Postgraduate Diploma in

Education (PGDE)

Research Methods

Module PGDE 105

Published by: The Zimbabwe Open University

P.O. Box MP1119

Mount Pleasant

Harare, ZIMBABWE

The Zimbabwe Open University is a distance teaching and open

learning institution.

Year: 2011

Cover design: T. Ndhlovu

Layout and design: S. Mushore

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Typeset in Times New Roman, 12 point on auto leading

© Zimbabwe Open University. All rights reserved. No part of this

publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of
the Zimbabwe Open University.
Author: Shumbayawonda Takaendesa Wilbert
MEd Teacher Education (UZ)
BA (General)
Post Grade CE, Dip. Teacher Education (UZ)

Content Reviewer: Muyengwa Banarbas

MEd Teacher Education (UZ)
BEd Mathematics (UZ)

Editor: Manjengwa Pauline

MA in Distance Education (IGNOU)
Post Graduate Diploma in Distance Education (IGNOU)
Bachelor of Education (UZ)
Diploma in Teacher Education (UZ)
Certificate in Curriculum Design and Development
(Kenya)
Teacher’s Certificate (NTTC)
 To the student
The demand for skills and knowledge administrators of varied backgrounds,
and the requirement to adjust and training, skills, experiences and
change with changing technology, personal interests. The combination
places on us a need to learn of all these qualities inevitably
continually throughout life. As all facilitates the production of learning
people need an education of one form materials that teach successfully any
or another, it has been found that student, anywhere and far removed
conventional education institutions from the tutor in space and time. We
cannot cope with the demand for emphasize that our learning materials
education of this magnitude. It has, should enable you to solve both work-
however, been discovered that distance related problems and other life
education and open learning, now also challenges.
exploiting e-learning technology, itself
an offshoot of e-commerce, has To avoid stereotyping and professional
become the most effective way of narrowness, our teams of learning
transmitting these appropriate skills materials producers come from
and knowledge required for national different universities in and outside
and international development. Zimbabwe, and from Commerce and
Industry. This openness enables ZOU
Since attainment of independence in to produce materials that have a long
1980, the Zimbabwe Government has shelf life and are sufficiently
spearheaded the development of comprehensive to cater for the needs
distance education and open learning of all of you, our learners in different
at tertiary level, resulting in the walks of life. You, the learner, have a
establishment of the Zimbabwe Open large number of optional courses to
University (ZOU) on 1 March, 1999. choose from so that the knowledge and
skills developed suit the career path
ZOU is the first, leading, and currently that you choose. Thus, we strive to
tailor-make the learning materials so
the only university in Zimbabwe
that they can suit your personal and
entirely dedicated to teaching by
professional needs. In developing the
distance education and open learning.
ZOU learning materials, we are guided
We are determined to maintain our
by the desire to provide you, the learner,
leading position by both satisfying our
with all the knowledge and skill that
clients and maintaining high will make you a better performer all
academic standards. To achieve the round, be this at certificate, diploma,
leading position, we have adopted the undergraduate or postgraduate level.
course team approach to producing We aim for products that will settle
the varied learning materials that will comfortably in the global village and
holistically shape you, the learner to competing successfully with anyone.
be an all-round performer in the field Our target is, therefore, to satisfy your
of your own choice. Our course teams quest for knowledge and skills through
comprise academics, technologists and distance education and open learning
or postgraduate level. We aim for products that of information, anywhere in the world through
will settle comfortably in the global village and internet and to communicate, converse, discuss
competing successfully with anyone. Our target and collaborate synchronously and
is, therefore, to satisfy your quest for knowledge asynchronously, with peers and tutors whom
and skills through distance education and open you may never meet in life. It is our intention
learning to bring the computer, email, internet chat-
rooms, whiteboards and other modern methods
Any course or programme launched by ZOU of delivering learning to all the doorsteps of
is conceived from the cross-pollination of ideas our learners, wherever they may be. For all these
from consumers of the product, chief among developments and for the latest information on
whom are you, the students and your what is taking place at ZOU, visit the ZOU
employers. We consult you and listen to your website at www.zou.ac.co.zw
critical analysis of the concepts and how they
are presented. We also consult other academics Having worked as best we can to prepare your
from universities the world over and other learning path, hopefully like John the Baptist
international bodies whose reputation in prepared for the coming of Jesus Christ, it is
distance education and open learning is of a my hope as your Vice Chancellor that all of
very high calibre. We carry out pilot studies you, will experience unimpeded success in your
of the course outlines, the content and the educational endeavours. We, on our part, shall
programme component. We are only too glad continually strive to improve the learning
to subject our learning materials to academic materials through evaluation, transformation
and professional criticism with the hope of of delivery methodologies, adjustments and
improving them all the time. We are sometimes complete overhauls of both the
determined to continue improving by materials and organizational structures and
changing the learning materials to suit the culture that are central to providing you with
idiosyncratic needs of our learners, their the high quality education that you deserve.
employers, research, economic circumstances, Note that your needs, the learner ‘s needs,
technological development, changing times occupy a central position within ZOU’s core
and geographic location, in order to maintain activities.
our leading position. We aim at giving you an
education that will work for you at any time Best wishes and success in your studies.
anywhere and in varying circumstances and
that your performance should be second to
none.

As a progressive university that is forward

looking and determined to be a successful part
of the twenty-first century, ZOU has started _____________________
to introduce e-learning materials that will Dr. Primrose Kurasha
enable you, our students, to access any source Vice Chancellor
 The Six Hour Tutorial Session At
The Zimbabwe Open University
A s you embark on your studies with the Zimbabwe
Open University (ZOU) by open and distance
learning, we need to advise you so that you can make
This is where the six hour tutorial comes in. For it
to work, you need to know that:
· There is insufficient time for the tutor to
the best use of the learning materials, your time and
the tutors who are based at your regional office. lecture you
· Any ideas that you discuss in the tutorial,
The most important point that you need to note is originate from your experience as you
that in distance education and open learning, there work on the materials. All the issues
are no lectures like those found in conventional raised above are a good source of topics
universities. Instead, you have learning packages that (as they pertain to your learning) for
may comprise written modules, tapes, CDs, DVDs discussion during the tutorial
and other referral materials for extra reading. All these
· The answers come from you while the
including radio, television, telephone, fax and email
can be used to deliver learning to you. As such, at tutor’s task is to confirm, spur further
the ZOU, we do not expect the tutor to lecture you discussion, clarify, explain, give
when you meet him/her. We believe that that task is additional information, guide the
accomplished by the learning package that you receive discussion and help you put together full
at registration. What then is the purpose of the six answers for each question that you bring
hour tutorial for each course on offer? · You must prepare for the tutorial by
bringing all the questions and answers
At the ZOU, as at any other distance and open that you have found out on the topics to
learning university, you the student are at the centre the discussion
of learning. After you receive the learning package, · For the tutor to help you effectively, give
you study the tutorial letter and other guiding him/her the topics beforehand so that in
documents before using the learning materials. During cases where information has to be
the study, it is obvious that you will come across gathered, there is sufficient time to do
concepts/ideas that may not be that easy to understand so. If the questions can get to the tutor
or that are not so clearly explained. You may also at least two weeks before the tutorial,
come across issues that you do not agree with, that that will create enough time for thorough
actually conflict with the practice that you are familiar preparation.
with. In your discussion groups, your friends can bring
ideas that are totally different from yours and In the tutorial, you are expected and required to
arguments may begin. You may also find that an idea take part all the time through contributing in every
is not clearly explained and you remain with more way possible. You can give your views, even if
questions than answers. You need someone to help they are wrong, (many students may hold the same
you in such matters. wrong views and the discussion will help correct
 The Six Hour Tutorial Session At The Zimbabwe Open University

the errors), they still help you learn the correct thing as the tutor may dwell on matters irrelevant to the
as much as the correct ideas. You also need to be ZOU course.
open-minded, frank, inquisitive and should leave no
stone unturned as you analyze ideas and seek
clarification on any issues. It has been found that Distance education, by its nature, keeps the tutor
those who take part in tutorials actively, do better in and student separate. By introducing the six hour
assignments and examinations because their ideas are tutorial, ZOU hopes to help you come in touch with
streamlined. Taking part properly means that you the physical being, who marks your assignments,
prepare for the tutorial beforehand by putting together assesses them, guides you on preparing for writing
relevant questions and their possible answers and examinations and assignments and who runs your
those areas that cause you confusion. general academic affairs. This helps you to settle
down in your course having been advised on how
Only in cases where the information being discussed to go about your learning. Personal human contact
is not found in the learning package can the tutor is, therefore, upheld by the ZOU.
provide extra learning materials, but this should not
be the dominant feature of the six hour tutorial. As
stated, it should be rare because the information
needed for the course is found in the learning package
together with the sources to which you are referred.
Fully-fledged lectures can, therefore, be misleading

The six hour tutorials should be so structured that the

tasks for each session are very clear. Work for each
session, as much as possible, follows the structure given
below.

Session I (Two Hours)

Session I should be held at the beginning of the semester. The main aim
of this session is to guide you, the student, on how you are going to
approach the course. During the session, you will be given the overview
of the course, how to tackle the assignments, how to organize the logistics
of the course and formation of study groups that you will belong to. It is
also during this session that you will be advised on how to use your
learning materials effectively.
 The Six Hour Tutorial Session At The Zimbabwe Open University

Session II (Two Hours)

This session comes in the middle of the semester to respond to the
challenges, queries, experiences, uncertainties, and ideas that you are
facing as you go through the course. In this session, difficult areas in the
module are explained through the combined effort of the students and
the tutor. It should also give direction and feedback where you have not
done well in the first assignment as well as reinforce those areas where
performance in the first assignment is good.

Session III (Two Hours)

The final session, Session III, comes towards the end of the semester.
In this session, you polish up any areas that you still need clarification on.
Your tutor gives you feedback on the assignments so that you can use
the experience for preparation for the end of semester examination.

Note that in all the three sessions, you identify the areas
that your tutor should give help. You also take a very
important part in finding answers to the problems posed.
You are the most important part of the solutions to your
learning challenges.

Conclusion for this course, but also to prepare yourself to

contribute in the best way possible so that you
In conclusion, we should be very clear that six can maximally benefit from it. We also urge you
hours is too little for lectures and it is not to avoid forcing the tutor to lecture you.
necessary, in view of the provision of fully self-
contained learning materials in the package, to BEST WISHES IN YOUR STUDIES.
turn the little time into lectures. We, therefore,
urge you not only to attend the six hour tutorials ZOU
Contents
__________ Module Overview _________________________________________________ 1

Unit One: Conceptual Framework on Research in Education

1.1 ________ Introduction _____________________________________________________ 5

1.2 ________ Objectives _______________________________________________________ 6
1.3 ________ Meaning and Definition of Research ________________________________ 6
__________ Activity 1.1 _______________________________________________________ 6
__________ Activity 1.2 _______________________________________________________ 7
1.4 ________ Why do Research? Role and Importance of Research __________________ 8
__________ Activity 1.3 _______________________________________________________ 9
__________ Activity 1.4 ______________________________________________________ 10
__________ Activity 1.5 _______________________________________________________11
1.5 ________ Summary ________________________________________________________ 11
__________ References _____________________________________________________ 12

Unit Two: Research Process

2.1 ________ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 13

2.2 ________ Objectives ______________________________________________________ 14
2.3 ________ Outline of the Research Process ____________________________________ 14
__________ 2.3.1 General introduction ________________________________________ 14
__________ 2.3.2 Review of related literature ___________________________________ 14
__________ 2.3.3 Research design/methodology ________________________________ 14
__________ 2.3.4 Presentation, interpretation and analysis of finding ________________ 15
__________ 2.3.5 Further analysis and recommendations __________________________ 15
2.4 ________ Background to the Study __________________________________________ 15
__________ Activity 2.1 ______________________________________________________ 16
2.5 ________ Statement of the Problem _________________________________________ 16
__________ Activity 2.2 _____________________________________________________ 17
2.6 ________ Importance of the Study __________________________________________ 18
__________ Activity 2.3 _____________________________________________________ 20
2.7 ________ Limitations _____________________________________________________ 20
__________ Activity 2.4 _____________________________________________________ 21
2.8 ________ Scope/Delimitation of the Study ___________________________________ 21
__________ Activity 2.5 _____________________________________________________ 21
2.9 ________ Basic Assumptions _______________________________________________ 22
__________ Activity 2.6 _____________________________________________________ 22
2.10 _______ Definition of Key Terms __________________________________________ 22
__________ Activity 2.7 _____________________________________________________ 23
2.11 _______ Summary _______________________________________________________ 24
__________ References _____________________________________________________ 25
Unit Three: Ethics in Research

3.1 ________ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 27

3.2 ________ Objectives ______________________________________________________ 28
3.3 ________ Definition of Ethics _____________________________________________ 28
3.4 ________ Informed Consent _______________________________________________ 29
3.5 ________ Risks and Benefits to Participants __________________________________ 29
__________ Activity 3.1 ______________________________________________________ 30
3.6 ________ Confidentiality and Privacy ________________________________________ 30
3.7 ________ Deception ______________________________________________________ 31
3.8 ________ Debriefing and De-hoaxing _______________________________________ 31
3.9 ________ Ethical Issues and Scholarly Work __________________________________ 31
3.10 _______ Execution of the Research Study ___________________________________ 32
3.11 _______ Reporting Results _______________________________________________ 32
3.12 _______ Publication Credit _______________________________________________ 32
3.13 _______ Plagiarism ______________________________________________________ 33
__________ Activity 3.2 _____________________________________________________ 33
3.14 _______ Summary _______________________________________________________ 34
__________ References _____________________________________________________ 35

Unit Four: Review of Related Literature

4.1 ________ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 37

4.2 ________ Objectives ______________________________________________________ 38
4.3 ________ Purpose of Literature Review _____________________________________ 38
__________ Activity 4.1 ______________________________________________________ 39
4.4 ________ How to Begin a Search for Related Literature ________________________ 40
__________ Activity 4.2 _____________________________________________________ 40
4.5 ________ Focus for Literature Review _______________________________________ 40
4.6 ________ Writing the Section on Review of Related Literature __________________ 41
4.7 ________ Illustration on Review of Related Literature _________________________ 41
4.8 ________ Supervision and Assessment _______________________________________ 43
__________ Activity 4.3 _____________________________________________________ 45
4.9 ________ Summary _______________________________________________________ 45
__________ References _____________________________________________________ 46

Unit Five: Research Design and Methodology

5.1 ________ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 47

5.2 ________ Objectives ______________________________________________________ 48
5.3 ________ Definition and Conceptual Framework on Research Design _____________ 48
5.4 ________ Types/Kinds of Designs _________________________________________ 48
5.5 ________ Conceptual Analysis of a Survey __________________________________ 49
__________ 5.5.1 Advantages of the survey approach _____________________________ 50
__________ 5.5.2 Disadvantages of the survey approach __________________________ 50
__________ Activity 5.1 ______________________________________________________ 51
 5.6 ________ Interviews ______________________________________________________ 51
__________ Activity 5.2 _____________________________________________________ 53
5.7 ________ Observation ____________________________________________________ 53
__________ 5.7.1 Conceptual framework _______________________________________ 53
__________ 5.7.2 Advantages of observation ____________________________________ 53
__________ 5.7.3 Disadvantages of observation _________________________________ 54
5.8 ________ Document Analysis ______________________________________________ 54
__________ Activity 5.3 _____________________________________________________ 54
5.9 ________ Action Research ________________________________________________ 55
__________ Activity 5.4 _____________________________________________________ 55
5.10 _______ Case Studies ___________________________________________________ 55
__________ Activity 5.5 _____________________________________________________ 56
5.11 _______ Pilot Study ______________________________________________________ 56
__________ Activity 5.6 _____________________________________________________ 57
5.12 _______ Summary _______________________________________________________ 57
__________ References _____________________________________________________ 58

Unit Six: Research Instruments, Population, Samples, Data

Collection and Processing Procedures, Validity and Reliability

6.1 ________ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 59

6.2 ________ Objectives ______________________________________________________ 60
6.3 ________ Research Instruments ____________________________________________ 60
6.4 ________ Questionnaires __________________________________________________ 60
__________ 6.4.1 Types of questionnaires ______________________________________ 61
6.5 ________ Illustration on Instructions and Format of Questionnaires ______________ 61
__________ 6.5.1 Examples of questionnaires ___________________________________ 62
__________ Activity 6.1 ______________________________________________________ 70
__________ Activity 6.2 _____________________________________________________ 71
6.6 ________ Study Population ________________________________________________ 71
6.7 ________ Research Sample ________________________________________________ 72
__________ Activity 6.3 _____________________________________________________ 73
6.8 ________ Sampling Procedures _____________________________________________ 73
6.9 ________ Data Collection Procedures ________________________________________ 74
6.10 _______ Data Processing Procedures _______________________________________ 74
__________ Activity 6.5 _____________________________________________________ 75
__________ Activity 6.6 _____________________________________________________ 75
6.11 _______ Reliability ______________________________________________________ 75
__________ Activity 6.7 _____________________________________________________ 76
6.12 _______ Validity ________________________________________________________ 76
__________ Activity 6.8 _____________________________________________________ 76
6.13 _______ Summary _______________________________________________________ 76
__________ References _____________________________________________________ 77
Unit Seven: Data Presentation, Interpretation and Analysis

7.1 ________ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 79

7.2 ________ Objectives ______________________________________________________ 80
7.3 ________ Data Presentation Process _________________________________________ 80
__________ Activity 7.1 ______________________________________________________ 81
__________ Activity 7.2 _____________________________________________________ 83
7.4 ________ The Interpretation of Data ________________________________________ 83
7.5 ________ Illustration on Data Presentation and Interpretation ___________________ 84
__________ Activity 7.3 _____________________________________________________ 86
7.6 ________ Summary _______________________________________________________ 86
__________ References _____________________________________________________ 88

Unit Eight: Further Analysis, Conclusions and Recommendations

8.1 ________ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 89

8.2 ________ Objectives ______________________________________________________ 90
__________ Activity 8.1 ______________________________________________________ 90
8.3 ________ Further Analysis of Research Findings ______________________________ 90
__________ Activity 8.2 _____________________________________________________ 95
8.4 ________ Summary _______________________________________________________ 95
8.5 ________ Conclusions ____________________________________________________ 96
__________ Activity 8.3 _____________________________________________________ 96
8.6 ________ Recommendations _______________________________________________ 96
8.7 ________ Summary _______________________________________________________ 97
__________ References _____________________________________________________ 98

Unit Nine: Research Proposal

9.1 ________ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 99

9.2 ________ Objectives _____________________________________________________ 100
9.3 ________ What is a Research Plan/Proposal? ________________________________ 100
9.4 ________ The Role of the Research Proposal ________________________________ 100
__________ Activity 9.1 ______________________________________________________ 101
9.5 ________ Main Characteristics of a Research Plan _____________________________ 101
__________ Activity 9.2 ____________________________________________________ 102
__________ Activity 9.3 ____________________________________________________ 102
9.6 ________ Components of a Research Proposal _______________________________ 103
__________ Activity 9.4 ____________________________________________________ 104
__________ Activity 9.5 ____________________________________________________ 105
__________ Activity 9.6 ____________________________________________________ 106
9.7 ________ Summary ______________________________________________________ 106
__________ References ____________________________________________________ 108
Module Overview

T he module on Research Methods is important and crucial to you as

Post Graduate Diploma in Education students. It enhances your
academic and professional development and growth as a teacher and
professional. It capacitates you in the area of research. Research is one
of the courses you have to fulfill to obtain your diploma in education.

This module is important to you as the Post Graduate in Education (PGDE)

student. You are already a graduate. You need to acquire additional
knowledge and skills in order to qualify as a professional teacher

Unit One sets the scene for the whole module as it provides the conceptual
framework by defining and clarifying the concept of research. The role,
significance and importance of research to you and society are also
interrogated in Unit one.

Unit Two summarises the research process in skeletal form. The

background of the study establishes a base for you and places the study
into some intelligible context, touching on some of the issues related to it.
The concern and question that bother you as a researcher propel you to
come up with the research topic, statement of the problem and sub-
problems. The unit also covers importance of study, limitations, scope,
basic assumptions and definition of key terms as used in your research.
Research Methods Module PGDE105

Unit Three covers and analyses ethics in research. Research ethics in

education is defined and clarified for you. This is followed by a discussion
on informed consent, risks and benefits to participants, confidentiality
and privacy, deception, debriefing, ethical issues and scholarly work,
execution of the research study, reporting results, publication credit and
plagiarism. These issues have been covered to assist you in your research
so as to avoid pitfalls that might adversely affect the quality and authenticity
of your research.

In Unit Four we interrogate review of related literature. This unit is

important to you as a researcher. Literature is reviewed in order to see
what other people have said about the issues to be interrogated. Aspects
discussed in the unit include purpose of the literature review, how to
begin a search for related literature, focus for literature review and writing
the section on review of related literature.

In Unit Five we cover another very important section in research for

you. The success and quality of your final research report will depend on
how well you have chosen the design and the methods and strategies you
employ. Aspects covered include definition and conceptual framework
on research design, types of designs, conceptual analysis of a survey,
advantages of the survey, and disadvantages of the survey approach,
interviews, observations, document analysis, action research, case studies
and pilot study.

Unit Six is a continuation of research design and methodology. It covers

in some greater detail the research instrument you could use in your research
work. Aspects covered include questionnaires, types of questionnaires,
interviews and observation guides. In the unit we also discuss the study
population, research sample, sampling procedures, data collection
procedures, data processing procedures, reliability and validity.

Unit Seven highlights for you and gives you hints and tips on presentation,
interpretation and analysis of data. Aspects covered include the data
presentation process, interpretation of data and an illustration on data,
presentation and analysis. The illustration was given just as an example
and not a prescription.

Unit Eight wraps up the research process by discussing further analysis

of research findings by synthesising the main results, conclusions and
observations. This has been done to assist you on how you could wrap up
your research effectively.

2 Zimbabwe Open University

 Overview

Unit Nine constitutes the last unit of the module. This unit on the Research
Proposal’ has been placed last because by now we assume that you have
requisite knowledge and skills in the area of research. You should be
able to draft a research proposal with confidence. The meaning of research,
the role of research proposal, main characteristics of a research proposal,
components of research and the summary have been covered.

Zimbabwe Open University 3

 Unit One

Conceptual Framework on
Research in Education

1.1 Introduction

R esearch Methods is one of the courses you have to fulfill as a

condition to meet the requirements of the (PGDE) programme. It is
therefore important that from the very outset, you need to develop a liking
of the research field. In other words you need to be motivated. Motivation
is a psychological vitamin that propels you to what to learn the skills and
knowledge in research. Research is critical for change and development
to take place. It needs to be developed. Research is also very important
for your personal and professional growth and development. Unit 1 will
introduce you to the concept of research.
Research Methods Module PGDE105

1.2 Objectives

After reading through this unit, you should be able to:

 explain the essence of this module

 define the concept research with confidence
 describe the role and importance of research in society

1.3 Meaning and Definition of Research

Activity 1.1

? Attempt to define research as you conceive it now.

Chikoko and Mhloyi (1995) say, “Research is a systematic process of

collecting and logically analysing information in order to provide answers
to questions. It is an attempt to solve problems in a systematic way.”

Makore-Rukuni et.al, (2001) quoting from the English Dictionary, say

“Research is a search or investigation directed to the discovery of some
fact by careful consideration or study of a subject, a course of critical or
scientific enquiry.”

McCleod (1994) says, “Research is a systematic process of critical enquiry

leading to valid propositions and conclusions that are communicated to
others”.

Kerlinger (1986), in Makore – Rukuni (2001) state “Scientific research

is a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of natural
phenomena guided by theory and hypothesis about presumed relations
among such phenomena.”

Pratt and Loizos (2003) say, “Research is a systematic approach to the

gathering of information to solve specific problems no more but no less.”

6 Zimbabwe Open University

Unit 1 Conceptual Framework on Research in Education

Flick et. al (2004) with respect to qualitative research say:

Qualitative research claims to describe life-worlds from the, ‘inside out’ from
the point of view of the people who participate. It seeks to contribute to a
better understanding of social realities and to draw attention to processes and
meaning patterns. Qualitative research, with its precise ‘thick’ descriptions,
does not simply depict reality. It rather makes use of the unusual or deviant
and unexpected as a source of insight and a mirror whose reflection makes the
unknown perceptible.

Shumbayawonda (2011) defines research as “a critical and systematic

enquiry and investigation of identified phenomena within a social set up
that lead to valid propositions, conclusions and recommendations that
are then communicated to others for consideration, action and effecting
change and development”.

You should, have identified the following key terms as critical to clarify
the concept of research:
 Process
 Critical
 Systematic
 Empirical
 Inquiry
 Investigation
 Phenomena
 Within a social set up
 Valid propositions
 Recommendations communicated to others, and
 Resulting in change and development

Activity 1.2

? Using key terms above, and using your own words as far as
possible:
1. Define the term research
2. Compare this definition with the one you attempted in
Activity 1.1 above. What do you say about the
differences?

Zimbabwe Open University 7

Research Methods Module PGDE105

1.4 Why do Research? Role and Importance of

Research

Shumbayawonda, W.T. (2011:55) gives the following as justification for

research. In other words, the aspects given by Shumbayawonda (2011)
underline the importance of carrying out research. Shumbayawonda (2011)
says:
 “Research leads to or generates new information or knowledge
that assists people or planners to initiate new developments or to
update information in circulation.
 Research opens the way to innovative methods or strategies that
are aimed at improving practice
 Research can assist students or professionals on informing practice
as to what would be effective, what works and why and how – this
enhances the effectiveness, efficiency and quality of operations and
service provision / delivery
 Research also builds on existing knowledge about human behaviour
and change processes which are vital to human endeavour
 Research can encourage the development of new methodologies
that challenge prevailing ones. This can result in injecting currency
to existing thought and practice, and
 The state of knowledge is not static, thus new knowledge can be
accessed or developed through research. This can lead to new
paradigms leading to progressive shifting of mindsets.”

Shumbayawonda (2011) seems to indicate that research is vital and

beneficial to society. Results, generated from research can assist,
professionals, managers, planners and other interested parties to come
out with useful information that can be used to improve or modify practice.
For instance research carried out by Shumbayawonda (2006) yielded
results that indicated that student supervision and assessment at teachers’
colleges tends to focus on assessment at the expense of useful supervision
that is associated with learner support and growth. In other words, the
findings seem to indicate that lecturers who go out to supervise students
tend to focus on assessing students by rating them and giving them grades
without spending more time with them. Lecturers or tutors use the
‘transmission model’. Yost (2000) argues that the transmission model is
associated with lecturers or teachers or tutors pouring down knowledge
into passive learners. Yost (2000) argues that such an approach lacks the
8 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 1 Conceptual Framework on Research in Education

necessary learner support and growth that maximise learning. Yost (2000)
argues for the use of the ‘transformation of the learners’ thinking’. The
Transformation Model is associated with maximum learner (student)
involvement. In teaching practice, this would be associated with lecturers
coming to supervise students by giving them maximum support. This is
done by spending more time with the student, letting the student evaluate
his / her performance by referring to weak or strong points and the
appropriate remedial strategies. Argued this way, research’s importance
in teacher education, like the Post Graduate Diploma in Education (PGDE)
would be greatly justified.

Activity 1.3

? 1. As a PGDE student sent to Senga Secondary School, to

supervise Rutendo in Form 3, teaching a Geography
lesson on ecosystems, describe briefly how you conduct
your post-lesson supervision.
2. Justify yourself fully – using Yost’s ‘transformation of
the students thinking’ model.

Makore – Rukuni (2001) asserts that research can expose the strengths
and weaknesses of operations and programmes. The weaknesses that
emerge from a programme, based on research findings, can be diagnosed
leading to appropriate strategies and remedies to correct the situation.
Correction of the situation in a system, like a secondary school, can lead
to improvement of practice. This enhances quality and effectiveness of
school operations.

McCleod (2000) says, that research can encourage good practice.

MacCleod (2000) goes on to argue that a practitioner (such as you the
teacher) who reads and publishes in international journals is able to
broaden his / her mind to critical analysis from fellow scholars.

MacCleod (2000) summarises the following roles of research:

 Testing the validity of theory
 Evaluating the effectiveness of different designs or techniques
 Demonstrating to a third part (e.g. government department) the cost
effectiveness of counseling

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Research Methods Module PGDE105

 Enabling individual practitioners to monitor his or her work

 Assisting a teacher (like yourself) to acquire a postgraduate
qualification
 Letting colleagues know particularly interesting cases or innovations
 Establishing the academic credibility of teacher education and its
role in society
MacCleod (2000) in Makore – Rukuni (2001) points the following as
the most salient reasons for research:
 Gaining a wider perspective about one’s field of work, pooling
knowledge from other professionals
 Research provides an objective vehicle through which (teachers)
can account for what they do in the classroom
 The various designs and methods available in research help the
teacher to be well informed, versatile and effective in his/ her work
Flick, U et al (2008) justifying the importance or role of qualitative research
says,

Qualitative research is frequently more open and thereby more involved

than other research strategies that work with large quantities and strictly
standardized and therefore more objective. This very openness to the
world of experience, its internal design and the principles of its
construction are, for qualitative research, not only an end in themselves
giving a panorama of ‘cultural snapshots’ of small life worlds, but also
the main starting point for the construction of a grounded theoretical basis.

The major reason for educational research is to develop new knowledge

about teaching and learning and administration. The new knowledge is
valuable because it will lead eventually to the improvement of educational
practice (Borg, W.R. and Gall, M.D. 1989 Educational Research: An
Introduction Why do Research?)

Activity 1.4
Give at least 3 examples where educational research leads to
? eventual improvements of educational practice.

Shumbayawonda (1997) identified the following as signifying the

importance of the research (study) he conducted on teaching practice
effectiveness:

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Unit 1 Conceptual Framework on Research in Education

 The study helps the researcher and those who may read it to have a
better understanding of the weaknesses and strengths of teaching
practice supervision in colleges
 It deals with contemporary issues of supervision for which large
amounts of money are committed
 The research brings awareness on the part of the researcher and
those interested in effective teaching practice supervision of the
need to efficiently and economically utilize financial, human and
material resources
 College and university lectures, head office and school personnel
who may come across this study might gain knowledge of problems
affecting teaching practice supervision
 This study reveals the feelings and perceptions of lecturers, school
personnel and students on how teaching practice supervision is
conducted. This adds more knowledge and reveals areas that call
for further researcher in teaching practice.
 It enhances the academic and professional status of the researcher
by obtaining a Master’s Degree in Education

Activity 1.5

? Closely read and analyse the importance of research identified

by Shumbayawonda (1997).
1. Explain his research benefits to lecturers, colleges and
universities.
2. Of what benefit was his research to other people?
3. The implications on material utilisation.
4. Explain how the research benefited him.

1.5 Summary
This unit covered the overview of the concept of research. This was
done through definitions and clarification from various authorities in the
area of research. The definitions were followed by an analysis of the
importance and role of research. The analysis was done in such a way
that it pointed the direction towards the need to come up with effective
research. In short, Unit One provided you with a base in clarifying what
research is and its importance to the student. The next unit introduces you
to the ‘Research Process’.

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References

Chikoko, V. and Mhloyi, G. (1995) Introduction to Research Methods

Harare: Zimbabwe Open University.
Flick, U, Kardorff and Steinke (2004) Qualitative Research. Los Angeles:
Sage.
Makore – Rukuni (2001) Introduction to Research Methods in
Counseling. Harare: Zimbabwe Open University.
Mcleod (1994) Doing Counseling Research. London: Sage.
Pratt, B. and Loizos, P. (2003) Choosing Research Methods Explain.
UK.
Shumbayawonda, W.T. (2011) Quality Assurance Information Handbook.
(Zimbabwe Unpublished) Harare: Zimbabwe Open University.

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 Unit Two

Research Process

2.1 Introduction

A s a Post Graduate Diploma in Education student (PGDE) who is

expected to take up, “Research Methods” as a course and to
undertake research, an outline of the research process is essential. The
research process in this unit is for a start presented as a frame, or guidelines
on the steps or stages followed by most of the research projects or
dissertations. The process is initially presented in skeletal form, reflecting
a logical ending with research recommendations. You are therefore
challenged to read closely and do all the activities so that the content and
knowledge is internalized in you. Wish you the best of luck as you walk
through the research process. Below is the skeletal form.
Research Methods Module PGDE105

2.2 Objectives

After reading this unit, you should be able to:

 explain the role of the general introduction

 formulate, with confidence, the background to any
chosen piece of research
 state the statement of the problem
 explain the critical role played by review of related
literature in research
 justify appropriate research methods, strategies and
research instruments for a chosen piece of research
 discuss how research findings / results are presented,
interpreted and analysed
 outline the research process with confidence

2.3 Outline of the Research Process

2.3.1 General introduction
 Background to the study
 Research topic
 Statement of the problem
 Importance of the study
 Limitations
 Scope / Delimitation
 Basic Assumptions
 Definition of key terms

2.3.2 Review of related literature

2.3.3 Research design/methodology

 Type of research
 Research instruments
 The instruments
 The population
 The sample
 Sampling procedures
 Data collection procedures
 Reliability and validity

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Unit 2 Research Process

2.3.4 Presentation, interpretation and analysis of finding

2.3.5 Further analysis and recommendations

2.4 Background to the Study

The background to the study usually constitutes the first chapter of a
specific research study. This establishes the base for the study. Chisi et al
(2004) say that, the background places the study into some intelligible
context, touching broadly on some of the issues related to it.
Shumbayawonda (1997) pointed out that, at most staff meetings at Gweru,
Seke, Morgan and Madziwa Teachers’ Colleges, teaching practice issues
always proved acrimonious. Staff members (lecturers) and administrators
complained on a variety of issues including lack including lack of effective
student supervision, under supervision of students, hurrying or rushing
supervision by supervisors, concentrating on assessment at the expense
of proper supervision where the lecturer spent more time supporting the
student. Students also complained about lecturers not spending more time
with them, being arrogant or victimizing them for trivialities. Teaching
practice issues also proved problematic at the Department of Teacher
Education (DTE) level. Some students were deferred for being under
supervised, letters of complaint were raised by students for what they
claimed were unprofessional conduct by some college supervisors or
disparities or differences that emerged between marks (percentages)
awarded by college lecturers and university external assessors.

These and other concerns pertaining to teaching practice supervision led

Shumbayawonda (2006) to want to carryout or conduct research on the
effectiveness of teaching practice supervision effectiveness at Primary
Teachers’ Colleges in Zimbabwe. The specific research topic was “An
investigation into the effectiveness of Teaching Practice Supervision of
Teaching Practice at Primary Teachers’ Colleges in Zimbabwe.”

A close analysis of the background to the study cited above shows the
underlying challenges and problems besetting teaching practice
supervision. This established a base and an intelligence context for the
research study. You should also have noted that the research topic was
born out the prevailing situation pertaining to teaching practice
supervision. You should also have noted that the research topic was
concise and specific. The investigation was centred on one aspect,
“effectiveness of teaching practice supervision.” The supervision was

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Research Methods Module PGDE105

restricted to, “primary teachers colleges.” The country where the research
was conducted was given – “Zimbabwe”.

Activity 2.1

? Identify a specific problem area or aspect in your school

or institution which you want research on. Give the
background to the proposed study and produce an
appropriate research topic. Discuss with colleagues or tutor
on your work.

The point being put forward is that, the background to the study is leading
locally to the research topic.

2.5 Statement of the Problem

This constitutes a brief and clear statement of the problem to be solved.
Chisi et al. (2004) advice us to take note of the following characteristics
of a good research problem statement:

These are:
 It should be researchable, that is, it should be written in clear
unambiguous language.
 It should be resolved through research. The researcher should make
sure that the problem chosen offers definite sources of information
which, when collected can answer the key questions sufficiently.
 It should carefully fit into the broader context of current theory and
relevant research.
 It should clearly and logically be related to its sub-problems /
research questions or hypotheses.
Makore – Rukuni (2001) advises that in order for researchers, to come
up with meaningful statement of the problem, they should read widely
around the area to be researched on. Makore – Rukuni also challenges
you, to pick on a topic of interest to you so as to assist the researcher to
come up with a meaningful “Statement of the problem”. Makore – Rukuni
warns that generalized statements are not useful.

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Unit 2 Research Process

There are various forms and types of statement of the problem. These can
take form of:
 Hypotheses – intelligent guess that is stated in question form or in
the form of a statement.
For instance, the statements of the problem for a topic investigating the
effectiveness of teaching practice supervision at Primary Teachers’
Colleges in Zimbabwe, was in statement form. This was stated as “The
problem of this research is effectiveness or lack of it in teaching practice
supervision of second year students in Primary Teacher’s Colleges.”

After stating the statement of the problem, you can elaborate on it in form
of stating your aims and objectives for the study or in terms of key or
critical aspects, for example Shumbayawonda (2006) had this to say.

The problem is analysed in terms of:

 Whether aims and objectives of T.P supervision are achieved
 Competence of supervisors
 Possession of knowledge and skills needed to achieve goals (on
the part of supervisors)
 Use of knowledge and skills to enhance students’ performance
 Consistency and adequacy in supervision
 Economical and efficient use of resources
 Quality of planning, organisation and administration o teaching
practice supervision

Activity 2.2

? 1. Come up with an appropriate statement of the problem

for the activity you undertook on “The background to
the study and the topic”- Activity 2.1?
2. Discuss what you have produced with a colleague or
your tutor.
3. Before reading through this section below. Write down
and list 5 different aspects on what you consider the
importance or significance of a research study. Qualify
fully each point you make.

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2.6 Importance of the Study

In this sub-unit, we discuss the importance or the importance of the research
study. To cover this aspect more fully we start by hearing or learning
from you on what you consider to be significance of a research study.

Chisi et al (2004) advise you to demonstrate why it is worth the time,

effort and expense involved to carry out the research. In other words, you
are being challenged to justify the significance of the research study
undertaken. You are urged to point out and explain the practical benefits
that the study is likely to provide to society and yourself. You are also
reminded to point out how the solution (Findings and recommendations)
of the problem or the answer to the research question can influence
educational theory. You should consider the people or section of society
that would benefit from the study and the specific ways these benefits
would be felt. There is a need also to explain how the study provides
benefits to the methods and strategies that will be used in collecting,
presenting and analysing research findings in a particular field such as
educational instruction and administration.

Chikoko and Mhloyi (1995) argue that, study is expected to relate to the
practical world so that it can be used to solve problems in society or
influence practice for the benefit of society. Chikoko and Mhloyi (1995)
assert that the importance of the study is, therefore, a serious attempt to
convince others that your study is worthy the effort.

Makore – Rukuni (2001) informs you that, research leads to new

information or to updating or upgrading of information in circulation.
They argue that it is possible to continue to use inappropriate treatments
or methods when there is no other information to or inform the users.
Research opens the way to innovative methods because it urges people to
shift to new methods and strategies with confidence based on some
empirical evidence emerging from research findings. Makore –Rukuni
(1995) argue that, the state of knowledge is not static, but research leads
to the creation of new paradigms that might stimulate new schools of
thought. In other words, new knowledge can be accessed or developed
through research.

Shumbayawonda (1997) in his study identified several areas or aspects

on the importance or justification of the research study he had undertaken.
These are analysed below for your own information as a student.

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Unit 2 Research Process

These are, and we quote these as they were presented:

 This study deals with contemporary issues into the area of Teaching
Practice Supervision where the government is spending relatively
large amounts of money. It is therefore deemed necessary to
interrogate and analyse the factors that determine the effectiveness
of T.P Supervision. In the final analysis, it is hoped that those factors
that promote student support and development are crystallised to
form a basis for debate and discussion at teachers’ colleges in the
area of T.P Supervision effectiveness. Debate and discussion, it is
argued, form the bedrock for enhancing quality in teacher education;
 The research raises awareness on the part of the researcher and
those interested in effective T.P Supervision on the need to
effectively and economically utilize available human, material and
financial resources. The awareness generated from research findings
may influence college administrators and lecturers – in –Charge of
the practicum to plan and organize supervision programmes that
are cost effective without compromising the quality of student
supervision that is, if they come into contact with this study and
they find the research outcomes therein relevant and applicable to
their situations.
 The study affords students, lecturers and mentors who read it an
opportunity to interrogate the content and conduct of T.P thus, it can
form a basis for dialogic exchange during workshops, seminars
and meetings enabling participants to express their views and make
suggestions on how the practicum is run. This adds more information
and knowledge on teacher education for personnel in tertiary
institutions and to those in the Ministry of Education, Sport and
Culture. This is done by reading and analyzing content from
academic papers and minutes covering proceedings of workshops,
seminars or fora on practicum supervision.
 The information from the study might be used as some form of
feedback for college and university administrators involved in T.P
Supervision. For instance, observations made might influence plans
or alternative models for effective future operations in the area of
the practicum, aimed at maximizing student support.
 The study enhances the academic and professional status of the
researcher by obtaining a higher degree.
Analysis of the significance or importance of a research study above, it is
hoped, that as a Post Graduate Diploma in Education (PGDE) you will
acquire new knowledge and know how that you will utilize when you
embark on your research project – which is a course requirement for you
to pass the programme.

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Research Methods Module PGDE105

Activity 2.3

? Write in the spaces provided below ten possible suggestions,

justifying the importance or significance of a research study.
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………

2.7 Limitations
Chisi et al. (2004) state that, limitations are those conditions beyond the
control of the researcher that, place restrictions on the conclusions of the
study and their application to other situations. Chisi et al (2004) advise
you that it is not enough just to state these limitations (weaknesses or
constraints) without suggesting the compensatory factors that ensure that
the research remains valid and reliable. You should take note that
limitations are weaknesses that are inherent in the research which the
researcher is given credit for pointing out and serve to alert the reader or
user of the research about what to take note of when interpreting and
generalising the findings and conclusions of the study. For instance when
Shumbayawonda (2006) conducted the research study, he pointed out
there was an economic down turn in Zimbabwe leading to colleges and
schools facing serious financial constraints.; There was severe foreign
currency shortage which made it difficult to import fuel and spare parts
for vehicles. This development made it difficult for lectures, school
personnel and the researcher to travel. This in turn led to changes in
plans and the case of Shumbayawonda (2006) adversely affected the
quality of observation previously envisaged.

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Unit 2 Research Process

Activity 2.4

? 1. Think of and list three (3) Limitations that would

adversely affect the quality of a research project.
2. Explain fully how each of these limitations adversely
affect the research.

2.8 Scope/Delimitation of the Study

Chikoko and Mhloyi (1995) state that, the delimitation of your research
problem is the precise limit of the issues you are to cover. They warn that
you cannot investigate all aspects of any problem. Your delimitation is
where your problem ends. Without stating your boundaries / borders you
can be accused of not having included a wide range of issues closely or
distantly related to your research. For instance Shumbayawonda’s (2006)
research delimitation was confined to factors that determine the
effectiveness of teaching practice supervision at four (4) primary teachers
colleges (Marymount, Masvingo, Seke and Nyadire). These colleges were
considered to be easily accessible and there was ready accommodation
for the researcher. This minimized expenses (traveling and
accommodation). The fourth college is a private institution, and the other
three are government owned. One college is in a rural area, the other one
is peri-urban and two are in urban centres. In terms of the target population
it was college lecturers, mentors and final year students who were at
their respective colleges but had been on T.P the previous year.

Activity 2.5

? On a separate sheet of paper, write half to a full page justifying

Shumbayawonda’s (2006) scope or delimitation of his
research study on:
1. Research problem.
2. The four colleges chosen and why?
3. The study target population and why?

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2.9 Basic Assumptions

Chikoko and Mhloyi (1995) say that an assumption is a condition which
is taken for granted without which the research effort would be impossible.
Chisi et al (2004) indicate that assumptions are statements of what the
researcher believes to be facts but these cannot be verified. You should
remember that assumptions are not the object of the research but strengthen
the basis of your research. For you to be able to carry out the study, you
should hold certain facts about the study as given. For instance
Shumbayawonda (1997) cited the following as his basic assumptions:
 That time for data collection is adequate;
 That finances are available to carry out the study;
 That the study would be completed in good time;
 That the research subjects would cooperate during the
investigations;
 That research subjects are willing to take part in the study;
 That respondents know enough about the issues under investigation;
and
 That the views and perceptions of college lecturers, administrators,
and college students are important for the study.

Activity 2.6

? 1. Think through about the above assumptions.

2. Come up with five additional assumptions that could be
listed for a specific research to be undertaken by yourself.

2.10 Definition of Key Terms

Chikoko and Mhloyi (1995) suggest that guided by your research problem
and sub-problems, you should identify key terms that would cover the
research items or variables and those that appear on the statement of the
problem. These definitions are then coined to interpret the terms as they
are employed in the research project. Chisi et.al. (2004) advise that you
should identify all terms that require to be defined in order to avoid any
misinterpretations. These definitions help you to establish the frame of
reference with which you as the researcher can approach the problem.
Such terms should be employed consistently throughout the project. You
are, however, warned not to rely on dictionary definitions or meanings.

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Unit 2 Research Process

For an illustration on how definitions of key terms are derived,

Shumbayawonda (2006) in his research centred on an analysis of factors
that determine the effectiveness of teaching practice supervision of students
at primary teachers colleges, identified the following key terms for
definition:
 Factors
 Supervision effectiveness
 Students’ support
 Conditions at school department
 School environment
 School leadership
 Mentor
 Mentor training
 Supervisor age
 Resources
 Logistical support services
 Teaching practice administration
 Orientation for teaching practice
 Induction of supervisors
 Staff-development
 Practicum supervision instrument
 Lecturer
 Perception
 Attitude
A close analysis of the key terms identified for definition reflects research
items / variables for interrogation and these also provide a basis or lead
to review of related literature. So definition of key terms in research is
critical and very necessary for the guidance of you as a researcher.

Activity 2.7

? 1. Define each of the twenty (20) key terms listed above.

2. Justify their importance / significance to you as a PGDE
student.

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2.11 Summary
This unit has covered and analysed the heart or core of a research project.
You should have noted that the unit has illustrated or shown how research
is born or conceived through coverage of the background to the study,
research topic, statement of the problem, importance of the study,
limitations, delimitation / scope, basic assumptions and definition of key
terms as used in the research. Content in this unit has been made very
comprehensive to assist you to have a firm base to enable you develop
clear guidelines in your studies and practical teaching.

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Unit 2 Research Process

References
Chikono, V. and Mhloyi, G. (1995) Introduction to Educational Research
Methods. Harare: Zimbabwe Open University.
Chisi, R. Madziyire, N.C. Mhlanga, E, Kwandayi, H.P, Makombe, B.
(2004) Research Project Guide. Harare: Zimbabwe Open
University.
Makore – Rukuni, N.M. (2001). Introduction to Research Methods in
Counselling. Harare: Zimbabwe Open University.
Shumbayawonda, W.T. (1997) An Investigation into the Effectiveness
of Teaching Practice Supervision at Primary Teachers’ Colleges
in Zimbabwe. Harare: University of Zimbabwe.
Shumbayawonda, W.T. (2006) An Analysis of Factors that Determine
the Effectiveness of Teaching Practice Supervision of students at
Primary Teachers’ colleges in Zimbabwe. Harare: University of
Zimbabwe (Unpublished).
Shumbayawonda, W.T. (2011) Quality Assurance Information Handbook:
(Unpublished) Harare: Zimbabwe Open University.

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 Unit Three

Ethics in Research

3.1 Introduction

T he study of ethics in research is important especially in educational

research. As a teacher educator or a researcher intending to research
on sensitive issues and populations, there is a need for you to protect
participants from harm. According to Hepper, Kivligan and Wampold
(1992) “Ethics are central to research and become the guiding principle
that ensures that the client as a participant in the research is protected”.
Although ethics is not a clear step of the research process, it is implied
and subsumed. It has been analysed in detail in this unit so that as a
PGDE student you do not fall into the pitfalls of violating ethical principles
as you research.
Research Methods Module PGDE105

3.2 Objectives

After reading through this unit, you should be able to:

 define ethics
 discuss ethical issues related to scholarly work
 evaluate ethical issues related to research participants

3.3 Definition of Ethics

According to the Random House Dictionary of English Language (1987)
in Makore-Rukuni (2001) “Ethics is that branch of philosophy relating to
human conduct, with respect to the rightness or wrongness of certain
actions, and to the badness or goodness of the motives and ends of such
actions.”

Makore-Rukuni (2001) says that ethics are divided into three types:
 Normative ethics – which examine what is ethically or morally
acceptable and why they are acceptable and why they are
unacceptable;
 Descriptive ethics – which describe or explain the ethical practices
of specific groups;
 Meta-ethics, which deal with analysing the language and logic of
moral reasoning.
Makore – Rukuni (2001) points out that most of the ethics we deal with
in, research are the descriptive ethics which give us guidelines on how
we should conduct research; which policies influence how we should
research; and describe the procedures and behaviours to follow when
conducting that research.

Meara et al (1991) in Rukuni (2001) suggest that ethics assist us to deal

with ethical dilemmas that arise in research. Welfel (1998) identified the
following ethical responsibilities:
 To protect the rights of participation in the research process;
 To develop scientifically acceptable research protocols that are
worthy the participants’ time and have a chance of yielding
meaningful findings;
 To report results fairly and accurately; and
 To cooperate with colleagues and share research data.

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Makore – Rukuni (2001) argues that each of the ethical responsibilities

suggests that you conduct research and make your results public. It is
unethical to put people through psychological risk for no, reason in the
name of research. You are advised that the research design you adopt
should ensure that ethical principles are observed. As Diener and Crandal
(1978) in Makore-Rukuni observe “the most basic guideline to social
scientists (including the PGDE Student) is that the subjects should not be
harmed by participating in research.” It is also noted that research should
be for the worth, dignity, potential and uniqueness of each individual and
thus to the service of society (Makore – Rukuni). PDGDE students are
therefore advised to take note of the above sentiments, especially if your
research is targeted at vulnerable groups such as HIV and Aids sufferers
or the disabled.

3.4 Informed Consent

In conducting research, you should take note that the ethical principle of
autonomy is contained in the idea of informed consent wherein the client
should be allowed to choose to participate, or not to participate in the
research after receiving all the relevant information about the risks or
harm that could arise if they participate in the research (Makore-Runi
2001). Makore – Rukuni (2001) says that in some contexts, students or
pupils are indirectly coerced to participate in studies because they are
promised reward of a credit for their effort. It is noted that although the
pressure is subtle, it is unethical because there is a measure of pressure
exerted on them. Makore-Rukuni (2001) goes on to list research ethical
codes where students and children are concerned.

She says that, the researcher should:

 Vigorously protect the rights of those incompetent to give informed
consent;
 Communicate informed consent procedures in ways participant can
comprehend; and
 Provide for children to assent to research even though the formal
consent in such participation must come from parents and guardians.

3.5 Risks and Benefits to Participants

When conducting research it is important that you should maintain the
dignity and welfare of the research subject. Avoid harming your clients.

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Research Methods Module PGDE105

According to Heppner (1992) harm can be:

 Embarrassment;
 Anger;
 Irritation;
 Physical and emotional stress,
 Loss of self-esteem;
 Exacerbation of stress;
 Delay of treatment;
 Sleep deprivation;
 Lack of respect from others;
 Negative labeling;
 Innovation of privacy;
 Damage to personal dignity;
 Loss of employment; and
 Civil or criminal liability

Activity 3.1

? Go over the fourteen (14) forms of harm that might arise

from a research project:
1. Explain in your own words each harm.
2. Identify the possible causes of each harm emanating from
research.

3.6 Confidentiality and Privacy

Chikoko and Mhloyi (1995) advise researchers such as you that ethics
is an important issue as it protects people and children sometimes uses as
sources of information. They argue for fairness, honesty, respect for the
integrity and dignity of the individual and confidentiality of certain
information. Tuckman (1978) identified the following right to privacy
and non-participation:
 The subject has the right to refuse to participate in our study;
 The subject has a right to have some of the information he/she
provides kept secret; and
 To obtain consent for children’s participation

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 Subjects have a right that their individual identities are not

highlighted in research.
 Participants have a right that their answers be confidential.
According to Welfel (1998), the researcher has to:
 “Protect the anonymity of the research participants and the
confidentiality of their disclosures unless they consent to the
release of personal information”

3.7 Deception
Welpfel (1998) warns researchers to avoid deception about particulars
of the research and Makore-Rukuni stresses that use of deception is a
dilemma since there are risks to the participant, even the benefits to science
are apparent. Deception limits the participants’ ability to make meaningful
informed consent. Deception refers to misinforming or withholding
information from potential subjects about the potential harm to clients
(Heppner et al 1998).

3.8 Debriefing and De-hoaxing

According to Welfel (1998) in Makore-Rukuni (2001) debriefing and de-
hoaxing are important ethical issues which demand that the researcher
reports and describes the results of the study to participants if they so
wish, as soon as the data is ready for dissemination. Debriefing refers to
giving explanatory information to reduce the negative effects of deception.

3.9 Ethical Issues and Scholarly Work

Makore-Rukuni (2004) asserts that in scholarly work, the major objective
is to promote human welfare, and the enhancement of the worth, dignity,
potential and uniqueness of each individual and thus to the service of
society. The author (Makore-Rukuni) goes on to explain to us that
enhancement of human dignity is important because it means that you
should strictly observe the ethical codes that guide you as researchers in
academia. It is pointed out that knowledge does not promote our
understanding of human beings, nor the profession.

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Research Methods Module PGDE105

It is here argued that although producing a research project is a requirement

to fulfill condition for an award of the Post Graduate Diploma in Education,
you should shy away from distorting or falsifying your research findings.
You, the researcher, are expected to provide accurate information based
on your research. In order to avoid falsifying research information Makore-
Rukuni (2004) advises you as a researcher to take note or consider four
things/aspects. These are:-
 Execution of the research study
 Reporting the results; and
 Publication credit; and
 Plagiarism

3.10 Execution of the Research Study

Here, you are reminded that when you set out to conduct research, you
should ensure that you plan carefully the actual study. Establish that your
study is ethically acceptable (Makore-Rukuni 2001). Makore-Rukuni
warns that it is unethical to do research on sexual behaviours of prostitutes
in order to find out the prevalence of HIV and AIDS, without protecting
your participants privacy. You are therefore warned to ensure that the
results of the study are valid and reliable, and that the results are accurate,
and do not mislead the readers (Makore-Rukuni).

3.11Reporting Results
Makore-Rukuni (2001) states that ethical codes state clearly that it is the
responsibility of the researcher to accurately report and prevent misuse
of research results, For instance, it would be unethical to allow
generalization from results based on a very small sample or on a study
conducted on a few people who you met in the street.

3.12 Publication Credit

The principle of justice is involved in acknowledging who has contributed
to research study. It is important that you acknowledge whoever contributed
to your study, including the participants in the actual study (Makore-
Rukuni). For instance, as you embark on your research in fulfillment of
the conditions for acquiring your PGDE, you are bound to work closely

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Unit 3 Ethics in Research

with your supervisor from the initial stages to the end. Remember to
acknowledge his/her involvement and efforts.

3.13 Plagiarism
Violation of this aspect is a common feature among students. In their
desire to pass their programmes, they copy other people’s assignments or
research projects. This is a serious violation of research ethics. “Plagiarism
means copying verbatim or duplicating another’s ideas without proper
citation (Heppner et al. 1992). You should credit the original author if
you copy their work. Makore-Rukuni states that Plagiarism violates the
ethical principle of justice, fairness and integrity (Makore-Rukuni 2001).

Activity 3.2

? Now that you have read through Unit 3 on “Ethics in

Research:”

1. Using your own words define the term ethics.

2. Write a paragraph clarifying each of the following in
preparation for reporting at the next Tutorial Session.
- Informed consent;
- Risks and benefits to participants;
- Debriefing and de-hoaxing;
- Ethical issues and scholarly work;
- Execution of research study;
- Publication credit,
- Reporting results; and
- Plagiarism

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3.14 Summary

The aspect of ethics in research, is not usually covered in detail in modules

or when the Research Process” is discussed. In this unit an attempt has
been made to cover this aspect comprehensively all in an attempt to guide
or warn you of the pitfalls that is before you, if ethical principles are not
observed. You can be discredited and sued. In this unit, the concept of
ethics has been clarified and aspects such as informed consent, risks and
benefits to participants, confidentiality and privacy, deception, debriefing,
ethical issues and scholarly work, execution of the research study, reporting
results, publication credit and plagiarism have been analysed in detail.
This has been done to assist you, to be well informed for your guidance
in this crucial area of research.

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References

Chikoko, V. and Mhloyi, G. (1995) Introduction to Research Methods.

Zimbabwe Open University: Harare.
Makore-Rukuni, N.M. (2001) Introduction to Research Methods in
Counselling. Zimbabwe Open University: Harare.
Shumbayawonda, W.T. (2011) Quality Assurance Information Handbook:
Zimbabwe Open University (Unpublished). Harare.

Zimbabwe Open University 35

 Unit Four

Review of Related Literature

4.1 Introduction

T he contents of this unit are critical to you as a researcher. Literature

is reviewed in order to see what other people have said about the
issues to be interrogated in the planned research (Shumbayawonda,1997).
In this unit we discuss and analyse critical cardinal points in reviewing
related literature. It also gives some guidelines on how to do a good
literature review. You are advised to read closely the contents of this
section as researchers, especially students, like you often find it difficult
to do meaningful literature review.
Research Methods Module PGDE105

4.2 Objectives

After going through this unit you should be able to:

 explain the purposes of literature review

 discuss with confidence on what literature review focuses
on
 describe approaches to literature search
 identity sources of literature search
 demonstrate an effective way of presenting information
from review of related literature

4.3 Purpose of Literature Review

Chikoko and Mhloyi (1995) argue that it is imperative for you the
researcher that your research report be placed in the context of the body
scientific knowledge. You should always indicate where your research
report fits in as regards this general body of knowledge. You are urged to
read more about the literature which is related to your study (Chikoko
and Mhloyi 1995).

Chisi et al (2004) state that in writing a research report, the student is

obliged to place the research question in the context of previous work in
such a way as to explain and justify the decision made. (Chisi et al (2004)
go on to state that the literature review should explain exactly:
 How and why the research question or hypothesis was formulated
in its present form; and
 Why the proposed research strategy was selected or adopted.
Chisi et l (2004) further advise that you must always bear in mind that
your task as a researcher is to employ the research literature “artfully to
support and explain the choice made for your study, not to educate the
reader concerning the state of science in the problem area. You must not
write everything on the topic”.

Chikoko and Mhloyi (1995) say that the purpose of literature review is to
assist you, the researcher, in attacking your problem. “Thus whatever you
write in this section, you should not lose sight of the problem since it is
the central feature”. All what is done is to ensure that you are guided to
have a better understanding of your stated problem. Chikoko and Mhloyi

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Unit 4 Review of Related Literature

(1995) further argue “It is general knowledge that once you know what
others have done, you can attack your problem better with more
confidence”. Similarly, Chisi et al (2004) state that literature must be
employed to support the research question, the design and procedures of
the research. They go on to advise students to question themselves. “Is
the literature that I am writing supporting any of the three things; the
research question, the design or the data collection procedure?”

Chisi et al (2004) further advise you the researcher to thoroughly assimilate

what is already known, by “immersion” in the subject through reading
extensively in the areas that are either directly or indirectly related to the
topic of study, “to a point where what is known about the topic can be
seen in the light of what is not known”.

Leedy (1980) gives seven (7) benefits we can derive from reviewing
literature. These are to:
 Reveal investigations similar to your own, and it can show how the
collateral researcher has handled these situations;
 Suggest a method or technique of dealing with a problematic
situation which may also suggest avenues of approach to the solution
of similar difficulties you may be facing;
 Reveal to you sources of data which you may not have known to
exist;
 Introduce you to significant research personalities whose efforts
and collateral writings you may have no knowledge of;
 Help you to see your own study in historical and associational
perspectives and in relation to earlier and more primitive attacks
on the same problem;
 Provide you with new ideas and approaches which may not have
occurred to you; and
 Assist you in evaluating your own research efforts by comparing
them with related efforts done by others.

Activity 4.1

? 1. What is literature review?

2. What is the purpose of literature review?
3. Using your own words as far as possible, write a full
page, explaining the purpose and value of review of
related literature.

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4.4 How to Begin a Search for Related Literature

Chikoko and Mhloyi (1995) advise that the most logical thing to do in
order to find a relevant beginning is to go to the reference desk librarian
for guidance and assistance. You disclose to the librarian your needs and
areas of interest. You are then referred to relevant indexes relevant to
your area of operation.

Once you acquire the relevant books, magazines or journalists, you read
them closely. You jot down the relevant aspects and points. As you read
through these books, journals and articles you come across references of
other authorities who wrote on the same issues. You consult or read these
references. Alternatively you can make use of the computer for internet
search.

Chikoko and Mhloyi (1995) advise that, when you get to the library shelves
to get a particular book or journal cast your eyes to nearby volumes. You
may be lucky to find other relevant titles since most library shelves/
holdings are shelved according to subject matter.

In recent years you should have noted that researchers are relying more
and more with e-learning where computers are used to access research
data through the internet. If you have access to this facility make use of it,
as it provides more varied and up to date information. More will be
covered in a separate unit.

Activity 4.2

? 1. Think of more ways and means of accessing more

information for review of relevant literature.
2. Write these down.
3. Share them with a colleague or colleagues when you
come for tutorial sessions.

4.5 Focus for Literature Review

Chisi et al (2004) advise you, especially beginning researchers to focus
on the following:

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Unit 4 Review of Related Literature

 What are the major concepts that led to the research question or
hypothesis?
 What are the major supporting research findings already in literature?
 What are the gaps in knowledge?

Chisi et al (2004) advises students to identify the following:

 Limitations in previous formulation of the question
 In adequate methods of data collection
 In appropriate interpretation of results

4.6 Writing the Section on Review of Related Literature

Chikoko and Mhloyi (1995) advise that before writing the section of
Review of Related Literature, you need to come up with a plan that links
the research problem, research questions and related content from related
literature consulted. Chikoko and Mhloyi (1995) say “This section needs
to be planned so that you do not get into a situation where you utter
whatever comes first into your mind. You need to outline the discussion
that is to follow and your research problem should guide you as it is your
guiding torch”. Chikoko and Mhloyi further advise that in your discussion,
you should always show how your literature is related to the problem
and that the relationship should be pointed out clearly since you are writing
about the “Related Literature”.

4.7 Illustration on Review of Related Literature

Based on sentiments from Chikoko and Mhloyi (1995) let us now use an
illustration from Shumbayawonda (2006). The illustration may be help
some of you who intend conducting research along the lines followed by
Shumbayawonda (2006). You could also find the illustration useful, even
if you are embarking on different research paradigms. Analysed below is
the illustration:
 The research topic was “An analysis of factors that determine the
effectiveness of teaching practice supervision of students in primary
teachers’ colleges in Zimbabwe?”
 The related research questions were:
i) What factors determine TP supervision effectiveness?
ii) What are the student teachers perceptions of and attitudes towards
supervision effectiveness of the TP by college lectures and mentors?

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Research Methods Module PGDE105

iii) What are the lecturers’ perceptions of and attitudes towards factors
that determine the effectiveness of TP supervision?
iv) What are the mentor’s perceptions of and attitudes towards the
factors that determine the effectiveness of T.P Supervision?
 Some key terms defined in the “General Introduction” included some
factors that were interrogated or investigated in the study. These
were:
i) Supervision effectiveness
ii) Students support
iii) Conditions at school of deployment
iv) School climate
v) School environment
vi) School leadership
vii) Mentor
viii) Supervisor training
ix) Supervisor age
x) Resources
xi) Logistical support services for example, (transport)
xii) Teaching practice administration
xiii) Orientation for teaching practice
xiv) Induction of supervisors
xv) Staff development
xvi) Supervision instrument
xvii) Lecturer
A close analysis of the terms defined also gives key factors that determine
T.P. supervision effectiveness. These in turn formed guides or sub-headings
for review of related literature. In other words, Shumbayawonda (2006)
was guided by those terms (factors) when he went out to libraries or
internet cafes to source for information for his research.

By now, you should have noted clear links and relationships among the
research topic, statement of the problem, research questions, definition
of key terms and sub-headings used in collecting information for literature
review.

Below is the full list of factors identified by Shumbayawonda (2006) for

interrogation for relevant literature search:
 School environment
 School climate
 School leadership
 Mentor effectiveness

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Unit 4 Review of Related Literature

 Mentor gender
 Mentor age
 Mentor academic qualifications
 Mentor professional qualifications
 Mentor resources
 Logistical support services
 Human resources training
 Staff development
 Staffing in teachers colleges
 Truancy and absenteeism by lecturers
 Financial resources
 Supervision and assessment
 Supervision instrument
The aspects or factors interrogated for review of related literatures were
also captured or coined on research instruments especially questionnaires
and interview guides. This fact further strengthened the strong linkages
and relationship among the research topic, statement of the problem, related
literature and research methodology. You are advised to think about this
and then make up your mind to make use of the suggestions or are free not
to make use of them as you embark on your own research.

We also considered it pertinent to include one aspect (factor) interrogated

by Shumbayawonda (2006) as an illustration to guide you.
Shumbayawonda (2006:64-66) reviewed relevant literature on
“Supervision and Assessment”. Below is an illustration:

4.8 Supervision and Assessment

“Stones (1984) found that the organisation of teaching practice supervision
in conventional colleges entailed conducting supervision and assessment
simultaneously. He noted that in the process, supervisors concentrated on
assessment at the expense of supervision. Bolam, et al (1979) found that
mentors, they were not in favour of supervision and assessment at the
same time. In a study involving mentors, they were not in favour of
supervision and assessment at the same time. In a study involving mentors,
Show (1995) found that mentors who participated in the study reported
that it was hard to reconcile the role of a supervisor with that of an
assessor. Not only do mentors have to guide and coach the trainee but are
also responsible for making “pass’ and ‘fail’ decisions on the students.
Shaw (1995) goes on to argue that this could be done by separating
supervision and assessment.

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Research Methods Module PGDE105

In developing countries, Chiromo (1999) found that 77.5% of students

who took part in his study conducted in Zimbabwe, suggested that lecturers
should do more of supervision than assessment during teaching practice.
One student in the same study even described lecturers who visited them
on teaching practice as “strangers, foreigners and fault finders”. Students
in this study preferred more supervision than assessment from lecturers.

Chaerera (2003) in a study conducted in Harare found that 60% of students

in her study were not in favour of combining supervision and assessment
simultaneously. Several students complained that lecturers used assessment
as an intimidatory weapon to whip students into line. Instilling fear through
assessment created hatred. Calls were made to use more of supervision
that focuses on advice, guidance, coaching, assisting and supporting
student teachers. Where supervision was used, it was found that more
students were encouraged to read supervision reports, were more willing
to participate in post lesson discussions. This enhanced professional
growth among students. Chaerera (2003) on the other hand found that
both mentors and students in her study cited lecturers rushing supervision
as one of the major weaknesses that adversely affected the quality of
supervision. Lecturers were given a target to meet; hence, they rushed
supervision so as to cover the number of students allocated to them. This
meant less time was devoted to each student. Claims were made by some
respondents that this rushing impeded their professional growth/
development”.

The literature reviewed on supervision and assessment were also echoed

in the results/ findings of the study and analysis. Combining supervision
and assessment received very low ratings among students and mentors.
Concern with assessment at the expense of supervision on the part college
lecturers also influenced very low ratings on “pre-observation discussion”.
Generally the study findings recommended that T.P supervision to be
effective should be more supportive of the student. That is spending more
time with the student, discussing, suggesting, coaching and a assisting the
student for professional growth.

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Unit 4 Review of Related Literature

Activity 4.3

? Critique Shumbayawonda’s (2006) illustration on

Review of Related Literature using the following sub-
headings:
1. relationships and linkages among research topic,
statement of the problem, research questions, and
review of related literature.
2. the method(s) and approaches in sourcing or gathering
data from libraries or elsewhere.
3. relationships among literature review sub-headings,
research instruments and research findings/results.
4. produce a comprehensive report on the above issues
for discussion at the forthcoming Tutorial Session.

4.9 Summary
Unit Four on Review of Related Literature has been analysed in detail to
assist you, the student as you embark on literature search for your future
researches. Aspects interrogated include; purpose of literature review in
research, how to begin a search for, related literature, the focus for
literature review, writing the section on review of related literatures
showing linkages and relationships. All this has been done to assist you,
the student, as you embark on your research in future.

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4.9 References
Chikoko, C. and Mhloyi, G. (1995) Introduction to Research Methods.
Zimbabwe Open University: Harare.
Chisi, R. Madziyire, N.C Mhlanga, E. Kwandayi, H.P. and Makombe, B.
(2004) Research Project Guide. Zimbabwe Open University:
Harare.
Shumbayawonda, W.T. (1997) An Investigation Into the Effectiveness
of Teaching Practice Supervision at Primary Teachers Colleges
in Zimbabwe.
Shumbayawonda, W.T. (2006) An Analysis of Factors that Determine
the Effectiveness of Teaching Practice Supervision at Primary
Teachers Colleges in Zimbabwe. University of Zimbabwe
(Unpublished). Harare.

46 Zimbabwe Open University

 Unit Five

Research Design and

Methodology

5.1 Introduction

T his unit introduces you to Research Design and Methodology. The

issues to be discussed will help you have a firmer foundation by
providing you with a wide range of methods, strategies and techniques
that you could choose and utilize. Issues to be interrogated and analysed
in this unit include the conceptual framework of research design, the survey
method, interviews, the observation method, document analysis, action
research and the pilot study. Some of the methods that have been made
comprehensive such as the survey, observation and interviews are
frequently used by researchers. It is hoped that the details will provide
you with a data bank from which you can exploit or tap for the purposes
of this programme or in later life.
Research Methods Module PGDE105

5.2 Objectives

After going through this unit, you should be able to:

 define the terms design/plan

 differentiate the various types of research designs
 analyse in detail the research design survey
 give the two broad categories of research
 analyse the advantages and disadvantages of selected
designs
 justify use or role of pilot studies in research

5.3 Definition and Conceptual Framework on Research

Design
Makore-Rukuni et al (2001) say “A research design is a plan or structure
for an investigation. It is a set of plans and procedures that reduce error
and simultaneously help the researcher obtain empirical evidence (data)
about isolated variables of interest”. Chisi et al (2004) say that the term
design and plan mean the same thing in research as both refer to a
description of the format and theoretical structure under which the study
will be carried out. Research designs also include the discussion of steps
to be taken in order to safeguard the validity and authenticity of the research
findings/ results.

5.4 Types/Kinds of Designs

The following are some of the common designs used by researchers:
 Descriptive survey
 Experimental design
 Correlation research design
 Historical research design
 Case study research, and
 Action research
The survey method is perhaps the most frequently used method of research
(Chikoko and Mhloyi, 1995). We analyse this design in detail to assist
you carry out your research.

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5.5 Conceptual Analysis of a Survey

Shumbayawonda (2006) analysed the survey method in detail as it was
the main method he utilized in his study. We now give you the analysis in
detail.

Babie (1993) says surveys can be used for studies which are descriptive,
exploratory and explanatory. In other words, if you were to use this method,
it yields data that can be quantified into frequencies or qualitatively
analysed as well. Williamson et al (1982) in Chaerera (2003) view a
survey as a systematic attempt to collect information to describe and
explain beliefs, attitudes, opinions, values and behaviour of selected
groups of people. Murimba and Moyo (1985) in Kwenda (2003) note
that a descriptive survey involves the reduction of measures into
quantifiable units.. Leedy (1985) in Kuodza (2003) asserts that the
descriptive survey reveals the actual picture of the situation through the
emerging trends from a study. Howard and Sharp (1978) in Muza (2003)
describe a survey as a method of extracting attitudes and opinions from a
sizeable sample of respondents so as to make generalized conclusions.
Chihanga (2003) refer to a survey as research activity in which the
investigation gathers data from a portion of the population for purposes
of examining the characteristics, opinions and intentions of that population.
Bell (1996) views a descriptive survey as a research method used to
obtain information which can be analysed and patterns extracted and
comparisons made.

Sidhu (1984) says that a survey attempts to describe and interpret what
exists at present in the form of conditions, practices, processes, trends,
effects, attitudes and beliefs. McMillan and Schumacher (1989) point out
that surveys are used frequently in educational research to describe
attitudes, beliefs, opinions, desires, values and behaviours. A survey,
according to Robson (1993) refers to the collection of standardized
information from a sample of a specified population, based on
characteristics or traits focal to the research.

You should have noted that the conceptual framework of a survey has
been made so detailed to a point of boring you. This has been done because
surveys are the commonest designs or methods adopted by most
researchers. It is therefore assumed that you, yourself will come across
an aspect that will be relevant to you as you plan your research for the
PGDE programme or later in life. This constitutes a data bank of
information for you. The detail will also assist you to develop

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Research Methods Module PGDE105

educationally and professionally. When you interact with other schools

you will have a reservoir of information to inform your practice. This
enhances your academic standing among other academics.

5.5.1 Advantages of the survey approach

Shumbayawonda (2006) also analysed advantages of the survey approach.
A few of these are analysed in this section. Robson (1993) says that
surveys provide a relatively simple and straight forward approach to the
study of attitudes, values, beliefs and motives. Masango (1996) ascertains
that the strength of the survey lies in broad coverage, generalisability,
comparability and descriptive powers. Michael (1984) states that surveys
ensure sufficient data collection through the administration of
questionnaires to a large sample. The samples chosen are large enough to
reflect the population under study (Williamson et al 1982). Bell (1996)
states that surveys are a quick way of obtaining information. Sidhu (1997)
says that a survey fits appropriately into the total research scheme or
stages in exploring a vast and intricate field of investigation. Sidhu (1997)
goes on to state that a survey may call attention to current trends and
permit people to evaluate and direct these new tendencies taking place.

Chivore (2002) maintains that survey methods are ‘ubiquitous’. This means
they can be both quantitative and qualitative. Data is quantitatively
transformed into frequencies or tables or graphs. On the other hand data
can be qualitatively presented. This is done through descriptions and
explanations based on open- sections of questionnaires where respondents
present responses qualitatively. Chivore (2003) also says information
obtained from surveys is broad and flexible as the gathered information
can be put to several uses. It may also perform an important function in
giving pertinent data on which sound decisions can be based. In other
words, surveys may be used by planners who are engaged in planning for
the future.

5.5.2 Disadvantages of the survey approach

In order to assist you when using the survey method in your research, you
advised to take note of disadvantages associated with the survey method
as well. Sidhu (1997) says that a survey does not penetrate deeply into
inter relationships. It stops with the disclosure of facts and a suggestion
of relatively prominent connection between these and apparent causes.
The full analysis of complex inter relationships in natural situations
demands other methods especially adapted to a study of casual

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Unit 5 Research Design and Methodology

relationships such as case studies, interviews, observation and document

analysis. Michael (1984) says that surveys tap respondents who are
accessible and co-operative. They are also vulnerable to over rater or
under-rater bias- the tendency for some respondents to give consistently
high or low ratings. Booth (1994) accused researchers on findings based
on perceptions and claims by subjects. He says a claim of confidence or
satisfaction may not translate into proficiency. Chiota (2003) points out
that surveys do not go deep enough below the surface. This means that
surveys may not adequately cover issues under study. Chivore (1990)
says that where opinions and perceptions of respondents are involved,
there is subjectivity contained in the information collected. Biases are
also possible due to the researchers’ own subjective interpretation of
those opinions.

Activity 5.1

? 1.
2.
Define the term ‘research design’.
List four (4) research designs available to researchers.
3. Consider seriously the advantages and disadvantages
of the Survey
Method. Would you make it your first choice among
other research designs? Qualify your answer fully.

5.6 Interviews
This is another method that is widely used to collect data by researchers.
You are encouraged to make use of it as a main method of collecting data
or to supplement another method such as the survey, analysed above.

Van, Dalen (1979) argues that many people are more willing to
communicate orally than in writing. People fear to commit themselves by
writing down their thoughts. This explains why more respondents in
research provide data more readily and fully in an interview than on a
questionnaire. Van Dalen (1979) and Sidhu (1997) concur that people
are usually more willing to talk than to write. Sidhu (1979) goes on to
argue that interview is a two-way method which permits an exchange of
ideas and information. McMillan and Schumacher (1989) indicate that
interviews add depth to a study by qualifying some responses on the

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Research Methods Module PGDE105

formal questionnaire. The Central African Correspondence College

Module 071100412 (2000) states that the research interview, though time
consuming and expensive, is sometimes preferred to the written
questionnaire, particularly where complex topics are involved or where
the investigation concerns matters of a personal nature. The module goes
to argue that the purpose of the interview is to obtain valid and reliable
data through the interviewee’s responses to questions.

Several advantages have been linked to interviews. Van Dalen (1979)

states that interviews involve friendly interaction on a face to face basis,
where in a face to face meeting an investigator is able to encourage subjects
and to help them probe deeper into a problem. In interviews you the
researcher can encourage the interviewer to feel at home and say out
their minds. (Shumbayawonda 2006) says, “The face to face interview
approach allows respondents to bring out their feelings, attitudes,
motivations, accomplishments and experiences much more readily”. Gall
et al (1996) stress that interviews are more flexible than closed
questionnaires in that respondents are availed the chance to speak and
explain in their own words. Sidhu (1997) argues that interviews have the
advantage of probing into casual factors. According to Sidhu (1997)
interviews determine attitudes and discover the origin of the problem
and involve the interviewee in an analysis of his/her own problems and
secure his/her cooperation in this analysis.

Finch (1986) argues that interview schedules or guides yield data that
are superior to those obtained from questionnaires because they reflect
reality of the subjects. Direct contact with those being studied is essential
for understanding of reality of the existing situation by researchers
(Kapfunde 2001). Chisaka and Vakalisa (2000) point out that face to face
interview method gives background information on participants. The claim
that this assists the researcher to gain access to information that cannot be
accessed through questionnaires.

With regards to disadvantages of interviews, Sidhu (1997) states that

interviews tend to obtain data that agree with the personal and convictions
of interviews. Sidhu argues that the very presence of the interviewer
affects the responses. Robson (1993) also states that there may be
interviewer bias, where the interviewer probably unwittingly influences
the responses through verbal or non verbal cues that data may be affected
by the characteristics of the interviewer that include personality, the
researcher’s motivation, skills and experience. Shumbayawonda (2006)
mentions that interviews are more time consuming than administering
questionnaires

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Unit 5 Research Design and Methodology

Activity 5.2

? 1. Now that you have been exposed to two research methods

(survey and interviews), which method appeals to you
more? Justify your responses.
2. Using the definitions cited below as a guide, come up
with your own definition of observation in research-using
your own word as much as possible.

5.7 Observation
5.7.1Conceptual framework
Dey (1996) says that all research involves using some observational
techniques whether it is qualitative or quantitative research. You however
should associate observation with qualitative research. Weick (1985)
says “observation is defined as sustained, explicit, methodical observing
of social situations in relations to their naturally occurring contexts”
Makore-Rukuni et al. (2001) say that observation techniques allow you
to observe the participant, record what is going on either verbatim or
from field notes. In quantitative research, the data is recorded in narrative
form (Barker et al. 1992) where a comprehensive and explicit description
is given. Peil (1982) says that as a research method for social scientists,
observation involves more than just looking at what is going on.

5.7.2 Advantages of observation

Read this section closely to understand more fully advantages associated
with observation. Better understanding will enhance your observation
skills as you embark on research. Chivore et al. (2002) say observation
“goes deeper than surface domains that tend to be the case with quantitative
research”. The same authorities state that a researcher using observation
probes beyond and behind given statements. Follow up question such as:
In what way? Why? What evidence is there to support this statement are
asked. McMillan and Schumacher (1989) state that as much as possible,
researchers get involved in the daily activities. Researchers record in the
field notes, perceptions of individual participants as they interact with
others. McMillan and Schumacher (1989) argue that observation enables
the researcher to obtain people’s perception of reality in their actions
and expressed as feelings, thoughts and beliefs.

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5.7.3 Disadvantages of observation

As a serious researcher, you should also expect, disadvantages associated
with observation. Understanding disadvantages places you on a cautionary
position so as not to fall into pitfalls as you carry out your research.
McMillan and Schumacher (1989) argue that there is a behaviour of
subjects being observed. The observer often changes the situation being
observed, albeit unintentionally. Gall, et.al, (1996) warn researchers (such
as yourself) that observation methods are more time consuming than other
methods of data collection. Fish (1995) discussing weaknesses of
observation methods, argues that observation is not purely objective and
functional as all seeing is selective, and that all reporting of what is seen
as interpretive.

As a researcher, therefore, avoid colouring what you observe with your

prior knowledge, prejudices and personal judgments.

5.8 Document Analysis

This is yet another research method you could make use of. Gall et.al,
(1996) say that document analysis involves analysis of reports and minutes
of organizations. They define document analysis as “a research technique
for objective, systematic and quantitative description of the focused, on
content of communication”. The same authors point out that the raw material
for document analysis can be type-written reports. Document analysis in
education involves collecting data on various aspects of messages written
for purposes of communication. Gall et.al (1996) suggest four steps to be
taken when embarking on document analysis. These are:
 Identification of relevant documents to a specific research,
 Selection of a sample of documents for analysis;
 Developing a categorizing and coding procedure, and
 Conduct of document analysis involving frequencies.

Activity 5.3

? Think of an appropriate research topic and explain how

you employ Gall, et.al’s (1996) four (4) steps to be taken
when embarking on document analysis.

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Van Dalen (1979) indicates that documentary analysis i.e. sometimes

referred to as an activity or informational analysis which is concerned
with the classification, quantification and comparison of specified
characteristics within the reports. Chisaka and Vakalisa (2000) argue
that document analysis fills the gaps that may be left open by interviews
and observations or the researcher may pick up some aspects he/she would
like to verify with respondents through interviews.

5.9 Action Research

Action research, according to Shumbayawonda and Maringe (2000)
involves a researcher, or researchers such as yourselves, identifying a
problem or problems recurring in an institution, such as school. Examples
include high failure rate, indiscipline and others. As an individual or
groups of teachers you collect information and examine the problem(s)
deeply. You outline the nature of the problem, the possible causes of the
problem. Make recommendations. You then come up with strategies meant
to minimize or eliminate the problem. After implementing the strategies
you analyse the outcome or results.

Please note that action research is usually on a small scale and is restricted
to solving intuitional challenges and problems.

Activity 5.4

?
1. Identify problems, challenges or weaknesses in your own
institution.
2. Suggest strategies to solve the problems.
3. State the solutions.
4. Produce a write up detailing the procedures.
5. Carry out a comprehensive study on ‘Action Research’

5.10 Case Studies

Case studies in brief involve you the researcher after coming up with
your statement of the problem and literature search, pick on very few
study subjects. You carry out an intensive study of these research subjects
using interviews, observation and other strategies.

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Activity 5.5

? Carry out some intensive reading and literature search

on case studies. Produce a report under the following
sub-headings:
1. Definition of ‘case studies’.
2. Advantages of case studies.
3. Disadvantages of case studies.
4. Research instruments used in case studies.

5.11 Pilot Study

A pilot study is another method or technique you need to know as you are
likely to use it, during your programme (PGDE) or later in your future
education pursuits.

Robson (1993) says that a pilot study is a ‘dummy run’ which helps to
through up some of the inevitable problems of converting the design into
reality. Robson advises that a survey should be piloted on a smaller scale
to test research instruments and appropriateness of terms used. Rosenburg
and Daly (1993) state that a pilot study is the preparation that precedes
the main study whose purpose is meant to refine the project before the
main study. Williamson et.al, (1982) say that a pilot study is a tentative
examination of issues to be studied. The pilot study uses a handful of
subjects of the later study. Tuckman (1994) states that a pilot study uses
respondents who are part of the intended test population.

A pilot study is conducted for several reasons. Tuckman (1994) argues

that a pilot study is run to test a questionnaire and revise it, if necessary.
Michael (1984) points out that a pilot study provides a researcher with
ideas, approaches and clues not foreseen prior to the study. This includes
timing and approaches in administering research instruments. Chivore
(1994) lists several aims of a pilot study. These include:
 Testing instruments
 Data collection and analysis techniques
 Establishing trends which might have some bearing on the final study

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Activity 5.6

? Using your own words as far as possible, write two

paragraphs on the role and importance of a pilot study
in research.

5.12 Summary
This unit has covered part of the “Research Design and Methodology”.
Issues covered and interrogated are crucial and pertinent. The issues
help you to have a firmer foundation by providing you with a range of
methods, strategies and techniques that you could choose and utilise. Issues
interrogated and analysed in this unit include the conceptual framework
of research design, the survey method, interviews, the observation method,
document analysis, action research and the pilot study. Most of the aspects
have been detailed on purpose. Some of the methods that have been made
comprehensive such as the survey, observation and interviews are
frequently used by researchers. It is hoped that the details will provide
you with a data bank from which you can exploit or tap for the purposes
of this programme or in later life.

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References

Babie, E. (1983) The Practice of Social Research. Wadsworth Publishing

House: Belmont.
Chikoko, V. and Mhloyi, G. (1995) Introduction to Research Methods.
Zimbabwe Open University: Harare.
Chiota, C. (2003) A Study of the Models of Supervision used in Three
Selected Secondary Schools in Bindura District and their Impact
on Teacher Professional Growth. University of Zimbabwe: Harare.
Makore-Rukuni, N.M. (2001) Introduction to Research Methods in
Counselling. Zimbabwe Open University: Harare.
McMillan, J.H. and Schumacher, S. (1997) Research in Education. A
Conceptual Introduction. Harper and Collins: Glassgow.
Michael, W.B. (1984) Handbook on research and Evaluation Edits
Publishers. San Diego.
Shumbayawonda W.T. (2006) Analysis of Factors that Determine the
Effectiveness of Teaching Practice Supervision in Primary
Teachers’ Colleges in Zimbabwe. University of Zimbabwe
(Unpublished): Harare.

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 Unit Six

Research Instruments,
Population, Samples, Data
Collection and Processing
Procedures, Validity and
Reliability

6.1 Introduction

T his unit is part of “Research Design/ Methodology” It is a co-

ntinuation.
The unit covers a variety of research instruments, population, samples,
procedures used to collect and analyse data, validity and reliability.
These aspects are important and critical in making research successful.
Read the unit closely and productively.
Research Methods Module PGDE105

6.2 Objectives

After going through this unit, you should be able to:

 name various research instruments you can make use of

when you undertake research
 construct the questionnaire, interview guide, and
observation guide for effective research
 differentiate population and sample
 explain data collection and processing procedures
 state the difference between validity and reliability in
research

6.3 Research Instruments

Research instruments are tools used by you the researcher to gather or
collect data or information. There are several types/kinds of research
instruments. These include questionnaires, observation, interview guides.
Chisi et al. (2004) advise that research instruments should be clearly
described so as to bring out their strengths and weaknesses as a way of
justifying their selection and suitability to the research. Measures taken
to control the weaknesses identified should be spelt out so as to ensure
the validity and reliability of these instruments and the data to be collected.
Chisi et al. also state that research instruments should have clear
instructions and that instruments items should be very clear, logical and
should address the sub-problems identified.

6.4 Questionnaires
Borg and Gall 1996, in Chiota (2003) define questionnaires as “documents
that ask questions to all individuals in a sample. They go on to point out
that, if the sample has sub-groups, the questions asked of each sub-group
may vary. McMillan and Schumacher (1989) state that questionnaires
encompass a variety of instruments in which the subject responds to written
questions to elicit reactions, beliefs and attitudes. Van Dalen (1979) says
that questionnaires involve presenting respondents with carefully selected
and ordered question to obtain data. He argues that isolating specific
questions for consideration tends to objectify, intensify, and standardise

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the observations that respondents make. Sidhu (1997) conceives a

questionnaire as a form prepared and distributed to secure responses to
certain questions. It is a systematic compilation of questions that are
submitted to a sampled population from which the information is desired.
Hussye et al. (1997) defines a questionnaire as a list of carefully structured
questions chosen after considerable testing, with a view to eliciting
reliable responses from a chosen sample.

6.4.1 Types of questionnaires

There are two main types of questionnaires. These are the structured
(closed) and unstructured (open ended). Chivore (1990) says that
structured or closed ended questionnaires are relatively easy and quick
to answer as well as being fairly straightforward in the quantification of
data. An illustration of this type of question is presented later, to assist
you to have a better understanding. Besides, closed questionnaires can
allow more questions to be asked within a given some of money
(Oppenhein 1975).

Chivore (1990) criticizes closed ended questionnaires for being restrictive

to respondents who want to add more information or qualify certain
responses . To solve this problem, open ended sections are often added.
Masango (1996) states that in open ended questionnaires, the respondent
is asked to provide his/her own views. This allows the respondent to
give more information. Borg and Gall (1996) warn that when using
questionnaires, the researcher has no control over the whole process of
data collection. The respondents can choose to complete or leave some
sections blank. Some respondents fail to submit questionnaires handed to
them despite reminders to do so.

6.5 Illustration on Instructions and Format of

Questionnaires
To assist you to design, construct and craft questionnaires, we use examples
from Shumbayawonda (2006).

Shumbayawonda’s (2006) research was centred on students, lecturers

and mentors’ perceptions of and attitudes towards factors that determine
teaching practice supervision effectiveness of students at primary teachers’
colleges in Zimbabwe. In order to address the research problem,

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Shumbayawonda (2006) designed and crafted three different

questionnaires. These included a questionnaire for students, one for college
lecturers and the other for mentors.

Below are examples from Shumbayawonda (2006). You should take note
of the clarity of questionnaire instructions and the logical sequence of
research items (Chisi et.al.2004).

6.5.1 Examples of questionnaires

Respondents: Student teachers

This questionnaire is designed to collect information on factors that

determine the effectiveness of teaching practice supervision at Primary
Teachers Colleges in Zimbabwe. Section A is about the student’s parent
college. Section B is about the personal background of the student. Section
C is about the effectiveness of teaching practice supervision. The
respondent is kindly asked to answer all questions and add any details
he/she considers pertinent to the study. The information you give will be
treated confidentially. No reference will be made to individual names.

Please tick in the appropriate boxes provided. I would like to thank you
for taking part.

SECTION A: INSTITUTION

1.0 College

Marymount

Morgan

Seke

2.0 Responsible Authority

Government

Private

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Unit 6 Research Instruments, Population, Samples, Data Collection and Processing Procedures, Validity and Reliability

3.0 Gender

Male

Female

4.0 Age

Less than 20 years

20-25 years

26-30 years

31- 35 years

Over 36 years

5.0 Highest Academic Qualifications

Standard six

Junior Certificate

CSC or ‘O’ Level

HSC or A’ Level

B.A/B. Sc

Other (State which) .......................................................................

6.0 Where you officially educated and trained in the area of supervision
at college or university? Yes/No

If your answer is “No: briefly explain how you acquired your supervisory
knowledge and skills

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7.0 Working Experience as Primary School Teacher

Less than 1 year

1-5 years

6-10 years

11 years and above

Other jobs (please state) ...............................................................

8.0 Indicate in these columns, your satisfaction with the following issues
or factors that affected the effectiveness of teaching practice supervision
in year 2002, at your practicing school.
KEY: Not satisfactory NS

Not so satisfactory NSS

Somewhat satisfactory SWS

Satisfactory S

More satisfactory MS

Most satisfactory MST

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Unit 6 Research Instruments, Population, Samples, Data Collection and Processing Procedures, Validity and Reliability

1 2 3 4 5 6
COLLEGE NS NSS SWS S MS MST
SUPERVISORS
School environment
School climate (conditions
at school)
School leadership
Mentor (class teacher)
expertise
Mentor training
Suitability of practicing
school
Human resources
Material resources at
school
Financial resources
Attachment to mentors
Frequency of supervision
Level of support from the
school
Sharing of the load
Co-curricular activities

Elaborate or comment on some of your responses on the spaces provided

below:
..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

9.0 Indicate in these columns your satisfaction with the following college
related issues or factors that affected teaching practice supervision
effectiveness in year 2002.
KEY: Not satisfactory NS

Not so satisfactory NSS

Somewhat satisfactory SWS

Satisfactory S

More satisfactory MS

Most satisfactory MST

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1 2 3 4 5 6
College Supervisors NS NSS SWS S MS MST
School preparation for T.P
Deployment of students
T.P organis ation
Induction of new lecturers
for TP
Availability of tran sport
for TP
Supervision instrument
(form)
Time spent supervising
students
Allowances for students
on TP
Lecturer/mentor
relationships
Frequency of supervision
by lecturers
Quality of supervision by
lecturers
Attitudes of lecturers
towards students

Elaborate or comment on some of your responses on the space provided

below:
.........................................................................................................................................

.........................................................................................................................................

.........................................................................................................................................

10.0 Indicate in these columns your assessment of TP supervision

effectiveness by the following college lecturers in 2002.

KEY: Not effective NE

Not so effective NSE
Somewhat effective SME
Effective E
More effective ME
Most effective MST

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Unit 6 Research Instruments, Population, Samples, Data Collection and Processing Procedures, Validity and Reliability

1 2 3 4 5 6
College Supervisors NS NSE SWE E ME MST
Newly appointed lecturers
Experienced lecturers
Male lecturers
Heads of department
Lecturers in charge
Vice principals
Principals

Elaborate or comment on some of your responses on the space provided

below:
............................................................................................................................................

.........................................................................................................................................

.........................................................................................................................................

11.0 Indicate in these columns your assessment of the TP supervision

effectiveness by the following college mentors in 2002.

KEY: Not effective NE

Not so effective NSE
Somewhat effective SME
Effective E
More effective ME
Most effective MST

1 2 3 4 5 6
School Supervisors NE NSE SWE E ME MST
Newly appointed mentors
Experienced mentors
Male mentors
Graduate mentors
Non-graduate mentors
Teachers in charge
Attitudes of mentors
towards students

Elaborate or comment on some of your responses on the space provided

below:
..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

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12.0 Indicate in these columns your opinion on the effectiveness of TP

supervision of students by college lecturers 2002 in the following areas.

KEY: Not effective NE

Not so effective NSE
Somewhat effective SME
Effective E
More effective ME
Most effective MST

1 2 3 4 5 6
College Supervisors NE NSE SWE E ME MST
Planning
Class management
Classroom management
Instructional media (aids)
TP documentation
Personal attributes (dress,
voice projection)
Pre-observation discussion
Concept development
Problem solving
techniques
Role play
Motivation approaches
Co-curricular activities
Students professional
growth

Elaborate or comment on some of your responses on the space provided

below:
..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

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Unit 6 Research Instruments, Population, Samples, Data Collection and Processing Procedures, Validity and Reliability

13.0 Indicate or list five major school based factors, you consider to
have enhanced (promoted) the effectiveness of TP supervision of
students deployed at your school.
...................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................

14.0 Indicate or list five major school based factors that adversely
(negatively) affected TP supervision effectively at your school.
...................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................

Suggest possible solutions to the weaknesses cited above, so as to enhance

(promote) supervision effectiveness.

15.0 Indicate or list five major college based factors that enhanced TP
supervision effectives at your school in 2002

16.0 Indicate or list five major college based factors or practices that
adversely (negatively) affected the quality of student supervision at
your school in 2002.

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SECTION D: ALTERNATIVE MODEL (PATTERN) FOR

TEACHING PRACTICE IN ZIMBABWE

17.0 The current teacher education model (pattern) at primary teachers

colleges in Zimbabwe requires that students are at the college for
the initial 2 terms, followed by 5 terms of TP and students return to
college for the final two terms when they sit for their final
examinations.

For the 5 terms when students are on TP they are expected to be

supervised at least 3 times by the college and at least twice by the
school for them to pass T.P. For practical purposes supervision and
assessment are conducted together (at the same session).

Say whether you are satisfied with the current 2:5:2 pattern giving
reasons. If not please suggest an alternative TP model that would
enhance the professional growth of students whilst on teaching
practice.

Write your responses on the space provided below:

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

Activity 6.1
? Closely study and analyse the three questionnaires
designed, constructed and crafted by Shumbayawonda
(2006).
1. Make your own comments on the suitability of the
questionnaire instructions at the top of each
questionnaires.
2. Comment of the logical sequence of the questionnaire
sub-sections.
3. Do the research items (variables) included in the
questionnaire address the research problems? Qualify
your answer fully.

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6.6 Interview and Observation Guides

These are some of the research instruments that you can use to collect
data from your research subjects.

Guides are schedules that are carefully designed to address the research
problem. What you need to do in order to construct suitable interview or
observation guide is to determine clearly the research variables/items or
issues you wish to interrogate. Then use the research items as your sub-
headings for the interview or observation guides. Leave enough spaces
for you to write as you either interview or observe the research
participants.
.........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

If in your study, you made use of a questionnaire, you could make use of
the research items or variables to guide you when you craft your interview
or research guides. Use of more research tools such as the questionnaire,
interview guide, observation guide and document analysis for the same
study is referred to as triangulation.

Activity 6.2

? With the help of different sources:

1. Construct and craft an interview guide/ schedule for a
specific research project.
2. Design a suitable observation guide for the same
research as in (a) above.
3. Write an evaluation on weaknesses and strengths of the
schedules produced in a) and b) above.

6.7 Study Population

Tuckman (1994) defines research population as the group which the
researcher is interested in gaining information and drawing conclusions.

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Similarly Sidhu (1996) refers to a research population as the aggregate

or totality of individuals from which the sample is chosen. Borg and Gall
91989) define research population as “all the members of a real or
hypothetical set of people to which we wish to generalize the results of
our research”. For instance, Shumbayawonda (1997) in his research,
investigating the effectiveness of teaching practice supervision of students
at primary teachers’ colleges had two categories of research population.
The first category consisted of 1040 third year students at Bondolfi,
Masvingo and Morgenster Teachers Colleges in 1997. These students
were chosen because they were on teaching practice the previous year
(1996). The students were also resident in their respective colleges in
1997. This made it easy to collect data. The second category of the research
population consisted of 151 lecturers at Bondolfi, Masvingo and
Morgenster Teachers’ Colleges.

Some of you could be asking questions on why the study population was
chosen from only three of the conventional teachers colleges (Bondolfi,
Marymount, Masvingo, Mkoba, Morgester, Nyadire, Seke and United
College of Education). If you asked those questions you need to consider
a number of options and possibilities in order for you to undertake your
research successfully.

Shumbayawonda (1997) found it impossible to cover all eight primary

teachers colleges scattered through out the country, within the time
available for the research to take place. So he used a cluster random
sample. The eight conventional primary teachers colleges were grouped
(clustered) according to provisions or nearness to each other. Pieces of
paper with the names of the clustered colleges were placed in a box. The
researcher’s son was asked to pick one cluster from the box. The Masvingo
cluster came out first. So Bondolfi, Masvingo and Morgenster was made
focus of the study.

Please note that, sometimes you do not need to do what Shumbayawonda

(1997) did if your population is in the same area. The illustration was
given to show how research can be validated through a systematic research
approach.

6.8 Research Sample

Borg and Gall 91989) define a sample as “a given number of subjects
from a defined population which is representative of it”.

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Unit 6 Research Instruments, Population, Samples, Data Collection and Processing Procedures, Validity and Reliability

Borg and Gall (1989) state that there are several sampling techniques.
These are:
 Simple random sampling
 Systematic sampling
 Cluster sampling
Robson (1993) comes up with additional sampling techniques.
 Convenience sampling
 Purposive sampling, and
 Snowball sampling

Activity 6.3

? Using modules, library books and other reference materials:

1. Write a paragraph under each of the six (6) sampling
techniques.
2. Which sampling techniques appeal to you most? Explain
why?

Shumbayawonda (1997) used the stratified sampling technique in the

above example. Fox (1969) says that in stratified sampling, the population
is divided into sub-groups or strata on the basis of the characteristics for
which we seek representativeness. Shumbayawonda (1997) state that
stratified samples in research are used and applied where the sample
chosen from the population is divided into homogenous groupings bearing
the same characteristics. This is in line with Borg and Gall (1989) who
advise that the sample should be selected in such a way that certain
groupings in the population will be represented relative to their numbers.
In Shumbayawonda (1997) study third year students constituted strata
different from college lecturers.

6.9 Sampling Procedures

Cohen and Manion (1980) suggest that the sample size for surveys should
be more than 30 percent. Guided by that consideration, Shumbayawonda
(1997) came up with an overall sample of 400 students out of a possible

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total of 1 040 students. This gave a 37.5% sample. This is above the 30%
suggested by Cohen and Manion (1980).

To arrive at the 400 chosen student sample, a systematic random sampling

method was used to select questionnaires from each college. For instance,
every second questionnaire from the 202 third year students at Bondolfi
was chosen. A similar procedure was used for the other two colleges.
Determining the sample for college lecturers was fairly straight forward.
All 90 lecturers who completed the questionnaires from the three colleges
were included. Basing on the study population of 151 lecturers in the
three colleges, this represented a 59.6% sample.

We hope that the discussion and illustration cited above should assist and
guide you when you embark on population identification, choice of a
sample and procedures you will employ.

6.10 Data Collection Procedures

This section seeks to clarify issues on the ways you could employ when
administering research instruments (tools) to collect research data.
Tuckman (1994) says that questionnaires can be mailed, self administered
or group administered. Chivore (1990) notes that the postal technique is
unsuitable because of the low response rate both in his study, the number
of questionnaires returned was low and certain sections were being left
out. Anderson et al. in Chivore (1990) found out that five out of the twenty
schools involved did not return the questionnaires. Chivore (1990) goes
on to warn that delegating other people to administer questionnaires was
unsuitable. On the other hand Oppenheim 1975 in Chivore (1990) says
that self administration of questionnaire has many advantages by yielding
high response rate, accurate sampling and minimum interview bias.

We hope that the experiences and advise from other researchers cited
above, should assist you or guide you when choosing data collection
procedures.

6.11 Data Processing Procedures

When you collect your research data, it needs to be processed. Chivore
(1990) advises that data yielded by questionnaires from closed sections
should be computer processed. The statistical package for Social Science

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Unit 6 Research Instruments, Population, Samples, Data Collection and Processing Procedures, Validity and Reliability

(SPSS), for example, at the University of Zimbabwe, Computer Centre is

often used by many researchers.

Activity 6.5

? Suggest other centres where research data can be

processed. List them and provide their addresses to
share with others at Tutorial Sessions.

Shumbayawonda (1997) suggests that, research data from open ended

questions can be qualitatively processed, without use of the computer.
This involves reading through all the responses in open sections of the
questionnaire. The next stage involves classification of data according to
specific issues such as weaknesses or strengths and then each category is
allocated a code. This is followed by the tallying system to determine the
frequency of common responses.

Activity 6.6

? Write a paragraph distinguishing data collection

procedures.

6.12 Reliability
Another aspect in research you need to know and consider is reliability.
Babie (1983) defines reliability as “a matter of whether a particular
technique applied repeatedly to the same object would yield the same
result”. Chivore (1994) says that reliability of research depends on its
stability, which means ability to give similar or nearly the same results if
a different test were to be carried out on the same sample.

Reliability then is a measure of consistency with which an instruments

measures. Barbie (1983) says that the survey method is generally strong
on reliability. This is because in this method uniform responses are elicited
from respondents, especially when questionnaires were used.

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Activity 6.7

? 1. Explain how you could enhance reliability in your

research.
2. What measures and strategies would you employ to
enhance this reliability?

6.13 Validity
Manhein (1977) perceives validity as “the degree to which the recorded
description of the set of data conforms to its referent”. Ebel (1965) says
that validity is the extent to which an instrument measures what it sets out
to measure Masango (1996) says that validity refers to the extent to which
an empirical measure adequately reflects the real meaning of the concept
under discussion. Chivore (1994) says that validity refers to whether the
researcher is observing or measuring what is intended by given instruments
or procedures.

Activity 6.8

? 1. What type of research instruments would you use

to increase validity? Justify your answer.
2. What attributes of research subjects would you
consider when you choose the research population
– to enhance validity. Qualify your answer fully.

6.14 Summary
This unit is a continuation of the “Research Design/Methodology”. The
unit has covered important aspects that you come across when embarking
on research. Issues covered and interrogated include, research instruments,
their design and how they are utilised. The unit analysed questionnaires
and gave illustrations from other educationists. Interview and observation
guides were briefly discussed. The study population, research samples
and sampling procedures were also discussed to assist you to have a
better understanding of these aspects. Data collection and processing
procedures were also discussed. The unity ends with a brief look and
analysis of reliability and validity, aspects that you should consider and
know if you are to produce authentic research.

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References

Babie, E. (1983) The Practice of Social Research. Belmont: Wadsworth

Publishing Company.
Borg, W.R. and Gall, M.D (1989) Educational Research. An Introduction.
London: Longman.
Chiota, C. (2003) A Study of the Models of Supervision used in Three
Selected Secondary Schools in Bindura District of Mashonaland
Central Province. Harare: University of Zimbabwe.
Chivore, B.R.S. (1990) Teacher Education in Post Independent
Zimbabwe. Harare: ZIMFEP Publishers.
Chisi, R. Madziyire, N.C. Mhlanga, E. Kwandayi H.R and Makombe, B
(2004) Research Project Guide. Harare: Zimbabwe Open
University.
Masango, R. B. (1996) An Investigation into the Utilization of Teacher
of Technical Subjects in Secondary Schools in the Harare Region
of Zimbabwe. Harare: University of Zimbabwe.
Shumbayawonda, W.T. (2006) An Analysis of Factors that Determine
Teaching Practice Supervisions Effectiveness in Primary Teachers
Colleges. Harare: University of Zimbabwe (Unpublished).
Sidhu, S.K. (1984). Methodology of Research in Education. Jakandlah:
Sterling Publishers.
Tuckman, D. (1994) Conducting Educational Research. Harcourt and
Brace Company.

Van Dalen, D. B. (1973) Understanding Educational Research: An

Introduction. New York: McGraw Hill.

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 Unit Seven

Data Presentation,
Interpretation and Analysis

7.1 Introduction

I n this unit, we focus on data presentation techniques, interpretation of

research findings and discussion of the emerging trends. In order to do
this effectively, we will discuss how the collected data is scanned and
sifted, how it is organised and summarised to enhance logical sequence
for easy of presentation. We also analyse use of tables, graphs, charts and
other illustrations meant to enhance the quality of the research. The unit
also attempts to demonstrate how the research findings are focused and
related to the research problem and sub-problems. Interpretation and
analysis of research findings techniques and suggestions are also discussed
all in an attempt to assist you to develop a better understanding needed
when you carry out your own research.
Research Methods Module PGDE105

7.2 Objectives

After going through this unit, you should be able to:

 explain the importable or significance of scanning

and sifting through the research data / information
collected through the research process
 discuss with confidence how you go about organising
and summarizing the data collected
 explain the effective ways and proper use of tables,
graphs, pie-charts and other illustrations in order to
improve the quality of the overall research
 relate the focus of research findings to the research
problem and sub-problems
 analyse research findings

7.3 Data Presentation Process

Chikoko and Mhloyi (1995) suggest that presentation of research results
must contain data related to each of the sub-problems. They also argue
that the data be logically sequenced. Chikoko and Mhloyi (1995) advise
that each sub-problem and its attendant data are described. They state
that data can be summarised into charts, tables, graphs and statistical
summarises. These help you to draw conclusions later. You are advised
to choose the form that provides the clearest presentation of your data.
These tables, graphs, charts and other illustrations need to be numbered
in logical and chronological sequence so as to assist you when you interpret
and analyse the data based on them. You are further advised to draw and
label all axes of graphs clearly and accurately. Tell the reader what to
look for and how information in the figure (or illustration) is related to
the analysis you are doing. If you use numbers explain what the numbers
mean.

Chisi et al. (2004) advice researchers to have an introduction for the

chapter that describes briefly how the chapter unfolds. Chisi et al. (2004)
advise researchers to do the following when presenting data:

Scanning and sifting the data

You should read the data to ensure it is complete, accurate, consistent and

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relevant. You should watch out for trends which may emerge in the scanned
data. Such trends could assist you to organise data into meaningful chunks.
Sub-questions should contribute to the answering of the main research
question / research problem.

Organising the data

You should make sense of the data by rearranging it into a manageable

form. This could call for counting using specific grids. You may describe
to give in depth analysis of various forms of interactions. You may also
compare responses from various respondents. You can categorise the
responses. You need to identify patterns of responses to a question. This
calls for use of descriptive statistics like the mean or other inferences.

Summarise the data

You should utilise different ways of summarising large amounts of data.

You may resort to the use of:

Tables, graphs, pie-charts when showing relationships of parts to the

whole scatter graphs when demonstrating trends or patterns; histograms
when demonstrating comparisons between categories or line graphs when
you wish to underscore time and rate of change…

Numbers used at the beginning of sentences must be in prose form and not
in figures for example “Seventy-five percent of administrators indicated
that they were worried about loss of power resulting from the new policy”
(and not 75% of administrators…).
 In answering the sub-problems / sub-questions you should take each
sub-problem / sub-question separately and select data related to it.
 The answer to each of the sub-questions / sub problems should
contribute to answering the main research question / research
problem.”

Activity 7.1

? Carefully read through “Data Presentation Process” given

by Chisi et. al. (2004). Explain and justify the logical
sequence.

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Giving advice on presenting the data, Chisi, et al. (2004) say that data
presentation is effectively done using tables, figures and text. It should
be structured around sub-problems. Variables to be discussed under
background of subjects usually include socio-demographic data such as
age, sex, marital status, academic and professional qualifications.
Characteristics of the subjects will be useful in the interpretation of the
results. The illustration from Shumbayawonda (2006) qualifies what Chisi
et al. (2004) are advising. So take heed of the suggestions as you may
find them useful as you undertake your own research.

After presenting data on the background of subjects, the researcher should

move on to data presentation focusing on specific sub-problems on the
research study (Chisi et al. 2004 and Shumbayawonda 1997). The sub-
problems should be answered logically and sequentially, and separately.
Chisi et al. (2004) advise that sub-headings should emerge from the sub-
problems as much as possible, and avoiding using direct questions as
sub-headings.

With regards to use of figures, graphs, tables, histograms, scatter plots

and charts, Chisi et al. (2004) argue that these assist in making graphic
and pictorial presentation of data. These authorities (Chisi et al. 2004)
go on to call on you the researcher to observe the following when using
tables and figures.
 Verbal descriptions should accompany tables and figures to ensure
that readers understand correctly what is being shown;
 Tables and figures should be neat, simple and accurate;
 In tables, the title is placed at the top and in figures it should be
placed below the illustration;
 For uniformity, Arabic numerals should be used to number tables
and figures;
 Each table or figure should certainly be used to number tables and
figures;
 Each table or figure should contain all the information necessary to
interpret it;
 Each table or figure should contain all the information necessary
to interpret it;
 A table or figure never procedures but rather follows as closely as
possible the first reference to it in the report;
 Only those tables and figures that present information essential to
the understanding of the chapter should be included;
 A table that will not fit into the remaining space of the page is
placed on the next page;
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Unit 7 Data Presentation, Interpretation and Analysis

 Long detailed tables or figures that interrupt the continuity of the

discussion should be put in the appendix;
 A well constructed table should be self-explanatory and sufficiently
clear to be understood without reading the textual explanation.
Conversely, the contextual explanation should enable the reader to
grasp the main ideas without examining the, table, and
 After studying each table or figure the researcher should write a
paragraph or two explaining what it contains and drawing the
reader’s attention to note-worthy findings. However, there is need
to avoid discussing all tables and figures. In fact an informative
table supplements but does not duplicate the text; and
 Headings of tables are usually derived from sub-problems / sub-
questions.”

Activity 7.2

? Using your own words as far as possible write a full

page accompanied by illustrations showing the crucial
role played by tables and figures when:
1. Presenting research findings
2. Before we cover “the interpretation of data” state at
least three differences between “Data Presentation”
and Data Interpretation”

7.4 The Interpretation of Data

Chikoko Mhloyi (1995) state that data interpretation involves explaining
the meaning of the research as reflected in the data. Presentation is the
sine qua non of research. “Without inquiring into the intrinsic meaning of
data, there can be resolutions of the research problem or its attendant
sub-problems”. Chikoko and Mhloyi (1995) also advise that you need to
compare your results with those of other researchers and take note of the
agreements or disagreements. You provide convincing explanations for
any differences. If your findings have any practical implications, state
them.

Chisi et al. (2004) suggest guidelines for interpreting and discussing

research data:

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They say:
 The discussion of findings should focus on the results;
 The discussion should tie together relation to theory and review of
literature;
 If the results support or contradict previous research / literature on
the topic, this should be stated;
 If the results differ from previous findings, an explanation why this
occurred should be attempted,
 If the study was set up to test hypothesis, the discussion section
must report the outcome of each hypothesis. The statistical test used
must also be appropriate.
 Ensure that all the results of the sub-problems / sub-questions /
hypothesis are discussed,” and
 In terms of language, be definite about the data and statistics but be
tentative about interpretations and conclusions as shown by these
statements:
 It would appear that most teachers in the study were against
corporal punishment.
 Results seem to suggest that early childhood education positively
influences pupil performances in Grade 1…..; and
 The explanation for this outcome could be distance education
tutors were exposed to the theory of tutoring at a distance.”
With regards to the statistical paradigm Chisi et.el (2004) advise that one
should be more definite when reporting data and statistics as shown by
these statements.
 The mean and standard deviation were 10 and 2.5 respectively.
 The co-efficient of correlation was 0.8

7.5 Illustration on Data Presentation and Interpretation

In order to concretize what has been discussed and analysed above, let us
make use of an illustration from Shumbayawonda (2006). This is being
done to assist you on how you could present, interpret and analyse your
data. As this is just an example you, you may have ideas or opinions
different from those reflected in the illustrations, this difference in opinion
is acceptable in academic discourse.

Shumbayawonda’s (2006) research topic “An analysis of factors that

determine the effectiveness of Teaching Practice Supervision effectiveness
at Primary Teachers’ Colleges in Zimbabwe.” The problem of the research

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was “What are the perceptions of and attitudes of student teachers and
their supervisors (lecturers and mentors) towards critical factors that
determine the effectiveness of the T.P supervision of students in primary
teachers’ colleagues in Zimbabwe?

Students’ highest academic qualifications were one of the factors that

were integrated and here is what the research findings revealed.

Highest academic qualifications

Table 4.5 below, shows that 737 (73.7%) students possessed ‘O’ Levels
as their highest academic qualifications. This is followed by 254 (25.4%)
students with ‘A’ levels as their highest academic qualifications. In other
words, the students had either ‘O’ or ‘A’ levels. Seven (7) (0.7%) students
were holders of University degrees as their highest academic
qualifications. On the whole, therefore, 998 (99.98%) students had ‘O’
level or higher academic qualifications. Generally, these findings are in
line with Chaerera (2003) who found that 100% of the students in her
study had either ‘O’ level (70%) or ‘A’ Level (33.3%). Chivore (1994)
points out that ‘O’ level qualifications are minimum entry requirements
to train as primary school teachers. While national figures are not
documented, on academic qualifications for students we can safely
conclude that all students who train as teachers have either ‘O’ or ‘A’
Levels.

The appearance of 7(7%) students with degree qualifications was

surprising. This is however, possible. Nhenga (1995) also found that
there were a number of university graduates in his study. Nhenga (1995)
indicated that such students had university qualifications in such fields as
Bachelor of Arts in Political Administration. Because of lack of
employment opportunities in Zimbabwe in these fields, those affected
went to teachers’ colleges to train as teachers.

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Table 4.5 Students According to Highest Academic Qualifications

Qualification Frequency

N %

CSC or ‘O’ level 737 73.7

HSc or ‘A’ Level 354 25.4

B.A/B. Sc 7 0.7

Other (State which) 2 0.2

Total 1000 100.0

Activity 7.3

? 1. Analyse and comment on the presentation and

interpretation of research findings by Shumbayawonda
(2006).
2. What are the strong aspects emerging?
3. What weaknesses have you noted?

7.6 Summary
We are certain that you have noted and grasped some knowledge, guidelines
and hints on how to present and interpret research data.
 Some of the salient issues raised include the need to begin your
chapter with an introduction and the importance of linking your
data to the research problem and sub-problems. You were also
advised to present your data logically and sequentially. For instance
you were advised to scan and sift data before organizing it and then
summarising the data by use of tables, graphs, charts and other
illustration. The unit also advised you to start a sentence involving
figures in prose, for instance. Seventy-five percent “and not starting
with 75% at the beginning of a sentence.
 With regards data interpretation, you were advised this involves
the meaning of research and statements on emerging trends from the

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data. You were also advised to focus on your data. You were also
advised to focus your interpretation or discussion on the results. In
terms of language, you were advised to be definite about the data
and statistics but tentative about interpretation and conclusions.
 This unit also made use of Shumbayawonda (2006)’s illustration to
show how data is presented on tables and the interpretation of
findings based on tables. The illustrations also showed linkages
and relationships with review of related literature.

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References

Chikoko, V. and Mhloyi, G. (1995) An Introduction to Research Methods.

Harare: Zimbabwe Open University.
Shumbayawonda, W.T. (2006) An Analysis of Factors that Determine
the Effectiveness of Teaching Practice Supervision in Primary
Teachers’ Colleges in Zimbabwe. Harare: Zimbabwe Open
University.

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 Unit Eight

Further Analysis, Conclusions

and Recommendations

8.1 Introduction

T his unit which is equated to the last chapter of most research

paradigms which synthesises research findings. It concretises the
salient aspects of the results. It wraps up the research process outlined in
Unit two as it includes summary, conclusions and recommendations. The
wrap up is important as the research intends to provide “answers” to all
the issues raised in the introductory chapter of the research study.
Research Methods Module PGDE105

8.2 Objectives

After reading and reflecting on this unit, you should be

able to:

 explain fully the purpose and role played by further

analysis of data, conclusions and recommendations’
chapter in research
 state and describe the contents of further analysis of
data
 comment on the similarities between conclusion and
summary of major findings
 support why recommendations are made in research.

Activity 8.1

? With the assistance of the research process guidelines

at the beginning of Unit 2:
a) Determine the position of further analysis, conclusions
and recommendations in research.
b) Ethics in research was analysed in Unit 3. Does this
fit in well with the research process? Qualify your
answer fully.

8.3 Further Analysis of Research Findings

In this unit which fits well will with the last chapter of research, especially
those associated with surveys, research results / findings are synthesized
and concretized the major findings from the research are clearly identified
and analysed further. In order to focus on the major findings, research
questions or sub-problems are used as sub-headings. As an illustration
Shumbayawonda (2006) in, his research on analysis of factors that
determine teaching practice supervision effectiveness at Primary teachers,
colleges in Zimbabwe, targeted student teachers, college lecturers and
school mentors as respondents. The targeted population was given a
separate questionnaire each from which the findings were obtained.
Shumbayawonda (2006) had also framed research questions related to
the study problem.

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These are:
i) What are the student teachers’ perceptions of and attitudes
towards supervision effectiveness of T.P by college lecturers and
mentors?
ii) What are the lecturers perceptions of and attitudes towards factors
that determine the effectiveness of T.P. supervision
iii) What are the mentors perceptions of and attitudes towards factors
that determine the effectiveness of T.P supervision?
iv) What factors determine T.P Supervision effectiveness?
These were the guiding research questions related to the research problem
and the research questions. These research questions constituted sub-
problems. They were used to yield research items or variables after data
was collected, the subheadings and titles of tables captured or implied
the research questions. The data in the last (unit 7) unit was presented
and analysed guided by these research questions. Hence in this unit, further
discussion of main findings are further analysed. Other minor aspects
yielded by the research and interpreted, were left out. To this end,
Shumbayawonda (2006) used the research questions as sub-headings.

We now use general “observations” that emerged from the study and how
these were analysed in detail. This is done to assist you when further
analyzing research findings. Please note that this is a mere illustration
which may not meet your future requirements. Use the hints and guidelines
that may be relevant and applicable to your needs. But the point still
remains that under further analysis of research findings there is a need to
synthesize and concretize the main findings that emerged from the whole
study. General “observations” from Shumbayawonda’s study are given
as an illustration this was related to research question (iv) above.

Observations

In the light of findings from this research, the following observations

were made:

Practicum supervision in Zimbabwe, according to findings is conducted

by college lecturers, the majority of whom had no working experience as
teachers in primary schools. These lecturers are expected to effectively
assist students training for the primary school system. In the light of these
findings, Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education in liaison with the
University of Zimbabwe and Colleges should consider implementing policy
that could restrict recruitment of graduate lecturers to those with primary
teaching experience, rather than those from secondary schools. Should

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such recruitment be done from secondary schools, orientation of these

teachers to teaching in primary schools becomes an imperative. This
finding explains why most student supervisors focus on peripheral issues
as they themselves may not be too sure of the demands of the higher order
variables. Continuing education for lecturers is crucial for them to become
reflective teacher educators who in turn can guide student teachers in the
development of reflexivity in practice. It is also suggested that there be a
separate study to investigate the effect of relevant professional
qualifications on effective T.P supervision or student support for
development in teachers’ colle.g.es.

An observation was made that most of the college lecturers and mentors
who supervised students in 2002 did not have formal education and training
in either a teachers’ college or university in the area of supervision.
Colleges, University of Zimbabwe in liaison with the Ministries of Higher
and Tertiary Education and Education, Sports and Culture should mount
in-service programmes on supervision and mentoring. These programmes
could be patterned on the current Advanced Diploma in Education:
Supervision at Morgan Zintec College and Advanced Diploma in
Education: Mentoring at Nyadire Teachers’ College. The fluidity of the
mentoring system demands an on-going training of mentors in supervision.
To ensure developmental effect of the training in supervision. To ensure
developmental effect of the training in supervision, the training of mentors
and lecturers should be on-going and responsive to perceived areas of
need as unmasked by the T.P supervision process. The TP syllabus and
continuing education of lecturers for professional development are likely
to empower them so that they see the process of supervision as a learning
process for both see the process of supervision as a learning process for
both the supervisor and supervisee. Further study is suggested on the
impact of lack of formal education in the area of supervision by a majority
of student supervisors on the quality of student supervision.

The results have revealed that supervisors focus on teaching practice

documentation such as schemes, plans, records and personal attributes.
Student support by way of assisting problem-solving and concept
development and pre-observation discussions are neglected. What this
means is that practicum supervision in Zimbabwe focuses on the
development of peripheral aspects of teacher education and professional
development. The conceptually challenging and fundamental aspects that
urge students to think, reflect and come up with solutions to problems in a
classroom situation are skirted around and neglected. Concern is on
meeting set targets in terms of numbers. In the process, supervision is

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rushed, pre observation sessions are overlooked and brief assessment

remarks are written on supervision reports. The supervision comments
were restricted to prescriptive assessment remarks showing that the conduct
of the supervision process needs attention. Such areas can be covered
through the T.P syllabus.

Study findings showed “pre-observation” as a neglected area (Tables

4.33, 4.34 and 4.35). Several respondents urged colleges and schools to
conduct pre- and post – observation discussions involving supervisors
and students This, they claimed would go a long way in clarifying issues,
setting the lesson targets and strategies for meeting the targets before the
observation of lessons. It would also indicate the focus of that particular
supervision encounter. Suggestions were also made to separate supervision
from assessment using a modified 2:5:2 practicum model (page 8 of this
research). Several participants suggested use of clinical supervision which
would include the student and supervisor holding pre- and post-
observation discussions compel supervisors to encourage collaboration
with supervisees, thus enhancing their professional development. These
sentiments are in line with action researches conducted by Chikwanda
(2003) and Pswarayi (2003) involving Morgan ZINTEC College students
and mentors in Harare and Marondera schools, These researches
demonstrated that students clinically supervised, improved compared to
those not clinically supervised. Clinical supervision is rich in student
support mechanisms. The student is allowed to take the front seat during
discussions. The student is encouraged to think and reflect on practice
throughout the supervision process (Chikwanda 2003). The collaborative
and collegial elements associated with clinical supervision result in
supervisees gaining confidence (Kerry & Mayes 1998).

A close analysis of emerging issues from the study shows that the
philosophy guiding practicum supervision in Zimbabwe is the behaviourist
paradigm founded on transmission of information to students in an attempt
to change students within the confines of limited resources and time
(Weiler 2003) This type of approach inhibits student support mechanisms
for development. It is the view of this study that colleges in liaison with
the University of Zimbabwe consider shifting teacher education
programmes from their emphasis on transmission of information to
transformation of students’ thinking and reflection through dialogue,
collaboration and support. Yost, et. Al. (2000) argue that today, teachers
are required to be problem-solvers, reflective thinkers, innovative and
self-motivated. Yost et. Al (2000) suggest that student practicum
supervision be guided by the spirit of collaboration, collegiality, dialogue

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and reflection involving the supervisor and student. These approaches

promote confidence, motivation support.

The study results demonstrate that practicum supervision in Zimbabwe

focuses on routine peripheral attributes but neglects students’ support by
way of conducting “pre-observation discussions” and conceptually
challenging aspects. These include challenging students to develop skills
in problem-solving and developing concepts effectively.

Resources such as financial, material and human resources also impact

on TP supervision. The human resources, while adequate in numbers
need training to equip them with the requisite student supervision skills.
They also need assistance with continuing education. So that they mature
into reflective practitioners. In terms of financial resources, the observation
was that these are inadequate. Lack of financial resources impact negatively
on T.P supervision as the students get inadequate allowances while schools
cannot afford to purchase material resources to support the teaching and
learning activities. Follow-up workshops to support student and supervisor
learning cannot be mounted. Material resources are also insufficient at
both college and schools. Transport itself is problematic as it results in
rushed supervision which is not spread evenly across the practicum period.
This is critical as some students said that they did not get adequate help
earlier on in the practicum. They felt that they needed more help then.

There was no consensus from respondents on who is more effective

between the male or female supervisor. Yet there was general consensus
in the literature reviewed. The female was considered more effective.
Perhaps, further research is required on gender effectiveness.

The discussion has isolated the following factors as the salient emerging
issues as influencing the quality of TP supervision:
 Inadequate material, financial and human resources that result
in hurried supervision encounters;
 Supervision focus on peripheral activities at the expense of the
higher order variables;
 School climate;
 Training of both mentors and lecturers in supervision;
 Development of a TP syllabus to inform content and conduct of
TP supervision; and
 Experience, qualifications and gender of the TP supervisors.

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These variables influence the quality and length of contact between the
supervisor and the novice. They also influence the extent to which the
supervisor conceives self as teacher educator and determine whether
practice nurtures reflexivity in practice or prescribes what must be learnt
and how it is to be learnt. TP supervision is indeed a learning opportunity
for both the supervisor and supervisee. Variables isolated as influential
TP Supervision need close attention if those learning encounters are to
enhance professional development.

Activity 8.2

? Closely analyse the illustration from Shumbayawonda

(2006):
a) How are main findings bought together / synthesized?
b) Discuss the style of presentation citing strong and
weak points.

8.4 Summary
With regards “Summary” of the research, Chisi, et. al (2004) advise that
you should actually briefly summarise the research problem, the method /
design used the limitations of the study and implications of findings. Chisi
et.al (2004) give an example where a researcher is investigating the causes
of high staff turnover in the school system. They say, “The summary
could be as follows:

The study set out to investigate the causes of high staff turn over in the
secondary school system. A sample of 40 teachers from 5 districts was
used and the methodology was descriptive survey. The study was largely
prompted by numerous reports that were received about high staff turn
over in Norton.

It was not an easy study to carry out because headmasters were generally
very defensive and unwilling to divulge information. In addition some
teachers also tended to exaggerate their ill-treatment by their heads Also
a lot of cases of high staff turnover were still under investigation and
therefore those involved were not keen to talk about these cases.

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In spite of these constraints, interesting findings and observations were

made and the following conclusions were make.

Please take this as an illustration from Chisi et.al (2004) guiding you or
assisting you on coming up with meaningful research summaries. Chisi
at. al (2004) warm students not “to give a summary of each chapter rather
than summary.”

8.5 Conclusions
Chisi et. al (2004) say that these are the summed up answers to the sub-
problems stated in chapter one. They should however be drawn directly
from the data reported in Chapter four hence they are termed research –
based conclusions.

Activity 8.3

? Read through the section 8.2 above giving

“observations” from Shumbayawonda (2006) Relate
this to Chisi, et al. 2004 advice above.

8.6 Recommendations
Chisi et. al (2004) state that it is common in applied sciences like education
for research efforts to yield findings that show the need for altering existing
practices. In the recommendations section, the researcher examines his /
her findings in the light of such suggested applications. The
recommendations could read as follows:
 “In the light of the above conclusions, it is recommended that
regional offices should launch in-service workshops for
headmasters with a focus on leadership styles so that they become
more flexible in their leadership.”
 While teachers may have very genuine reasons to move out, it is
recommend that the Ministry makes an effort to retain teachers
taking examination classes until end of year.
 The study also recommends that further study / research be
conducted on …………in order to establish…….”

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You should take note that the illustration by Chisi et. al (2004) on
recommendations was related to examples under summary (8.3) above.

8.7 Summary

This section has covered and analysed salient aspects that need to be
raised in the last chapter of normal research projects. These include further
analysis of findings. This involves synthesizing the major findings emerging
from the research effort. The section has also tried to show you how a
research ‘summary’ is presented. The section also gave you hints and
advice on how you could come up with meaningful conclusions from
your research and the best way to present them. The section ends by
giving you guidelines on how you could come up with and present study
recommendations to respective authorities and interested readers.

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References

Chikoko, V. and Mhloyi, G. (1995) An Introduction to Research Methods.

Harare: Zimbabwe Open University.
Chisi, R., Mdziyire N.C., Mhlanga, E., Kwandayi, H.P. and Makombe, B.
(2004) Research Project Guide. Harare: Zimbabwe Open
University.
Shumbayawonda, W.T. (1997) An Investigation into the Effectiveness
of Teaching Practice Supervision at Primary Teachers’ Colle.g.es
in Zimbabwe. Harare: University of Zimbabwe.
Shumbayawonda, W.T. (2006) An Analysis of Factors that Determine
the Effectiveness of Teaching Practice Supervision of Students at
Primary Teachers’ Colle.g.es in Zimbabwe. Harare: University of
Zimbabwe.

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 Unit Nine

Research Proposal

9.1 Introduction

N ow that we have covered all steps of the research process whose

outline was given in Unit 2, we move on to the research proposal.
Normally, the research proposal is done at the beginning of a research
project . We however, cover this aspect towards the end of this book for
a reason. At this point, we are confident that you have acquired sufficient
knowledge and are clear on critical aspects and processes involved in
research. We therefore assume that you are more capable now to design
and draw up a meaningful research plan for your future research projects.
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9.2 Objectives

After reading through this unit closely, you should be able

to:

 describe what a research proposal is;

 explain more fully on the role and importance of a
research proposal in research;
 list the main characteristics of a research proposal,;
and
 elaborate on the components of a research plan

9.3 What is a Research Plan/Proposal?

Leedy (1980) says that the research proposal puts across your foresight,
insight and ability to plan. Your capacity to present a clear, logical and
convincing proposal attests to your competency to conduct the intended
research project (Chikoko and Mhloyi, 1995). Chikoko and Mhloyi (1995)
stress that writing the research proposal is one of the most critical stages
in the entire research process. Rudestam and Newton, (1992) in Makore-
Rukuni (2001) state that the research proposal is a contract you make
with your university that, when it is accepted., you then conduct the study.
At most, the following elements should be in the research plan; introduction
and the problem description, statement of the objectives or hypothesis,
the test or measures, description of sample, research design, chronological
description of the procedures to be used and how you collect and analyse
data. Borg and Gall (1983) advise that after having identified a specific
research problem that appears to be satisfactory, you should outline a
research plan in as much detail as possible. The project is still tentative
at this point because your review of the literature has yet to be completed
and this review almost always leads to some changes in the research
plan.

9.4 The Role of the Research Proposal

Leedy (1980) says that the proposal puts across your foresight, insight
and ability to plan. Borg and Gall (1983) advise you that the tentative and
will also give direction to your review of literature and your study of

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educational research. Borg and Gall (1983) argue that an important

advantage of a research plan is that it compels you (students) to take all
your ideas in written form so that you can be evaluated leading to
improvements effected by yourself or by others such as your programme
co-ordinators or course tutors.

Chikoko and Mhloyi (1995) say that the research proposal discusses the
problem which the research intends to address. It outlines how the research
is to be conducted and the resources (financial, material, human) available
for achieving the results. You need a proposal in which the problem and
its sub-components are clearly stated. Chikoko and Mhloyi (1985) go on
to advise you the researcher that all necessary terms need to be defined,
delimitations given and hypotheses articulated. The importance of the
study must be spelt out and details of how you would acquire, arrange,
process and interpret data would also be necessary.

Makore-Rukuni (2001) states that the research proposal or plan can be

used to direct you throughout as you develop the study. When you write it,
you realize that what seemed feasible is not that feasible. To that end
Ogunniyi (1999) in Makore-Rukuni (2001) states that a research proposal
provides a telescopic view for the actual study.

Activity 9.1

? Read through the sections on “What is Research proposal”

and the “Role of the Research Proposal” and then:
a) Explain the differences between these two.
b) Write a full page on each of the two aspects using your
own words as far as possible.

9.5 Main Characteristics of a Research Plan

Chikoko and Mhloyi (1995) discuss the following characteristics of a
research proposal. This is being done to assist you to have a better
understanding of research proposals to prepare you for your future research
activities.

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Activity 9.2

? Before reading further on characteristics of research

proposals: attempt to come up with at least two (2)
characteristics of a research proposal.

Characteristics identified by Chikoko and Mhloyi (1995) are as follows:

 “A research proposal is a straight forward document. It begins
with an introduction and quickly proceeds to a clear, straight
forward statement of the problem. The statement of the problem
needs no introduction because it can stand on its own. Those who
are to review your proposal are interested to see whether you can
separate essential aspects from irrelevancies.”
 A research proposal is Precise
 A proposal is not a literary piece of work in the sense that it
provides no room for extravagance in the use of words. A proposal
seeks to express and not to impress. The purpose is to communicate
clearly. In the proposal, you have a chance to demonstrate your
ability to state the problem, to delineate the treatment of data
and to logically establish the validity of a conclusion; and

A proposal is clearly organized

Your proposal should be written in prose. Thoughts should be expressed

in simple language, in paragraph form, with proper use of headings and
sub-headings. Remember, a well organized piece of work indicates an
orderly, disciplined mind.”

Activity 9.3

? Using your own words as far as possible, rephrase and

rewrite the three characteristics analysed above.

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9.6 Components of a Research Proposal

Ounniyi (1999) in Makore-Rukuni (2001) identified the following as
components of a research proposal. Study them and internalize them so
as to guide you when you conduct your own research in future.

The components are:

 Title of the study;
 Background to the study to provide an overview;
 Problem under investigation i.e. the issue forming the central concern
of the study;
 The purpose, rationale or motivation for the proposed, study i.e
why you are conducting the investigation;
 The theoretical framework underpinning the study or research
questions – addressing specific overlapping issues;
 If quantitative research, specify the null hypothesis;
 Significance of the study, i.e. probable contribution to knowledge
or skills;
 Scope in terms of limitations, delimitations of the study and
operationalising the key terms used;
 Methodology including type of research (e.g. quantitative,
qualitative, descriptive, historical, experimental; quasi-
experimental, evaluative etc.)
 Sample e.g.. Random, stratified, group, purposive etc
 Process of instrumentation (including concepts of validity and
reliability);
 Procedures of collecting data e.g. questionnaires; interviews, direct
observation, checklist etc;
 Procedures of analyzing data
 Time schedule; and
 Budget .”

Chikoko and Mhloyi (1995) also outline the components of a research

proposal and explain and analyse the components. These components are
analysed below. This is done to assist you understand better the
components and how you can make use of them in future. These are:

 “Introduction Section
 Context of the problem. The orientation of the problem is best
accomplished by providing its background. One acceptable way
to establish the frame of reference for your problem is to quote

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relevant authoritative sources. In this process, you identify the

area in which your research is to be found. In addition, as a basis
of undertaking the research project, this background should also
point out that the problem has not been fully studied, so your
research would make a useful contribution.”

 Statement of the Problem

Chikoko and Mhloyi (1995) advise that the statement of the problem
must come early in this section to make it possible for the reader to
quickly determine the purpose of the study. The reader should not
have to search through many paragraphs to discover the problem
you intend to examine. For an example one or two sentences could
be used, e.g.. “The purpose of this study is………….or the “The
present study explores……………” Chikoko and Mhloyi (1995)
gave a specific example as:
“The purpose of this study is to determine whether girls who plan to pursue
careers in science are more aggressive, more domineering, less
conforming, more independent and have a greater need for achievement
than girls who do not plan such careers” (Tuckman 1978).

Activity 9.4

? Using guidelines above compose your own statement of

the problem.

 Review of Literature
(Chikoko and Mhloyi 1995) state that the purpose of reviewing
literature is to expand upon what has been called the context or
background of the study. The review helps you to further define the
problem and to provide a basis for developing hypothesis, or
research questions. The review must be organized through the use
of Sub-headings reflecting the major issues in the question.
Hypotheses or Research Questions

These should be developed in order to determine and describe the

anticipated relationships between research items or variables.

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Definition of Terms

The key terms used in the research study are defined and clarified. These
are clearly defined to give meanings as used in the study. Only key or
principal terms are defined.

Significance or Importance of the Study

The readers of your research proposal are usually concerned with the
relevance of the problem to theory and practice. There is value in
conducting research for the solution of practically oriented educational
problems (Chikoko and Mhloyi, 1995).

Activity 9.5

? Give two examples of the significance of a specific

planned research study.

The Method Section

Chikoko and Mhloyi (1995) assert that the methods section is concerned
with subjects (those who shall respond to your questions or those who
participate in the processing of data in various ways) the procedures to
be followed and how data is to be analysed.

The Subjects

Chikoko and Mhloyi, (1995) state that the purpose of this sub-section is
to indicate who participate in the and how many they are, their
characteristics such as sex, age, status, educational qualifications, work
experience etc. The provision of such information makes it possible for
another researcher to select an identical sample if he / she decides to
replicate the study. Chikoko and Mhloyi (1995) advises that the entire
section should therefore, be written in such a manner as to provide other
researchers with an opportunity to replicate your method.

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Activity 9.6

? State and give examples of subjects for two different

researches:
a) Refer to numbers, ages and sexes of the subjects who
participated in a specific study.
b) Justify your choice of the subjects

Procedures

In this sub-section researchers are advised to describe operational such

as the specific order in which the steps are undertaken, the timing, the
instructions given to subjects, the briefings. The safeguards (Chikoko and
Mhloyi, 1995).

Data Analysis

Chikoko and Mhloyi, (1995) say that the data analysis sub-section
describes the statistical design to be used and the analysis to be used to
be undertaken. These authorities advise that usually, it is not necessary to
describe the procedures step by step. The student (reader) should have
noted that the issue of procedures analysis have be covered and analysed
in detail in units 6 and 7.

9.7 Summary
We are sure and certain that by now you should be clear and convinced
that the following aspects have been discussed, analysed and interrogated
in this unit. These have been analysed to assist you to have insight
knowledge and skills necessary for your research effort to fulfill the
PGDE programme requirements and for future education.

The concept of research proposal has been defined and clarified. Aspects
that have emerged indicate that the research proposal puts researchers’
insight, foresight and ability to plan, establishing a contract between you
the researcher and your university, and providing an outline or research
plan you need to complete within some specified time.

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The role or importance of the research proposal was spelt out. This
included the proposal, as a tentative outline meant to clarify your thinking
and offering you direction to your review of literature. A research proposal
will also compel you to take all your ideas in written form so that you
can be evaluated by your programme co-ordinators and supervisor(s).

The unit also discussed three characteristics of research proposals. These

are that research proposals are straight forward, precise and are clearly
organized. The unit ends with an outline of the main components meant to
guide you when crafting a research proposals. Some of these components
include the title, background, problem under investigation, the purpose of
the study, methodology, time schedule and the budget. All these issues
were discussed in such a manner so as to provide you with a clear
direction, hints and advice to empower you with knowledge and skills
for effective research management.

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References

Borg R.W and Gall, M.D (1983) Educational Research. London.

Longman.
Chikoko, V and Mhloyi, G. (1995) Introduction to Educational Research
Methods. Harare: Zimbabwe Open University.
Makore-Rukuni , M.N (2001) Introduction to Research Methods in
Counselling. Harare: Zimbabwe Open University.
Rudestam, K.E and Newton, R.R (1991) Surviving your dissertation A
Comprehensive Guide to Content and Process. Newbury Park.
CA. Sage
Tuckman, B.W. (1972) Conducting Educational Research. New York.
Harcourt Brace and Jovanovick.

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