision state depends on a quality of
illumination, our life is closely connected with illumination usage.
Hygienic demands for illumination are following:
— sufficient light. There should be enough light to enable us to see details of
objects and surroundings without strain.
— distribution should be even. Light of the same intensity is required over the
whole field of work. Proper dispersal of light without shadows is required
for efficient vision.
— avoid glare. Glare is excessive contrast. This causes annoyance and reduces
critical vision.
— avoid shadows. Shadows are inevitable. But too many sharp shadows
confuse vision.
— no flicker. The light should be steady. Flickering causes eye strain.
The optimal lighting is natural. The colour of light is not as important as its
intensity. But since natural light has a soothing effect, the closer the colour to
natural light, the better its influence on us. During physical examination a
physician should use day light — it will not mask dangerous signs of diseases
(jaundice, cyanosis, etc.).
Factors influencing the level of natural light in premises:
1. External factors that influence natural lighting in different premises:
- the territory latitude and its climate (number of sunny and cloudy days);
- season of the year and time of the day, when the premises are being used,
existence of objects producing shadow (buildings, trees, hills, mountains).
2. Internal factors:
 - name and function of premises;
- window orientation, floor;
- type of natural lighting, (light aperture location), (one-side, two-side, upper
and combined);
- number of windows, their construction (one-framed, two-framed,
combined);
- clarity and quality of glass, existence of objects producing shade (flowers
and curtains);
- the window-sill height, distance from the window top edge to the ceiling;
- brightness (reflection ability) of the ceiling, walls, equipment and furniture
The above mentioned factors also influence the premises insolation regimen
(the duration of exposure to the direct solar light). It can also be influenced by the
windows’ orientation. (table 2).
Table 2
Types of premises isolation regimen
The
Premises
The duration of insolated
insolation Orientation of windows insolation, hours area of the
regimen
floor,%
Maximum South-East, South-West 5-6 80
Medium South, East, West 3-5 40-50
Minimum North-East, North-West, West less than 3 till 30
According to the hygienic norms the duration of insolation in residential areas,
classrooms and other premises of similar functions must be not less than 3 hours.
The assessment of natural lighting in different premises using the geometric
method:
The lighting coefficient determination (the ratio of the glazed part area to
the floor area, expressed in common fraction);
- the total area of the glazed window part is to be measured (S1), m2;
- the area of the floor is to be measured (S2), m2;
- the lighting coefficient is to be measured

LC=S1:S2=1: n → n = S2 : S1 (approximated to the integer)

LC= 1: n
The received result is assessed according to the hygienic norms (table 3).
Table 3
The natural lighting norms for different premises
The angle of The The depth
The daylight The
incidence aperture coefficient
The type of factor (DF) lighting
() angle () of premises
premises coefficient
not less not less
not less than (LC) not less than
than than
1.Classrooms 1.25-1.5% 1:4 – 1:5 27 5 2
2.Residential 1.0% 1:5 – 1:6 27 5 2
3. Wards 1.0% 1:6 – 1:8 27 5 2
4. Surgeries 2.0% 1:2 – 1:3 27 5 2

Determination of the angle of incidence  (the ABC angle at the furthest

workplace from the window is formed by the horizontal line (or plane) AB from
the workplace to the lower window edge (window-sill) and the line (plane) AC
from the workplace to the upper window edge) (fig.2).

Fig. 2. Diagram for determination of the angle of incidence and the angle of
aperture

Conventional marks:
BC- the height from the upper window edge to the work plane level, m;
AB- the distance from the window to the furthest work place, m;
BD- the distance from the projection of the shadowing object’s top onto the
window glass to the level of the worktop, m.
The geometric indices calculation:
tg =BC/AB (see table of tangents),  - the angle of incidence;
tg =BD/AB (see table of tangents),  - the angle of shading;
,  is the angle of aperture.

The determination of depth coefficient in different premises - the ratio of the

distance from the window to the opposite wall (EF, m) to the upper window edge
height above the floor (CE, m). According to the hygienic norms this coefficient
must not be higher than 2 for residential areas, classrooms and other similar
premises.

The lighting engineering method of natural lighting assessment in different

premises consists in determination of daylight factor (DF).

The daylight factor (DF) is defined as the ratio of the actual illuminance
at a point in a room (lux) and the illuminance under the open sky:
 The indoor and outdoor lighting is measured by luxmeter (see the instruction
and fig. 2).

Fig. 3. Luxmeter U-116 (Ю-166)(1 – measuring device (galvanometer); 2 – light

receiver (selenium photo-cell); 3 – changing light filters)

TRAINING INSTRUCTION of lighting determination using the luxmeter

The U-116 or U-117 luxmeter consists of selenium photo-cell with changing

light filters and the galvanometer with the scale. When the light strikes the photo-
cell surface, it produces the electric current, the strength of which is measured by
the galvanometer. The galvanometer indicates the value of the researched light in
luxes.
The front panel of the luxmeter also contains the switching buttons, and the
scheme, that explains the effect of each button when using different light filters.
There are two different scales at the device’s panel: the 0 – 100 scale, and the 0-30
scale. Each of them has the starting point of its measuring range marked: on the 0-
100 scale that is 20, and on the 0-30 scale – 5. Also there is the screw-adjusted
regulator for setting the device to zero.
The selenium photo-cell connected to the device with the plug is hidden in the
plastic case. The spherical light filter, made of white light dispersing plastic and
the opaque ring, is used with the photo-cell for more exact measuring. This filter is
used simultaneously with one of the three changing filters. These changing filters
have different attenuations (10, 100 and 1 000), and they extend the measuring
range.
The process of the measuring consists of the following:
1) The device is set to 0;
2) By trying the different combinations of the pressed buttons and changing
filters, the appropriate scale for the present light is found. When the button,
next to which the ranges, divisible by 3 are written, the 0-30 scale is used.
When the button with the ranges, divisible by 10 is pressed – the 0-100
scale is used;
 3) The measuring result in scale marks is then multiplied by the attenuation
value of the filter used.
The luxmeter is graded for measuring the light, produced by the incandescent
lamps. The correcting coefficients are used for the other types of light. For the
natural light its value is 0.8, for the fluorescent daylight lamps – 0.9, and for the
white lamps – 1.1.
The general assessment of the natural lighting in different premises is made by
comparing the results of all measurements with the hygienic norms. The accuracy
of visual work is the base for these norms. It includes the sizes of the visual
objects, their contrast against the background etc.

The solar and artificial UVR spectrum consists of three regions:

· region А – long-wave ultraviolet radiation: l= 315-400 nm;
· region В – middle-wave ultraviolet radiation: l= 280-315 nm;
· region С – short-wave ultraviolet radiation: l= 10-280 nm.
Biological effects of the ultraviolet radiation are:
1. Biogenic:
· general-stimulatory,
· vitamin D formative,
· chromogenic.
2. Non-biogenic:
· bactericidal,
· carcinogenic,
· photo-ophthalmic etc.
1. General-stimulatory (erythemal) effect of the ultraviolet radiation is typical
for the wavelength of 250-320 nm (mostly region B). This effect results in the
photolysis of skin proteins (the UV rays may penetrate the skin as deep as 3-4
mm). During this process the following toxic products of photolysis are generated:
histamine, choline, adenosine, pyrimidine etc. These substances are absorbed by
blood and stimulate metabolism, raise the levels of hemoglobin, erythrocytes and
leukocytes, increase enzyme activity and liver function, stimulate the activity of
the nervous system etc.
The UVR general-stimulatory effect is emphasized by its erythemal effect,
which consists in reflex dilation of capillary vessels, particularly when exposed to
the intensive infrared radiation. The erythemal effect may cause the skin burns if
exposed to the extensive radiation.
2. Vitamin D forming (anti-rachitic) effect of the UVR is typical for the 315-
207 nm wavelength (region B). This effect consists in the decomposition of
calciferols: ergosterin (7,8-dehydrochplecterol) of the skin fat (in sebaceous
glands) turns into the vitamines D 2 (ergocholecalciferol), D3 (cholecalciferol), and
the provitamin 2,2-dehydroergosterin – into the vitamin D 4 under the UVR effect
due to the decomposition of the benzene ring.
3. Chromogenic(tanning) effect of the UVR is typical for regions A, B with
wavelength of 280-340 nm. Under the effect of the UVR and enzyme tyrosinase
the amino acid tyrosine transforms into the black pigment melanin. This pigment
protects the skin and the whole body from the excessive ultraviolet, optical and
infrared radiation.
4. Bactericidal(non-biogenic) effect of the UVR is typical for regions C and B
with wavelength from 300 to 180 nm. First, the irritation of bacteria under the
effect of the UVR activates their metabolism then a dose increase provokes the
bacteriostatic effect and further - photodecomposition, protein denaturation and
microorganism death.
5. Photo-ophthalmic effect of the UVR (the inflammation of the eye mucous
membrane) may occur high in the mountains (“snow disease” among the alpinists),
and also among the electric welders and physiotherapists that don’t observe the
safety rules during the work with the artificial UVR sources.
6. Cancerogenic effect of the UVR is more evident in hot tropical climate
conditions and during an exposure to high levels and long-term action of the UVR
technical sources (electric welding etc.).
The solar ultraviolet radiation wavelength less than 290 nm is completely
absorbed by oxygen and ozone of the upper atmosphere. The ozone layer is a layer
in Earth's atmosphere which contains relatively high concentrations of ozone (O3).
This layer absorbs 97-99% of the sun's high frequency ultraviolet light, which is
potentially damaging to life on earth. Over 90% of ozone in earth's atmosphere is
present here.
A thinning ozone layer leads to a number of serious health risks for humans.
It causes greater incidences of skin cancer and cataract of the eye, with children
being particularly vulnerable. There are also serious impacts for biodiversity.
Increased UV-B rays reduce levels of plankton in the oceans and subsequently
diminish fish stocks. It can also cause adverse effects on plant growth, thus
reducing agricultural productivity.
Atmospheric pollution causes the ozone layer destruction resulting in
appearance of “ozone holes”. The shortest and the most harmful UV waves reach
the Earth's surface through these “ozone holes”.
Artificial UVR sources:
·direct mercury-quartz lamps (MQL), mercury-arc lamps (MAL) generate
UVR wavelengths of 240 – 380 nm;
· erythemal lamps (LE-15, LЕ-30, LЕ-30) – wave lengths of 285-380 nm;
 · bactericidal lamps (LB-30) – wave lengths of 240-380 nm.
Short-wave ultraviolet irradiation (the part C) has the most expressed
bactericidal action. It is generated by mercury-quartz lamps and special
bactericidal (luminescent) lamps. They are used for the disinfection of water, air,
rooms, surgical instruments and so on.
Lately it has been found out, that very toxic compounds could be formed
during the irradiation of matters, polluting air and ground. So, the complex of
compounds, called photooxidators, is formed as a result of solar irradiation action
upon the components of exhaust gases in the atmosphere of towns. They provoke
strong irritation of mucous membranes of the eyes and upper respiratory ways.
Due to the air pollution by the dust and smoke in the settlements we lose 20-
40% of UVR. The deficient irradiation of the organism by necessary by UV-rays
is named the "sun starvation".
The deficient synthesis of vitamin D3 and accompanying disturbance of
calcium and phosphorus metabolism provokes rickets in children and osteoporosis
in adult, insufficient regeneration of bones after the fracture, the increase of teeth
decay rate in adults. In the northern latitudes the prophylactic irradiation by UV-
rays is widely used to prevent "sun starvation" (pregnant women, miners). These
measures are carried out with the help of erythematous-luminescent lamps in
photarium (fig. 5).
The direct mercury-quartz lamps (MQL) have to be restricted by special
filters for this.
The artificial UVR sources are widely used for medical treatment of
rheumatism, neuralgic pain, cutaneous tuberculosis (scrofuloderma) and in surgery
to speed-up operative, traumatic, war, purulent (septic) wound regeneration and
their complications. The UVR effect on the wound consists of bactericidal
properties, the speed-up of the purulent discharges rejection, keratoplastic skin
function stimulation, general analgesic effect. Artificial UVR sources of wide band
(such as the direct mercury-quartz lamps) are used for this purpose.
The wound hydration, scarring and epithelization period (wound regeneration)
are sped up during exposure of both the wound surface and the healthy structure
around injury, which is the source of the regeneration process, to the UV radiation.
Characteristics of the human vision:
- visual acuity (the recognition ability)is the ability of the visual analyzer to
recognize the smallest elements of the object. It’s determined by the smallest
angle, under which the two adjacent spots are recognized as separate. The visual
acuity is conventionally considered to equal to one angular minute. The visual
acuity grows proportionally to the lighting until it reaches 130-150 lux. When the
lighting is above that point, the visual acuity growth slows down.
 - contrast sensitivity is the ability of the visual analyzer to perceive the
minimum difference between the brightness of the object and the background. It
reaches its highest level when the lighting is 1 000-2 500 luxes;
- visual perception speed is the time, required to recognize the details of the
object. This speed grows until the lighting reaches 150 luxes. After that point, the
growth slows down unproportionally to the lighting growth;
- visibility is the integral function of the visual analyzer, which is the
combination of its main functions – visual acuity, contrast sensitivity, visual
perception speed;
- clear vision stability is the time, during which the object can be clearly
seen to the total time of the object examination. Physiologically this function of
the visual analyzer based on the destruction of the visual purple (rhodopsin)
under the influence of the light and formation of the protective black pigment on
those parts of the retina, where the picture is the brightest. This function reaches
its optimal value at the illuminance of 600-1 000 luxes. Its reduction is the
evidence of the visual analyzer fatigue;
- color recognition function. White, black, grey – achromatic colours are
only characterized by brightness and light flow intensity. Chromatic colours
(monochromatic) are characterized by brightness and chromaticity. Vision is the
most sensitive to the yellow and green part of the visual spectrum and the least
sensitive to the violet light. During the twilight or under the artificial illumination
(especially with incandescent lamps) the visual analyzer’s colour recognition
reduces and may distort;
- adaptation is visual analyzer’s ability to reduce its sensitivity during the
change from low to high illumination (light adaptation), (achieved very quickly,
(in 2-3 minutes) and is caused by the visual purple conversion into the protective
black pigment in the retina), and to increase it again when the illumination
changes from high to low level (adaptation to darkness), which takes much
longer – up to 40-60 minutes and is caused by the restoration of the visual purple
in the retina;
- accommodation is the ability of the eye to regulate the visual acuity
depending on the distance to the examined object and illumination due to the
changes in the light refraction in the optic system of the eye, which is mostly
caused by the crystalline lens curvature change. The curvature will increase when
the illumination is less than 100-75 luxes. So, in such circumstances the object
must be closer to the eye for the proper recognition;
The insufficient illumination leads to the overstrain of accommodation
system, overstrain of the visual analyzer, and for children and adolescents (their
eye has not yet formed completely) it may cause the myopia (short-sightedness)
especially if they have the congenital disposition;
The sources of artificial illumination may be electric and non-electric.
Non-electric sources are kerosene, carbide lamps, candles and gas lamps. Their
use nowadays is mostly limited to the field conditions and emergency
situations. The electric sources of artificial illumination may be arc lamps (in
searchlights, floodlights, spotlights etc), incandescent lamps, gas-discharge
lamps and luminescent lamps.
The disadvantage of incandescent lamps is the spectrum parallax in the
yellow-red direction, the distortion of the color perception, the dazzling
(blinding) effect of direct rays.
The luminescent lamps have the spectrum, almost similar to the daylight
with modifications, depending on the luminophore, that covers the internal
surface of the glass tube and transforms the ultraviolet luminescence of mercury
vapour in the tube into the visible light. There are the daylight lamps (DL), white
light lamps (WL), warm white light lamps (WWL) etc.
The disadvantage of luminescent lamps is the stroboscopic effect - the
flickering of moving objects.
One of the disadvantages of both the direct sunlight and bright sources of
artificial illumination is their ability to cause the dazzling effect. We protect
ourselves from the bright sunlight using the curtains and jalousies, dark-toned
windows, the sun glasses.
The lighting fixtures (also used for the aesthetic purpose), are used for
protection from the dazzling effect of artificial light sources.
The lighting fixtures are divided into 5 types according to light flow
formation (see fig. 1):
 - direct light type, directing the whole light flow into one hemisphere (the
table lamp with the opaque lamp-shade, spotlights, floodlights, and other fixtures
used in photo and movie shooting);
- evenly-diffusing the light (dim or light-white sphere);
- reflected light (when the lamp with the opaque lampshade directs the light
flow towards the upper hemisphere);
- directed-diffused light type, when the main light flow is directed towards
the lower hemisphere through the aperture in the lampshade and the other part is
diffused to the upper hemisphere through the lampshade made of plastic, dim or
light-white glass;
- reflected-diffused light type, when the main light flow is directed towards
the upper hemisphere and is reflected from the ceiling but a part of it is diffused
to the lower hemisphere through the lamp-shade with dim or light-white glass.

The allowable values of dazzling at the workplace are:

-20 cd/m2for types 1 and 2 of the visual work;
-40 cd/m2for the types 3-5 of the visual work;
- 60 cd/m2for the types 6 and 7 of the visual work.
Fig.1. Types of lighting fixtures
(1 - direct light type, 2 - directed-diffused light type; 3, 4 - evenly-diffused light
type; 5 - reflected-diffused light type)

Hygienic requirements for illumination are following:

Sufficiency of lighting – there should be enough lighting to enable us to see
details of objects and surroundings without strain;
Evenness of lighting – light of the same intensity is required over the whole
work plane. Proper dispersal of light without shadows is required for efficient
vision;
Illumination should have optimum brightness – the allowable brightness of
the work plane is 50-1000 Cd/m2 considering the type of visual work and
function of premises. If brightness exceeds the allowable level, it causes visual
discomfort and dazzle. When direct rays of sunlight from windows or doors hit
surfaces of polished floors, mirrors or surgical instruments, they give off a
discomforting and dazzle (glare).
Illumination should not produce (create) shadows - many shadows confuse
vision;
Illumination should be absence of flickering, which can cause eye strain;
Illumination should have optimum spectral composition – the optimum
lighting should be natural. The color of light is not as important as its intensity.
The natural light has a soothing effect. That’s why the spectral composition of
illumination should be approximated to the natural light;
Illumination should be combined – it is advisable to use simultaneously the
general and local illumination of the same spectral composition.

Illumination determination using the ‘Watt’ calculation method:

a) the area of the premises is determined, S, m2;
b) the total capacity of all the lamps, Wt, is determined;
c) the specific capacity, Wt/ m2, is calculated;
d) the illuminance at the specific capacity of 10 Wt/m 2can be found from the
table 1 of minimum horizontal illuminance values;
e) for the incandescent lamps the illuminance is calculated according to the
following formula:
Р Е таб
Е
10 К
where, P – is a specific capacity, Wt/m2;
Etab - illuminance at 10 Wt/m2, (from table 1);
K – which equals to 1.3, is the reserve coefficient for residential and
public premises.
Table 1
The (Etab) minimum horizontal illuminance values at the specific capacity (P) of 10 Wt/m
2
The electric The direct light Half-reflected light
lamp capacity,
Voltage, V
Wt
100…127 220 100…127 220

40 26 23 16.5 19.5

60 29 25 25 21

100 35 27 30 23

150 39.5 31 34 26.5

200 41.5 34 35.5 29.5

300 44 37 38 32

500 48 41 41 35
 This formula may be applied for the illumination calculation if all the lamps
have the same capacity. The calculations are done separately if there are lamps
with different capacity. Their results are added up. The received illumination
value by the “Watt” method is compared to the normative values (table 2).

Table 2
Standards of the general artificial illumination
(BNaR II-69-78 and BNaR II-4-79)
Premises The smallest illumination, lux

Luminescent Incandescent
lamps lamps

Rooms and kitchens of dwelling 75 30

houses

Classrooms 300 150

Rooms of technical drawing 500 300

School workshops 300 150

Operating and sectional rooms 200

Delivery room, dressing ward, 400 200

manipulation room

Pre-operative room 300 150

Surgeon’s, obstetrician- 500 200

gynecologist, pediatrician’s,
infectionist’s, dentist’s room

X-ray room - 150

Wards for newly-born babies, 150 75

postoperative rooms
For the luminescent lamps with 10 Wt/m 2 specific capacity the minimum
horizontal illumination is 100 luxes. The minimum horizontal illumination for
other specific capacities is calculated proportionally.
The above mentioned method is not fully precise as it doesn’t take the
illumination in each point, lamp location and some other factors into the account,
but is often used for the classes, wards and other areas illumination assessment.
 To determine the illumination at the definite workplace, the lamp specific
capacity (P) must be multiplied by the coefficient (e), which shows the amount of
luxes, given by the 1 Wt/m 2 specific capacity: E = P×e. This coefficient for the
premises of 50 m2 area and the lamp capacities of less than 110 Wt is 2, 110 Wt
and more – 2.5 (see table 3) and 12.5 for the luminescent lamps.
Table 3
The values of the coefficient e
Lamp capacity, Voltage, V
Wt
110, 120, 127 220

less than 110 2.4 2.0

110 and more 3.2 2.5

Illuminance determination using the luxmeter.
The determination of horizontal illuminance at the workplace is done with
the help of luxmeter. The 0.9 correction coefficient is used for the luminescent
lamps of day illumination (LD); 1.1 - for the white lamps; 1.2 - for the mercury-
discharge lamps, because the device has initially been intended for measuring of
the illuminance, produced by incandescent lamps.
If the determination is done in the morning or in the afternoon, it’s
necessary to determine the illuminance, produced by the mixed illumination
(both natural and artificial). After that the determination is done when the
artificial illumination is switched off. The difference between the received data is
the value of illuminance, produced by the artificial illumination.
The illumination evenness is determined by the “Envelope method,” which
means that illuminance is measured at 5 different points of the premises and
evaluated by calculation of illuminance variety coefficient (minimum
illuminance divided by the maximum illuminance at two different points, which
are 0.75 m from each other, when the evenness is determined at the workplace, or
5 m from each other, if the evenness is determined in the whole room).
The calculation of the workplane brightness is made using to the formula:
Е C
B ,
3,14
where, B - is brightness, Cd/m2;
E - illumination, lux;
C - coefficient of surface reflection
(0.7 - white; 0.5 - light-beige; 0.4 -brown; 0.1 - black).
The allowable workplane brightness is 50-1000 Cd/m2 considering the type
of visual work and premises’ function.