Chapter – 4

Radiation

(Black body radiation, Emissive and absorptive power, Kirchhoff's law, Stefan-
Boltzmann’s law, Wien’s displacement law, Raleigh-Jean’s law, Planck’s
quantum hypothesis.)

1
Radiation

Radiation is defined as a process in which heat energy is transferred from

one place to another in the form of electromagnetic waves.

The heat radiation obeys- all the laws of light such as propagation,
reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction and polarization.

Properties of thermal radiation in a homogeneous medium.

(1) They travel in straight lines.

(2) They obey the laws of reflection and refraction of light.

(3) They exhibit the phenomena of interference, diffraction and

polarization.

(4) They travel through empty space with the velocity of light in all
directions.
(5) The amount of heat received per second per unit area of a given
surface, i.e., the intensity of radiation, by absorption of thermal
radiation emitted by a source of heat at a constant temperature, is
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the
source and the absorbing surface. This is known as inverse square
law.

(6) They produce heat in a body by which they are absorbed.

(7) They do not heat the medium through which they pass.

(8) They produce photoelectric current in cesium photoelectric cell.

Instruments for detection of radiation
1. Ether thermoscope
2. Differential air thermometer
3. Radiometer

Black Body radiation

A perfectly black body is one which absorbs all the heat radiations
(corresponding to all wavelengths) incident on it.
When such body is placed inside an isothermal enclosure, it will emit the
full radiation of the enclosure after it is in equilibrium with the enclosure.
These radiations are independent of the nature of the substance. Such
heat radiations in a uniform temperature enclosure are known as black
body radiations.
The black body completely absorbs heat radiations of all wavelengths
and emits completely the radiations of all wavelengths.

In practice, a perfectly black body is not available. A body showing close

approximation to a perfectly black body can be constructed.
A hollow copper sphere is taken and is coated with lampblack on its
inner surface [Fig.).
A fine hole is made and a pointed projection is made just in front of the
hole. When the radiations enter the hole, they suffer multiple
reflections and are completely absorbed and this body acts as a black
body absorber.
When this body is confined with an enclosure at a fixed temperature, the
heat radiations come out of the hole (Fig.]. The hole acts as a black
body radiator. It should be remembered that only the hole and not the
walls of the body, acts as the black body radiator.
Emissive power
Emissive power: The emissive power (e) of the surface of body is
defined as the total energy emitted per square centimeter per second
from it. Therefore e is thus expressed in 'ergs per sq. cm. per sec.'
and its magnitude depends on the nature and temperature of the
surface.
The emissive power of a surface for a given wave-length λ,
represented by eλ is defined as the energy emitted per square
centimeter per second in the range of wave-lengths λ to λ+ dλ. Thus,
from the definition of total emissive power e, it follows that e = 𝑒𝜆 𝑑𝜆 .
In the special case of black body radiation, the emissive power for a
wave-length λ will be denoted by eλ and depends on the temperature
of the body and wave-length concerned.
Absorptive power: The absorptive power a of a body is defined as the
fraction of the incident energy absorbed. The absorptive power for a
given wave-length λ is defined as the fraction of the incident energy
absorbed between the wave-lengths λ and λ+ dλ and denoted by aλ,
Thus a = 𝑎𝜆 dλ.
Kirchhoff's law
In 1859, Kirchhoff deduced from experimental observations and important
law which can be stated as follows.

"The ratio of the emissive power to the absorptive power for radiation of
given wave-length (λ) is the same for all bodies at the same temperature and
is equal to the emissive power of a perfectly a black body."

𝒆𝝀
Mathematically, = constant = Eλ
𝒂𝝀

where eλ is the emissive power of a body for radiation of wave-length λ, aλ is

the absorptive power of the body for the same radiation and Eλ is the
emissive power of a perfectly blackbody for the above radiation.
Proof: Suppose aλ is the absorptive power of a body. Let us consider dQ be
the quantity of heat energy lying within the wavelength λ and λ+dλ incident
on unit area of the surface in one second, then the quantity of heat energy
absorbed by the surface is given by aλdQ.

The remaining energy (dQ - aλdQ) = dQ (1- aλ) will be either reflected or
transmitted or both. If eλ is the emissive power, then the amount of energy
emitted per second per unit area between wavelength λ and λ + dλ by virtue
of the temperature is given by eλdλ.

Thus the total energy given out per second per unit area of the surface =
dQ(1- aλ) + eλdλ.

In equilibrium state, dQ = dQ(1- aλ) + eλdλ

Or, dQ = dQ- aλdQ + eλdλ

or, aλdQ = eλdλ (1)

for a perfectly black body, aλ = 1 and eλ = Eλ

⸫ dQ = Eλdλ (2)

Putting the value of dQ from equation (2) in equation (1), we get

Eλaλdλ = eλdλ

𝒆𝝀
Or, Eλ =
𝒂𝝀

This is known as the Kirchhoff's law.

Applications of Kirchhoff's law

1. Kirchhoff's law was responsible for the birth of two entirely new
branches of science, viz, astrophysics (physics of sun and starts) and
spectroscopy.
2. Kirchhoff's law tells us that good absorbers are good emitters. If a
body absorbs radiation of a particular wavelength strongly, it also
emits the same radiation strongly.
3. Fraunhofer found that solar spectrum was not continues but crossed
by dark lines. Kirchhoff's completely solved this problem on the basis
to this law.
4. The nature and origin of characteristic spectrum of elements is also
successfully explained Kirchhoff's law.
 Stefan-Boltzmann’s Law

Stefan Boltzmann law states that the rate of emission of radiant energy
by unit area of a perfectly black body is directly proportional to the
fourth power of its absolute temperature.

Mathematically, E ∝ T4,where, E is the emission of radiant energy and

T is the absolute temperature.

Or, E = σT4

where σ is called Stefan’s constant and its value is 5.67×10-8 wm-2k-4.

If a black body at absolute temperature T is surrounded by another black body
at absolute temperature To, the net rate of loss of heat energy per unit area of
the surface is given by,

E ∝ (T4-To4)

Or, E = σ(T4-To4)

This law is known as Stefan-Boltzmann law.

If a body has emissivity or relative remittance e, then total energy radiated by

the body per second,

E = eσ(T4-To4)
 Derivation of Newton's law from Stefan’s law

Law of cooling: Newton's law of cooling state that the rate of losses
temperature is directly proportional to its temperature excess over the
surroundings. i.e.;
𝐝𝐓
− ∝ (𝐓 − 𝐓𝐨 )
𝐭

𝐝𝐓
Or, = 𝐂(𝐓 − 𝐓𝐨 )
𝐭

𝑑𝑇
Where, − is the rate of losses of temperature, C is the cooling
𝑡

constant, T is the temperature of the body and To is the temperature of

the surrounding. The law holds for small difference in temperature.
Stefan's law is applicable for all temperatures of a hot body.
But Newton's Law is applicable when the difference of temperature
between the hot body and the surrounding is small. Consider a hot
body at a temperature T1 placed in a uniform temperature enclosure at
T 2.
According to Stefan's law,
E = eσ(T14-T24) (1)

Here e is the emissivity of the surface of the hot body, then

E = eσ(T1-T2)(T13+T12T2 + T1T22 + T23)
As (T1-T2) is small, T1 can be taken approximately equal to T2.
Then, E = eσ(T1-T2)(T23+T23 + T23 + T23)
E = 4 eσT23 (T1-T2)
E = K(T1-T2) [taking K = 4 eσT23] (2)

This equation represents Newton's law of cooling and is true

when the difference of temperature is small.
 Wien’s displacement law

The Wien’s displacement law state that the product of the wave
length corresponding to maximum energy λm and the absolute
temperature T is constant. i.e.;

λmT = Constant

λm = wave length corresponding maximum energy

T = absolute temperature

This constant is called Wien’s constant and has value 0.2892 cm-K
State and proof Rayleigh-Jean’s law of radiation

Statement: It states that the energy density of having wave length

lies between λ and λ + dλ is given by

𝟖𝝅𝑲𝑻
Eλdλ = dλ
𝝀𝟒

Where, Eλ = is the energy density

K = is the Boltzmann constant

and λ is the wave length

Statement of the Plank’s Law of Radiation

The energy of radiation having wave length lying between λ and λ +

dλ emitted per unit volume by a perfect black body at absolute
temperature is given by,

𝟖𝝅𝒉𝒄 𝟏
Eλdλ = ( ). 𝒉𝒄 dλ
𝝀𝟓 −𝟏
𝒆𝝀𝑲𝑻

Where, Eλ = energy of the black body

c = speed of light

h = Plank’s constant

K = Boltzmann constant

T = absolute temperature
 Distinguish between heat and radiant energy
Heat energy Radiant Energy
1. Heat can be defined as energy in 1. The heat energy transferred as
transit or as a form of energy. the form of electromagnetic
waves is called radiant energy.
2. Heat can be derived from any 2. Radiant energy can only be
other form of energy. derived from heat energy.

3. The change of heat can explain 3. The change of radiant energy

on classic idea. has to explain in quantum idea.
4. Transformation of heat follows a 4. Transformation of radiant
universal law called the law of energy follow the plank’s
conservation of energy. quantum law.
Comparison study of Plank’s law, Raleigh- Jean’s law and Wien’s law

Plank’s law Raleigh- Jean’s law Wien’s law

1 It is applicable for all It holds good in the range It holds good in the
wave length. of larger wave length at region of shorter wave
high temperature but not length but not for larger
for shorter wave length. wave length.

2 Plank’s law perfectly It does not agree with the It does not agree with
agrees the the experimental result. the experimental result.
experimental result.
It is based on the It is based on classical It is based on classical
quantum theory of mechanism and mechanism and
radiation. electromagnetic principles equation
theory. theory.
Plank’s equation is Eλdλ=
8𝜋𝐾𝑇
dλ
𝑎 𝑏
−𝜆
𝜆4
Eλ = 𝑒
𝜆5
8𝜋ℎ𝑐 𝑑𝜆
Eλdλ= ℎ𝑐
𝜆5
𝑒 𝜆𝐾𝑇 −1
Thank you