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ng

COURSE CODE: PCP 505

COURSE TITLE: CROP NPRODUCTION II ARABLE
NUMBER OF UNITS: 3 UNITS
COURSE DURATION: Three hours per week

COURSE DETAILS:
COURSE DETAILS:

Course Coordinator: Dr. A. A. Oyekanmi.; M.Sc., Ph.D

Email: [email protected]
Office Location: Colplant Building Room 145
Other Lecturers: Prof. J.A. Adigun and Dr. S.O. Adigbo

COURSE CONTENT:

This is a compulsory course for all final year students in COLPLANT. In view of
nthis,students are expected to participate in all the course activities and have minimum of
75% attendance to be able to write the final examination.

COURSE REQUIREMENTS:
This is a compulsory course for all students in the University. In view of this, students
are expected to participate in all the course activities and have minimum of 75%
attendance to be able to write the final examination.

READING LIST:

1. CIMMYT, 1985. Wheats for more tropical environments. A proceedings of the

international symposium. CIMMYT, Mexico D. F. , Mexico. 354 pp.

2. Curtis, B.C., Rajaram, S. & Gómez Macpherson, H. (Editors), 2002. Bread wheat:
improvement and production. Plant Production and Protection Series No 30. FAO,
Rome, Italy. 554 pp.

3. Tanner, D. & Raemaekers, R.H., 2001. Wheat. In: Raemaekers, R.H. (Editor). Crop
production in tropical Africa. DGIC (Directorate General for International Co-
operation), Ministry of Foreign Affairs, External Trade and International Co-
operation, Brussels, Belgium. pp. 101–118.

4. van Ginkel, M. & Villareal, R.L., 1996. Triticum L. In: Grubben, G.J.H. &
Partohardjono, S. (Editors). Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 10. Cereals.
Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, Netherlands. pp. 137–143.

5. Wiese, M.V., 1987. Compendium of wheat diseases. 2nd edition. American

Phytopathological Society (APS) Press, St. Paul, Minnesota, United States. 112 pp.
 http://www.unaab.edu.ng

6. Alam, M.S., John, V.T. & Zan, K., 1985. Insect pests and diseases of rice in Africa.
In: Rice improvement in Eastern, Central, and Southern Africa. IRRI, Manila,
Philippines. pp. 67–82.
7 Buddenhagen, I.W. & Persley, G.J. (Editors), 1978. Rice in Africa. Academic Press,
London, United Kingdom. 356 pp.

8 Oyekanmi A.A. (2007). Influence of seeding Density and seed weight on grain yield
and yield component of rianfed lowland rice (Oryza sativa L.) variety.International
Journal of Tropical Agriculture. Vol. 25. No. 3.pp 569-575.

9 Oyekanmi A.A., Okeleye. K.A., and Okonji., C.J. (2008). On-farm evaluation of
rainfed lowland rice varieties at Olokose Village, Odeda, Ogun State, Nigeria.
Journal of Agronomy 7 (2): 192-196.

10 Oyekanmi.A.A., Okonji. C.J., Odedina J.N., Atayese M.O. and Okeleye. K.A. (2009)
Effect of poultry manure on the yield components and grain yield of upland rice
varieties. International Journal of Tropical Agriculture. Vol. 27. No. 3-4 pp. 549-553

11 Schalbroeck, J.-J., 2001. Rice. In: Raemaekers, R.H. (Editor). Crop production in
tropical Africa. DGIC (Directorate General for International Co-operation), Ministry
of Foreign Affairs, External Trade and International Co-operation, Brussels, Belgium.
pp. 59–78.

12 .Smith, C.W. & Dilday, R.H., 2003. Rice: origin, history, technology, and production.
John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, New Jersey, United States. 642 pp.

13 Byerlee, D. & Eicher, C.K. (Editors), 1997. Africa’s emerging maize revolution.
Lynne Rienner Publishers, Boulder, Colorado, United States. 301 pp.

14 Kulp, K. & Ponte, J.G. (Editors), 2000. Handbook of cereal science and technology.
2nd Edition. Marcel Dekker, New York, United States. 790 pp.

15 Kling, J.G. & Edmeades, G., 1997. Morphology and growth of maize. 2nd Edition.
IITA/CIMMYT Research Guide No 9. IITA, Ibadan, Nigeria. 36 pp.

16 Smith, C.W., Betrán, J. & Runge, E.C.A. (Editors), 2004. Corn: origin, history,
technology, and production. John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, New Jersey, United
States. 949 pp.

17 Adetiloye, P.O., Oyekanmi A.A. and Olatunde. G.O (2001). Effect of cropping
system on Maize (Zea mays L) stem borers and grian yield in Southern Nigeria. Moor
Journal of Agricultural Research. 2: pp. 119-124.

18 Murty, D.S. & Renard, C., 2001. Sorghum. In: Raemaekers, R.H. (Editor). Crop
production in tropical Africa. DGIC (Directorate General for International Co-
operation), Ministry of Foreign Affairs, External Trade and International Co-
operation, Brussels, Belgium. pp. 78–96.
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19 Rice, R. P., Rice, L. W. and Tindall, H. D. (1990). Fruit and Vegetable Production in
Warm Climates. Macmillan Education Ltd, London and Basingstoke, Pp 280-297

20 Adetiloye, P. O., Okeleye, K. A. and Olatunde, G. O. (2006). Principles and Practices

of Crop Production. BIIM Nigeria Ltd. Pp 198-211.

E
LECTURE NOTES

CEREALS.

The origin, economic importance, morphological description and agronomy of four most
important cereals (Wheat (Triticum aestivum L), Rice (Oryza sativa L.), Maize (Zea Mays L.),
and Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench)) in the food security of Nigeria are discussed.

WHEAT (Triticum aestivum L.)

Family
Poaceae (Gramineae)
Origin
The Bread wheat originated from Armenia in Transcaucasia to the south-west coastal areas of the
Caspian Sea in Iran. The Hybridization of a wild Aegilops species (Aegilops tauschii Coss., with the
D-genome) with emmer, an old type of cultivated wheat belonging to Triticum turgidum L., gave rise
to the hexaploid wheats i.e bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and spelt wheat (Triticum spelta L.).
The D-genome conferred on bread wheat and spelt wheat the adaptation to cold winters and humid
summers thus allowing them to conquer temperate Europe and Asia.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
According to FAO estimates, the average world production of wheat grain (bread wheat and durum
wheat together) in 1999–2003 amounted to 576 million t/year from 209 million ha. Worldwide, bread
wheat constitutes more than 90% of the area under the cultivated wheats. Wheat production in tropical
Africa in 1999–2003 was 2.5 million t/year from 1.6 million ha, and in Nigeria (75,000 t/year from
53,000 ha. The main importer in tropical Africa is Nigeria (1.9 million t/year in 1998–2002),
CULTIVATED SPECIES
• Common wheat or Bread wheat (T. aestivum) – A hexaploid species that is the most widely
cultivated in the world.

• Durum (T. durum) – The only tetraploid form of wheat widely used today, and the second
most widely cultivated wheat.

• Einkorn (T. monococcum) – A diploid species with wild and cultivated variants.

• Emmer (T. dicoccum) – A tetraploid species, cultivated in ancient times but no longer in
widespread use.

• Spelt (T. spelta) – Another hexaploid species cultivated in limited quantities.

CLASSES
• Durum – Very hard, translucent, light-colored grain used to make semolina flour for pasta .

• Hard Red Spring – Hard, brownish, high-protein wheat used for bread and hard baked goods.

• Hard Red Winter – Hard, brownish, mellow high-protein wheat used for bread, hard baked
goods.

• Soft Red Winter – Soft, low-protein wheat used for cakes, pie crusts, biscuits, and muffins.
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• Hard White – Hard, light-colored, opaque, chalky, medium-protein wheat planted in dry,
temperate areas. Used for bread and brewing.

• Soft White – Soft, light-colored, very low protein wheat grown in temperate moist areas.

MORPHOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION
Annual, tufted grass up to 150 cm tall, with 2–5(–40) tillers. The stem (culm) cylindrical, smooth,
hollow except at nodes. The leaves distichously alternate, simple and entire; leaf sheath rounded,
auricled; ligule membranous; blade linear, 15–40 cm × 1–2 cm, parallel-veined, flat, glabrous or
pubescent. The inflorescence is a terminal, distichous spike 4–18 cm long, with sessile spikelets borne
solitary on zigzag rachis. The spikelet 10–15 mm long, laterally compressed, 3– 9-flowered, with
bisexual florets, but 1–2 uppermost ones usually rudimentary. The fruit is an ellipsoid caryopsis
(grain), at one side with a central groove, reddish brown to yellow or white.

ECOLOGY.
Bread wheat is most successful between 30–60°N and 27–40°S. The optimum temperatures for
development are 10–24°C, with minima of 3–4°C and maxima of 30–32°C. Average temperature of
about 18°C is optimal for yield. Temperatures above 35°C stop photosynthesis and growth, and at
40°C the heat kills the crop. In the tropics it is best grown at higher elevations (1200–3000 m) or in
the cooler months of the year as Wheat does not grow well under very warm conditions with high
relative humidity. At least 250 mm water required during the growing season for a good crop; it can
be grown in areas that receive 250–750 mm rain annually. Wheat flower earlier at long daylengths,
but do not require a particular daylength to induce flowering. The soils should be well aerated, well
drained, and deep, with 0.5% or more organic matter. Optimum soil pH ranges between 5.5 and 7.5.
Wheat is sensitive to soil salinity.
PROPAGATION AND PLANTING
Propagation is by seed. The 1000-seed weight is 30–50 g. Make use of seeds that has been treated
with fungicides against soil- and seed-borne diseases. Wheat is sown by hand or machine. Seeds can
be broadcast, drilled, or dibbled and incorporated in the soil using an animal-drawn plough or
machine-drawn disc. The common seed rates are 150–200 kg/ha for broadcasting and 75–120 kg/ha
for row-planting. The optimum spacing is 10–25 cm between rows, but it may extend up to 35 cm.
The sowing depth is 2–5(–12) cm, with deeper planting required in dry conditions. At a sowing depth
beyond 10–12 cm seedling emergence is poor. For rainfed wheat, the seed can be dry-sown, before
the start of the rainy season, or when the soil is moist. Bread wheat is usually grown in sole cropping.
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Germination occurs at temperatures of 4–37°C, the optimum is 12–25°C. The radicle emerges first
and the coleoptile emerges 4–6 days after germination. The first true leaf of the seedling emerges
from the coleoptile. The primary roots may remain functional for life unless destroyed by disease or
mechanical injury. Secondary roots start to develop about 2 wks after seedling emergence. They arise
from the basal nodes and form the permanent root system, which spreads out and may penetrate as
deep as 2 m, but normally not more than 1 m. Leaf and tiller production increase rapidly soon after
crop emergence. The duration of the vegetative stage may vary from 20–150 days depending on
temperature and the cultivar’s vernalization and daylength response. For floral induction, spring types
usually require temperatures between 7°C and 18°C for 5–15 days, while winter types require
temperatures between 0°C and 7°C for 30–60 days. Flowering begins at the middle third of the spike
and continues towards the basal and apical parts in 3–5 days. All spike-bearing tillers eventually
flower almost simultaneously. Wheat is normally self-pollinated; cross-pollination is 1–4%. Pollen is
largely shed within the floret. Stigmas remain receptive for 4–13 days. Pollen is viable for up to 30
minutes only. Grains in the centre of the spike and in the proximal florets tend to be larger than the
other ones. Physiological maturity is reached when the flag leaf (uppermost leaf) and spikes turn
yellow and the moisture content of the fully formed grain has dropped to 25–35%. The complete crop
cycle of bread wheat varies from 50–200 days in tropical Africa.
MANAGEMENT
Uniform crop stand and early vigour discourage weed growth in bread wheat. Tillering allows the
crop to compensate for poor stands and variable weather conditions. Yield losses due to weeds are
caused by early competition in the first 4–5 weeks. Hand weeding, tillage practices, stubble
management, pre-sowing irrigation, proper crop rotation and herbicides may control weeds. In Nigeria
wheat production is restricted to the river basin irrigation schemes of the northern states. The mean
nutrient removal per 1 t/ha of grain is 40–43 kg N, 5–8 kg P, 25–35 kg K, 2–4 kg S, 3–4 kg Ca, 3–3.5
kg Mg, and smaller amounts of micronutrients. The exact values depend on the available nutrients and
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water in the soil, the temperature, and the cultivar. Average fertilizer rates range from 9 kg N and 10
kg P on rainfed wheat to 180 kg N, 84 kg P and 50 kg K on irrigated wheat. Boron deficiency,
resulting in grain set failure, can be observed on certain soils. Wheat is best rotated with non-grass
crops, particularly with pulses. In some regions double cropping systems are common, with irrigated
wheat grown in the cool dry season and crops such as cotton, sorghum, maize, soya bean and
groundnut in the hot rainy season..
DISEASES
• Stripe rust or yellow rust (Puccinia striiformis), spread by air-borne uredospores.

• Septoria leaf blotch (Septoria tritici, synonym:Mycosphaerella graminicola).

• Stem rust or black rust (Puccinia graminis)

• Common bunt (Tilletia spp.),

• loose smut (Ustilago tritici, synonym:Ustilago nuda f.sp. tritici),

• Bacterial leaf streak or black chaff (Xanthomonas translucens).

PESTS
• Important insect pests are aphids, which may also transmit viruses.

• The African migratory locust (Locusta migratoria) is a periodic pest.

• The Hessian fly (Mayetiola destructor)

• Important storage insects, include Sitophilus spp. on whole grains

• Tribolium spp. and Ephestia cautella (synonym: Cadra cautella, flower moth) on wheat flour.

• Clean storage conditions and maintaining grain moisture and temperature at sufficiently low
levels inhibit insect activity and development. Rodents, mainly the black rat (Rattus rattus),
also damage stored seeds.

YIELD
The mean yield of wheat in tropical Africa is estimated at about 1.5 t/ha. Lower yields are due to high
temperature, high humidity, disease pressure and the low levels of fertilizer applied. Maximum
recorded grain yields of irrigated winter and spring wheats are 14 and 9.5 t/ha, respectively; the
absolute maximum yield, based on genetic potential, is estimated at 20 t/ha.

HANDLING AND HARVEST

Threshed grain of bread wheat is winnowed, cleaned and prepared for store or market. Seeds should
be dried to a moisture content of 13–14% for safe storage. High temperatures and moist conditions
may result in spoilage. Regular re-drying may be necessary to maintain seed viability, if the seed is
not stored in an airtight container.
NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION
The composition of wheat grain is 7–8% coat material, 90% endosperm and 2–3% embryo. The
embryo mainly comprises oil and protein, and little starch. The endosperm is starchy, and is
surrounded by the aleurone layer which is rich in proteins. When a wheat grain is milled, the outer
layers and embryo are separated from the endosperm. The pulverized endosperm becomes wheat
flour, while the other parts form the bran. Hard bread wheat grain is best suited for bread making
while the soft wheat grain is best for cookies, cakes and pastries. Flour colour varies from white to
slightly yellow
USES
• Bread wheat flour is made into bread, pastries, crackers, biscuits, noodles, breakfast foods,
baby foods and food thickeners. It is also used as a brewing ingredient in certain beverages
(white beer). Industrial uses of wheat products centre on the production of glues, alcohol, oil
and gluten. By-products of flour milling, particularly the bran, are used almost entirely to feed
livestock, poultry or prawns. Wheat germ (from wheat embryos) is sold as a human food
supplement. Straw is fed to ruminants or used for bedding material, thatching, wickerwork,
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newsprint, cardboard, packing material, fuel and as substrate for mushroom production. In
many dry parts of the world it is chopped and mixed with clay to produce building material.

RICE (Oryza sativa L.)

Family
Poaceae (Gramineae)

ORIGIN

Oryza sativa evolved in Asia, but the exact time and place of its domestication are not
known for certain. Remains of rice in China have been dated to 6500 BC; the earliest
archaeological evidence from India goes back to 2500 BC. Oryza sativa was brought from
Asia into tropical Africa along different routes. Most probably Oryza sativa migrated from
Egypt, where it was introduced about 800–900 AD, to West Africa. The final penetration
of Oryza sativa into Africa was along the slave trading routes from the East African coast
and Zanzibar to DR Congo from about 1500 AD onwards. Nowadays it is cultivated
throughout the humid tropics and in many subtropical and temperate areas with a frost-free
period longer than 130 days

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

According to FAO estimates the average annual world production during 1999–2003 was
593 million t paddy (unhusked grain) from 153 million ha. Asia accounts for 90% of the
world production and area. During 1999–2003 tropical Africa produced on average 11.9
million t paddy (2% of world production) annually on 7.7 million ha (5% of world area);
these data include African rice (Oryza glaberrima Steud.), which occupies less than 20% of
the rice area in West Africa. Nigeria produced 3.5 million t from 2.9 million ha.
Thailand is the world’s largest exporter of milled rice (26% of world trade during 1998–
2002) followed by Vietnam, India, the United States, China and Pakistan.
Main rice importers are Nigeria, Senegal and Côte d’Ivoire. Per capita annual milled rice
consumption in tropical Africa varies tremendously between 0.15 kg and 95 kg with an
average of about 18 kg for the period 1998–2002.

CULTIVATED SPECIES.

The New Rice for Africa (NERICA) has been spreading rapidly in sub-Saharan Africa(SSA)
since the seeds of the high yielding rice varieties was introduced in 1996. In 2006, a
onservative estimate of area grown to NERICA varieties in SSA was about 200,000
hectares.
West African rice ecosystem are conventionally classified as irrigated, rainfed-lowland,
rainfed-upland, mangrove swamp and deep-water systems. The total area under rice
cultivation is currently about 4.4 million hectares (ha), with the rainfed upland and rainfed
lowland ecosystems each accounting for about 1.7m ha and irrigated rice for another 0.5m
ha, making these the high-impact ecologie
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Total area (hectares) under rice cultivation in various ecologies in Nigeria.

Country Total area Mangroove Deep Irrigated Rainfed Rainfed

(ha) swamp water lowland lowland upland

Nigeria 1,642,000 16,420 82,100 262,720 788,160 492,600

Source: Lançon F. and O. Erenstein (2002).

NERICA

NERICA growing very well in a farmer’s field (WARDA, 2006)

NERICA is a genetic material derived from successful crossing of the two species of
cultivated rice, the African rice (O. Glabberima steud.) and Asian rice (O.sativa L.) to
produce a progeny (known as interspecifics ) that combines the best traits of both parents.
These includes high yield from the Asian parent and ability from the African parent to
thrive in harsh environment.

O.Sativa O.Glabberima
as female as male
parent parent
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NERICA is produced through conventional crossbreeding and therefore not a genetically

modified rice.

In 2000 WARDA named NERICAS 1-7 and in December 2005 WARDA named upland
NERICAS 8-18.

Other improved varieties.

 ITA 150 * ITA321 * ITA360

 ITA235 * ITA257 * ITA128

MORPHOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION

Annual grass up to 1.8 m tall (up to 5 m long in some floating types), forming small tufts;
roots fibrous, arising from the base of the shoots; stem (culm) erect or ascending from a
geniculate base. Leaves alternate, simple; sheath coarsely striate, tight when young, later
somewhat loose, ligule 1.5–3 cm long,; auricles often present, falcate, 1–5 mm long.
Inflorescence a terminal panicle up to 50 cm long, erect, curved or drooping, with 50–500
spikelets; branches solitary or clustered, nearly erect to spreading. Spikelet solitary,
asymmetrically oblong to elliptical-oblong, 7–11 mm × 2.5–3.5 mm. Fruit a caryopsis
(grain), ovoid, ellipsoid or cylindrical, 5–7.5 mm × 2–3.5 mm, often whitish yellow or brown
to brownish grey.

ECOLOGY

Rice grows on dry or flooded soil and at elevations ranging from sea level to at least 2400 m.
The average temperature during the growing season varies from 20–38°C. Night
temperatures below 15°C can cause spikelet sterility. Temperatures above 21°C at flowering
are needed for anthesis and pollination. Upland rice requires an assured rainfall of at least
750 mm over a period of 3–4 months and does not tolerate desiccation. Lowland rice tends to
be concentrated in flat lowlands, river basins and deltas. The average water requirement for
irrigated rice is 1200 mm per crop or 200 mm of rainfall per month or an equivalent amount
from irrigation. Traditional cultivars are generally photoperiod sensitive, and flower when
daylengths are short (critical daylength of 12.5–14 hours). Many modern cultivars are
photoperiod insensitive.
The soils on which rice grows vary greatly: texture ranges from sand to clay, organic matter
content from 1–50%, pH from 3–10, salt content up to 1%, and nutrient availability from
acute deficiencies to surplus. Rice does best in fertile heavy soils. The optimum pH for
flooded soil is 6.5–7.0. The often sandy texture of soils in tropical Africa is a constraint to
productivity due to drought stress, low inherent soil fertility and leaching. Groundwater
salinity problems occur in the dry Sahel zone where rice is grown under irrigation.

PROPAGATION AND PLANTING

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Rice is propagated by seed. The 1000-seed weight is 20–35 g. The seed may either be
broadcast or drilled directly in the field, or seedlings may be grown in nurseries and
transplanted. Direct seeding is done in dry or puddled soil. In puddled soil the (pre-
germinated) seeds are broadcast. After sowing the water level is kept at 0–5 cm under tropical
conditions. In dry soil the seeds are sown just before or after land preparation. In the latter
case the seeds are then covered lightly with soil. The seeds are sown just before the rains
begin and germination occurs after heavy continuous rains. This method makes it possible to
have initial crop growth from early rains.
In tropical Africa various rice-growing systems are distinguished:
– Upland rice, which may be subdivided into dryland rice, whereby moisture supply is
entirely dependent on rainfall, and hydromorphic rice where the rooting zone is periodically
saturated by a fluctuating water table, in addition to rainfall;
– Lowland rice, including mangrove swamp rice along the coastal regions with tidal
intrusion, inland swamp rice on flat or V-shaped valley bottoms with varying degrees of
flooding, and rice on bunded fields under rainfed or irrigated conditions;
– Deepwater rice, in which the rapid growth of the internodes keeps pace with the rising
water up to 5 m or more, starting from 50 cm of standing water.
In upland rice cultivation the fields are normally cleared through the slash-and-burn practice.
Soil preparation is normally minimal. The rice is broadcast or dibbled when the rains start. It
is often grown as the first crop in rotation or intercropped with other crops such as cassava,
maize, sorghum, cowpea, groundnut and other pulse crops.
In lowland rainfed-rice areas the land is mostly prepared while it is wet and only in rare
occasions when it is dry. The wetland tillage method consists of soaking the land until the
soil is saturated, ploughing to a depth of 10–20 cm using a plough drawn by oxen/small
machines or by using a hand hoe, preferably when there is a little water on the land, and
harrowing, during which big clods of soil are broken and puddled with water. The important
benefits of puddling include the apparent reduction of moisture loss by percolation, better
weed control, and easy transplanting. In lowland rice cultivation seedlings are mostly raised
on wet nursery beds and sometimes on dry nursery beds. Wet nursery beds are made in the
puddled or wet field. Normally farmers use 50–60 kg of rice seeds to plant one ha. Seeds are
pre-germinated and spread on the bed which is kept constantly wet. Dry nursery beds are
prepared near the water source before land preparation. The seeds are sown and then covered
with a thin layer of soil and watered until saturation for uniform germination. Further
watering is applied as needed. In both cases the seedlings are ready for transplanting 20–35
days after sowing. At transplanting heavy tillering cultivars in fertile valley bottoms are wider
spaced (30 cm × 30 cm) than slightly tillering cultivars in upper, sandy fields (20 cm × 20
cm). The spacing in irrigated rice is normally 20 cm × 20 cm with 2–4 plants per hill (500,
000–1,000,000 plants/ha). Rice is generally a sole crop under lowland conditions. Near
harvest, relay planting is rarely practised. In many parts of the tropics 2 or even 3 crops of
rice can be grown per year.

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Rice seed germinates in 24–48 hours. The optimum temperature for germination is 30–32°C..
Ten days after germination the plant becomes independent as the seed reserve is exhausted.
Tillering begins thereafter, although it may be a week later in transplanted seedlings. In
modern cultivars with an average maturation period, maximum tillering stage is attained
around 45 days after transplanting and coincides with panicle initiation. The duration of the
vegetative stage ranges from 7 to more than 120 days. The reproductive stage starts at panicle
initiation, and the period from panicle initiation to flowering is around 35 days. Rice is
almost 100% self-pollinating, but small amounts of cross pollination by wind do occur. It
takes around 7 days to complete the anthesis of all spikelets in a panicle, starting from the top
and progressing downwards. The period from flowering to full ripeness of all the grains in a
panicle is usually about 30 days. Low temperature can delay maturity and high temperature
accelerates it.
MANAGEMENT
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The agronomy of rice is diverse due to the differences in cultivation systems. Growing of
upland rice is usually relatively labour-extensive, but transplanting rice by hand in puddled
soil is a labour-intensive operation. Weeding is generally not necessary in the first 2 weeks.
Manual and chemical weeding are common practice
In the cultivation of lowland rice, the land is inundated from the time of planting until the
approach of harvest. The water is supplied either by flooding during the rainy season, by
growing the crop in naturally swampy land or by controlled irrigation. The water level is kept
at a height of 5–15 cm to suppress weed growth and to ensure water availability. Continuous
flooding at a static 2.5–7.5 cm depth is best. The fields may be drained temporarily to
facilitate weeding and fertilizing. At flowering the water level is gradually reduced until the
field is almost dry at harvest. Generally 1.5–2 m of water (rainfall plus irrigation) are
required to produce a good crop. The period in which rice is most sensitive to water shortage
is from 20 days before to 10 days after the beginning of flowering.
The amount of fertilizer used is usually 60–120 kg N, 10–20 kg P and 0–30 kg K per ha.
Higher nitrogen rates are used during the dry season when solar radiation is higher and
increase in grain yield is larger. Generally, nitrogen fertilizer is only topdressed, mostly
before or at panicle initiation. Fertilizer is broadcast by hand.
The most common mineral deficiencies in rice cultivation are of nitrogen and phosphorus,
with potassium and sulphur in limited areas and sometimes zinc and silicon on peaty soils.
The degree of mechanization is in general limited in rice cultivation in tropical Africa.
Occasionally farmers use tractors or small two-wheel power tillers for land preparation and
powered threshing machines during harvest.
For various reasons many rice fields are left fallow in the dry season. In areas with suitable
climatic and soil conditions for dry-season cultivation, rice may be rotated with crops such as
other cereals, pulses and vegetables.

DISEASES
Blast (Pyricularia grisea, synonym: Pyricularia oryzae). Although this disease is often
related to drought stress and therefore especially severe in upland and drought-prone areas, it
may also be severe elsewhere.
Bacterial leaf blight (Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae),
Rice yellow mottle virus (RYMV, only found in Africa),
Brown spot (Cochliobolus miyabeanus),
Leaf scald (Microdochium oryzae),
Sheath blight (Thanatephorus cucumeris),
Narrow brown leaf spot (Cercospora janseana)
Sheath rot caused by Sarocladium oryzae.
Nematodes attack roots and young, unfurled leaves and reduce rice production in certain parts
of tropical Africa.

PESTS

White stem borer (Maliarpha separatella),

Pink stem borers (Sesamia spp.)
Striped stem borer (Chilo spp.). Damage results from larvae feeding within the stem, severing
the vascular system.
Dead heart is the damage to the tiller before flowering.
White head is the damage after flowering which causes the entire panicle to dry.
Stalk-eyed fly (mainlyDiopsis macrophthalma) resembles the dead heart damage from stem
borers as it generally attacks the rice plant at the early tillering stage.
Gall midge maggot (Orseolia oryzivora) stimulates the leaf sheath to grow into a gall and
tillers with galls do not bear panicles.
Termites and mole crickets attack rice plants especially in rainfed upland rice.

Pests of stored rice are the rice weevil (Sitophilus oryzae)

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Grain borer (Rhyzopertha dominica). These insects can completely destroy the grain.

HARVESTING.

Grain should be harvested before it is fully mature (around 21–24% moisture), usually about
30 days after flowering, or when 90% of the grains are firm and do not have a greenish tint.
Wetting and drying cause grain cracking, cracks being formed more readily when the grain is
quite hard. Harvesting by hand, the commonest method, is very labour-intensive. In some
areas a small knife is used, but in many areas farmers use a sickle to cut the panicles plus
some or all of the culms. Mechanical harvesters are very rare in tropical Africa. The
harvested rice plants are either allowed to dry in the field or bundled for processing in a
selected area.

YIELD

Average rice yields are 1.4 t/ha in tropical Africa, 4.1 t/ha in Asia and 4.0 t/ha in the world in
general. Yields are generally higher during the dry season than during the wet season, and
higher in lowland rice than in upland rice. The yield of upland rice varies between 0.5 and 1.5
t/ha in tropical Africa

HANDLING AFTER HARVEST

Threshing is generally done by hand, by beating the bundles on a stone or drum, or by

beating the panicles with wooden sticks on a canvas. However, motorized and pedal-driven
threshing machines are becoming popular. Winnowing is usually done by shaking and tossing
the grain on a basket-work tray with a narrow rim.
Proper drying of the rice grains is important to prevent germination and rapid loss of quality.
Optimum moisture content for storage is 12.5%. Rice grain is mostly stored in sacks after
drying.
In rice milling the aim is to avoid breaking the kernels because whole kernels command a
higher price. There are different methods of milling. On milling, the grain gives
approximately: husk 20%, whole kernels 50%, broken kernels 16%, bran and meal 14%. The
husked or hulled rice is usually called brown rice, and this is then milled to remove the outer
layers, after which it is polished to produce white rice. During milling and polishing some of
the protein and much of the fat, minerals and vitamins are removed, reducing the nutritional
value but increasing storability and reducing cooking time. Parboiling (soaking, boiling and
drying) before milling improves the nutrient value of the grains but it is not common
in tropical Africa.

NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION

Raw brown rice contains per 100 g edible portion: water 13.9 g, energy 1518 kJ (363 kcal),
protein 6.7 g, fat 2.8 g, carbohydrate 81.3 g, dietary fibre 3.8 g, Ca 10 mg, Mg 110 mg, P 310
mg, Fe 1.4 mg, Zn 1.8 mg, thiamin 0.59 mg, riboflavin 0.07 mg, niacin 5.3 mg, vitamin
B6 0.56 mg, folate 49 µg, ascorbic acid 0 mg.
Raw polished rice contains per 100 g edible portion: water 11.7 g, energy 1536 kJ (367 kcal),
protein 6.5 g, fat 1.0 g, carbohydrate 86.8 g, dietary fibre 2.2 g, Ca 4 mg, Mg 13 mg, P 100
mg, Fe 0.5 mg, Zn 1.3 mg, thiamin 0.08 mg, riboflavin 0.02 mg, niacin 1.5 mg, vitamin
B6 0.30 mg, folate 20 µg, ascorbic acid 0 mg (Holland, Unwin & Buss, 1988).

USES

The rice grain is cooked by boiling or steaming, and eaten mostly with pulses, vegetables,
fish or meat. Flour from rice is used for breakfast foods, baby foods, bread and cake mixes
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and cosmetics. Starch made from broken rice is used as laundry starch and in foods,
cosmetics and textile manufacture. Beers, wines and spirits are made from rice.
The husk or hull is used as fuel, bedding, absorbent, packing material and as carrier for
vitamins and drugs; it is also made into building board. The charred hull is used for filtration
of impurities in water, a medium for hydroponics and manufacture of charcoal briquettes.
Rice bran or meal obtained in pearling and polishing is a valuable livestock and poultry feed.
Oil is extracted from the bran. Rice straw is used for animal feed and bedding, for the
manufacture of straw boards and pulp for paper, for the production of compost and
mushroom growing medium, for mulching vegetable crops, for making ropes, sacks, mats
and hats, for roof thatching, and to make plastering material (mixed with clay mud) for the
construction of houses, and for incorporation into the soil or burning on the field as a way to
maintain/improve soil fertility.

MAIZE (Zea mays L.)

Family
Poaceae (Gramineae)

ORIGIN

Maize was domesticated in southern Mexico around 4000 BC. Early civilizations of the
Americas depended on maize cultivation. When the Europeans arrived in the Americas,
maize had already spread from Chile to Canada. Maize was reported for the first time in
West Africa in 1498, six years after Columbus discovered the West Indies.

Maize has an extremely wide distribution. It is grown in all countries of Africa, from the
coast through savanna regions to the semi-arid regions of West Africa, and from sea-level to
the mid- and high-altitudes of East and Central Africa.

STREAK AND DOWNY MILDEW RESISTANT VARIETIES

 DMR-LSR-W * DMR-LSR-Y
 DMR-ESR-W * DMR-ESR-Y
 Suwan 1-SR

OPEN POLLINATED VARIETIES

 TZL Comp4-DMR
 TZL Comp3x4CO
 AK93DMR-LSR
 AL9322-DMR-SR

GREEN MAIZE VARIETIES

 ART-98-STW1/OLOYIN ;high carotene content, 14% crude protein and medium maturing
88-95days.
 ART98SW10B
 ART98SW20B e.t.c

MORPHOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION
Robust annual grass up to 4(–6) m tall; root system consisting of adventitious roots,
developing from the lower nodes of the stem near the soil surface, usually limited to the upper
75 cm of the soil, but single roots sometimes penetrating to a depth of over 2 m; stem (culm)
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usually single and simple, solid. Leaves alternate, simple; leaf sheaths overlapping, auricled at
the top; ligule c. 5 mm long, colourless; blade linear-lanceolate, 30–150 cm × 5–15 cm,
acuminate, margins smooth, midrib pronounced. Male and female inflorescences separate on
the same plant; male inflorescence (‘tassel’) a terminal panicle up to 40 cm long; female
inflorescence a modified spike, usually 1–3 per plant in leaf axils about half way up the stem,
composed of a thick spongy axis with paired sessile spikelets. Has a single superior ovary and
a long threadlike style and stigma (‘silk’) up to 45 cm in length and emerging from the top of
the inflorescence, receptive throughout most of its length. Fruit a caryopsis (grain), usually
obovate and wedge-shaped, variously coloured from white, through yellow, red and purple to
almost black, up to 1000 together in an infructescence (‘cob’) enclosed by modified leaves up
to 45 cm × 8 cm.

ECOLOGY

Maize is adapted to a wide range of environments, but it is essentially a crop of warm regions
where moisture is adequate. The bulk of the crop is grown in tropical and subtropical regions.
Maize is generally less suited to semi-arid or equatorial climates, although drought-tolerant
cultivars adapted to semi-arid conditions are now available. The crop requires an average daily
temperature of at least 20°C for adequate growth and development; the optimum temperature
for growth and development is 25–30°C; temperatures above 35° reduce yields. Frost is not
tolerated. Maize requires abundant sunlight for optimum yields. The time of flowering is
influenced by photoperiod and temperature; maize is considered a quantitative short-day plant.
Maize is less drought-resistant than sorghum, pearl millet and finger millet. In the tropics it
does best with 600–900 mm well-distributed rainfall during the growing season. It is
especially sensitive to drought and high temperatures around the time of flowering.
Maize performs best on well-drained, well-aerated, deep soils containing adequate organic
matter and well supplied with nutrients. The high yield of maize is a heavy drain on soil
nutrients and maize is therefore often grown as a first crop in the rotation. It can be grown on
soils with a pH of 5–8, but 5.5–7 is optimal. It does not tolerate waterlogging and is sensitive
to salinity. Since a young crop leaves much of the ground uncovered, soil erosion and water
losses can be severe and attention should be paid to adequate soil and water

PROPAGATION AND PLANTING

Maize is propagated by seed mostly by direct sowing. The 1000-grain weight is 150–300 g.
Sowing should preferably be done early in the season, as soon as soil conditions and
temperature are favourable and the rainfall is well established. Planting by hand requires 5–
10 man-days/ha. Seed is dropped in the plough furrow or in holes made with a planting stick
or hoe. Planting may be done on hills or in rows, on flat land or on ridges. Ridging or heaping
is usually done on heavy soils, to improve drainage. The seed rate is up to 25 kg/ha in sole
cropping, and 10–15 kg/ha in intercropping. When maize is sown in rows, the spacing is
usually 75–90 cm between rows and 25–50 cm within the row, with 1–3 seeds per pocket,
resulting in a plant density of 40,000–80,000 plants/ha. Wide spacing results in more weed
growth and increases erosion. To obtain a high yield, a uniform crop stand is very important,
as the tillering capacity of maize is limited. The sowing depth is commonly 3–8 cm,
depending on soil conditions and temperature. Deep sowing is recommended on light, dry
soils. Sometimes animal manure or fertilizers are applied at the time of planting.
Maize may be grown as a sole crop or in intercropping with other food crops such as
common bean, cowpea, pigeon pea, groundnut, yam, cassava, sweet potato, pumpkin, melon
or watermelon. In southern Nigeria two crops of maize are planted per year.
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GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

The first leaf of maize emerges from the soil usually 4–6 days after planting. The minimum
temperature for germination is 10°C; the optimum around 20°C. The plant sometimes has a
few tillers that are of value in low density stands. Flower initiation is generally 20–30 days
after germination. Maize is protandrous: in cultivars that mature in 4 months the male
inflorescence emerges 50–60 days after planting and the styles of the female inflorescence
appear about a week later. Maize is mature 7–8 weeks after flowering. The period from
planting to harvesting varies considerably. It may be as short as 70 days in some extra early
cultivars and as long as 200 days in some very late cultivars. Climatic conditions, latitude and
altitude influence growth duration. In tropical highland areas it may take 9–10 months to
maturity. Maize is predominantly cross-pollinating (90–95%), but is self-fertile. Maize follows
the C4-cycle photosynthetic pathway.

MANAGEMENT

Maize is very sensitive to weed competition during the first 4–6 weeks after emergence, and
weed control is very important. Weeding is mostly done by hand, requiring at least 25 man-
days/ha. Chemical weed control is gaining importance in tropical Africa, because hand
weeding is time-consuming and expensive as a result of the increasing scarcity of labour.
Ridging or earthing-up is sometimes practised. Most maize production in tropical Africa is
rainfed. Occasionally it is grown on bunds in irrigation schemes. Maize usually responds well
to fertilizers. A maize crop yielding 2 t grain and 5 t stover per ha removes about 60 kg N, 10
kg P and 70 kg K per ha from the soil. Maize has a high demand for nitrogen, which is often
the limiting nutrient. High nitrogen levels should be applied in 2 doses; the first dose at
planting or 2–3 weeks after emergence and the second one about 2 weeks before flowering. It
is advisable to apply organic manures before ploughing to improve soil structure and supply
nutrients. Maize is grown in rotation with groundnut, common bean, cowpea, cotton and
tobacco. Rotation with soya bean is gaining popularity in northern Nigeria; it increases maize
yields by providing nitrogen and by reducing parasitism.

DISEASES

Important fungal diseases of maize in tropical Africa are

 Rots affecting female inflorescences ( Fusarium spp. and other fungi)
 Stalk-rot complex (Diplodia maydis, Fusarium moniliforme, Macrophomina
phaseoli andPythium aphanidermatum)
 Leaf blights (Exserohilum turcicum and Bipolaris maydis).
 Downy mildew (Peronosclerospora sorghi),
 smut (Ustilago maydis) and
 rusts (Puccinia sorghi and Puccinia polysora).
 Grey leaf spot (Cercospora zeae-maydis)
 The most important virus disease of maize is maize streak virus (MSV), which is
restricted to Africa and may cause 100% yield loss. It is transmitted by
leafhoppers (Cicadulina spp.) and is most serious in late-planted crops.
 Of lesser importance in tropical Africa are maize dwarf mosaic virus (MDMV),
 Maize chlorotic mottle virus (MCMV). Maize is relatively tolerant to nematodes
occurring in tropical soils.

PESTS

 Cutworms (Agrotis spp.),

 Stem borers (especially Busseola fusca, Eldana saccharina, Sesamia
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calamistis and Chilo partellus),

 Cob borer (Mussidia nigrivenella),
 Cotton bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera),
 Armyworm (Spodoptera exempta),
 Leafhoppers (Cicadulina spp.) and less commonly variegated grasshopper
(Zonocerus variegatus).

* Common storage pests of maize are

 Grain moths (Sitotroga cerealella and Ephestia cautella),
 Grain weevils (Sitophilusspp.)
 Larger grain borer (Prostephanus truncatus).
 The parasitic witchweed (Striga spp.) is a serious constraint to maize production
in many parts of tropical Africa, especially Striga hermonthica (Delile) Benth. in
West and Central Africa.

YIELD

Maize has the highest yield potential among the cereal crops. The current average world
yield of maize is 4.4 t/ha, but grain yields over 20 t/ha are possible. Average grain yields
of maize in tropical Africa are about 1.25 t/ha, varying greatly from less than 1 t/ha for
smallholders to about 6 t/ha in commercial farms.

HANDLING AND HARVEST

The major post-harvest problems of maize in most production areas are reducing the
moisture content of the grain to 12–15%, protection from insects and rodents, and proper
storage. A high grain moisture content combined with high ambient temperatures can
cause considerable damage, making the product unsuitable for consumption by humans
and livestock.

NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION

The composition of mature white maize grain per 100 g edible portion is: water 10.4 g,
energy 1527 kJ (365 kcal), protein 9.4 g, fat 4.7 g, carbohydrate 74.3 g, dietary fibre 7.3
g, Ca 7 mg, Mg 127 mg, P 210 mg, Fe 2.7 mg, Zn 2.2 mg, thiamin 0.39 mg, riboflavin
0.20 mg, niacin 3.6 mg, vitamin B6 0.62 mg, folate 19 µg and ascorbic acid 0 mg. The
essential amino-acid composition per 100 g edible portion is: tryptophan 67 mg, lysine
265 mg, methionine 197 mg, phenylalanine 463 mg, threonine 354 mg, valine 477 mg,
leucine 1155 mg and isoleucine 337 mg

USES

Maize grain is used for three main purposes: as a staple food, as feed for livestock and
poultry, and as a raw material for many industrial products. In tropical Africa nearly all
maize grain is used for human food, prepared and consumed in many ways. It may be
eaten fresh on the cob and simply roasted, but the grain is usually ground and the meal is
boiled into porridge or fermented into beer. It is commonly eaten with cooked vegetables
and, when available, meat. A thin porridge ( ‘ogi’ in Nigeria,) is also commonly eaten
especially as weaning food.
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SORGHUM (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench)

Family
Poaceae (Gramineae)

ORIGIN
The greatest diversity in both cultivated and wild types of Sorghum is found in north-
eastern tropical Africa. The crop may have been domesticated in that region, possibly
Ethiopia. Various hypotheses have been put forward as to when the crop was
domesticated, from as early as 5000–3000 BC to around 1000 BC, but the latter period is
more widely accepted now.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

Sorghum grain is the fifth most important cereal in the world after wheat, rice, maize and
barley. In Africa it comes second after maize in terms of production. According to FAO
estimates, the average world production of sorghum grain in 1999–2003 amounted to
57.7 million t/year from 42.6 million ha. The production in sub-Saharan Africa was 19.0
million t/year from 22.8 million ha. Nigeria produces 7.6 million t/year from 6.9 million
ha.

CULTIVATED SPECIES

The 5 basic races of Sorghum are:

– Bicolor: the most primitive cultivated sorghum.

– Caudatum: characterized by turtle-backed grains that are flat on one side and curved on
the other. Cultivars are widely grown in north-eastern Nigeria. The types used for dyeing
also belong here and are known as ‘karan dafi’ by the Hausa people in Nigeria.

– Durra: characterized by compact inflorescences. Most of them are drought resistant.

– Guinea: the grain is typically flattened.

– Kafir: have compact panicles that are often cylindrical in shape.

MORPHOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION

Annual grass up to 5 m tall, with one to many tillers. Stem (culm) solid, usually erect.
Leaves alternate and simple. Inflorescence is a terminal panicle up to 60 cm long. Fruit is
a caryopsis (grain), 4–8 mm in diameter, rounded and bluntly pointed.

ECOLOGY

Sorghum is primarily a plant of hot, semi-arid tropical environments that are too dry for
maize. It is particularly adapted to drought due to a number of morphological and
physiological characteristics, including an extensive root system, waxy bloom on leaves
that reduces water loss, and the ability to stop growth in periods of drought and resume it
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when the stress is relieved. A rainfall of 500–800 mm evenly distributed over the
cropping season is normally adequate for cultivars maturing in 3–4 months. Sorghum
tolerates waterlogging and can also be grown in areas of high rainfall. It tolerates a wide
range of temperatures and is also grown widely in temperate regions and at altitudes up
to 2300 m in the tropics. The optimum temperature is 25–31ºC, but temperatures as low
as 21ºC will not dramatically affect growth and yield. Sterility can occur when night
temperatures fall below 12–15°C during the flowering period. Sorghum is susceptible to
frost, but to a lesser extent than maize and light night-frosts during ripening cause little
damage. Sorghum is a short-day plant with a wide range of reactions to photoperiod.
Some tropical cultivars fail to flower or to set seed at high latitudes
Sorghum is well suited to grow on heavy Vertisols commonly found in the tropics. The
best growth is achieved on loams and sandy loams. Sorghum tolerates a range of soil pH
from 5.0–8.5 and is more tolerant of salinity than maize. It is adapted to poor soils and
can produce grain on soils where many other crops would fail.

PROPAGATION AND PLANTING

Sorghum is normally grown from seed. The 1000-grain weight is 13–40 g. Seed
dormancy is not common in cultivated sorghum. A fine seedbed is preferable but is often
not achieved. The seed is usually sown directly into a furrow following a plough, but can
also be broadcast and harrowed into the soil. Optimum plant spacing depends on soil
type and availability of moisture. In low-rainfall areas a population of 20,000 plants/ha is
normal, in high-rainfall areas 60,000 plants/ha. For favourable conditions, spacings of
45–75 cm between rows and 15–25 cm within the row, resulting in 80,000–180,000
pockets per ha, are normal; for drier or less fertile conditions rows 1 m apart, or
broadcasting at 6 kg seed per ha. A planting depth of 2.5–5 cm is common, and up to 25
seeds may be sown per pocket. Occasionally, seedlings are grown in a nursery and
transplanted into the field early in the dry season, e.g. on the floodplains round Lake
Chad in Africa. Sorghum may be harvested more than once as a ratoon crop, e.g. in
locations with a bimodal rainfall pattern. Sorghum is often grown in intercropping
systems with maize, pearl millet, cowpea, common bean, groundnut and bambara
groundnut.

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

The optimum temperature for sorghum seed germination is 27–35°C. Seedling

emergence takes 3–10 days. Panicle initiation takes place after approximately one third
of the growth cycle. By this stage the total number of leaves (7–24) has been determined
and about one-third of total leaf area has developed. Rapid leaf development, stem
elongation and internode expansion follow panicle initiation. During the boot stage, the
developing panicle has almost reached its full size and is clearly visible in the leaf
sheath; leaf expansion is complete. The peduncle grows rapidly and the panicle emerges
from the leaf sheath. Flowering follows soon after panicle emergence, with the interval
largely determined by temperature. Individual panicles start flowering from the tip
downwards and flowering may extend over 4–9 days. Sorghum is predominantly self-
pollinating; cross-pollination may range from 0–50%, but is on average about 5–6%.
Grain filling occurs rapidly between flowering and the soft dough stage, with about half
the total dry weight accumulating in this period. Lower leaves continue to senesce and
die. By the hard dough stage, grain dry weight has reached about three-quarters of its
final level. At physiological maturity, determined by the appearance of a dark layer at the
hilum (where the grain is attached to the panicle), maximum dry weight has been
achieved. Moisture content of the grain is usually between 25–35% at this stage. The
time taken between flowering and maturity depends on environmental conditions but
normally represents about one-third of the duration of the crop cycle. Further drying of
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the grain takes place between physiological maturity and harvest, which usually occurs
when grain moisture content has fallen below 20%. Leaves may senesce rapidly or stay
green with further growth if conditions are favourable. Early maturing sorghum cultivars
take only 100 days or less, whereas long-duration sorghum requires 5–7 months.
Sorghum follows the C4-cycle photosynthetic pathway.

MANAGEMENT

Sorghum does not compete well with weeds during the early stages of growth, and it is
recommended that weeding be done early during the seedling stage. Thinning can be
carried out at the same time as hand weeding, or at intervals during the crop cycle,
particularly where thinnings are used to feed livestock. Subsistence farmers rarely apply
fertilizer, but application of farmyard manure or ash is common. It is grown in rotations
with maize, pearl millet, finger millet, cotton and other crops. It is often planted late in
the rotation, as it tolerates low soil fertility. Under certain conditions decomposing roots
of sorghum have an allelopathic effect on the subsequent crop, including sorghum.

DISEASES.

 Common seed and seedling rot diseases in sorghum are caused by soil- and seed-
borne Aspergillus, Fusarium,Pythium, Rhizoctonia and Rhizopus spp. They are
controlled by treatment of the seed with fungicides.

 Anthracnose (Colletotrichum graminicola) is common in hot and humid Africa.

 Downy mildew (Peronosclerospora sorghi) may cause serious yield losses; the
use of resistant cultivars and seed treatment are recommended.

 Smuts (Sporisorium spp.) are important panicle diseases.

 Grain mould is caused by a complex of fungal pathogens

(predominantly Cochliobolus lunatus (synonym: Curvularia
lunata), Fusarium spp. and Phoma sorghina).

PESTS
 Shoot fly (Atherigona soccata)
 Stem borers (particularly Busseola fusca, Chilo partellus and Sesamia
calamistis).
 Foliage pests include army worms (Spodoptera and Mythimna spp.);
 Larvae of the sorghum midge (Stenodiplosis sorghicola, synonym: Contarinia
sorghicola) feed on the young grains in the panicle.
 Head bugs (Eurystylus and Calocoris spp.) suck on developing grains
 Early sowing is particularly important as a mechanism to avoid large insect
populations at times when plants are most susceptible to damage.
 Birds, especially Quelea quelea, cause important yield losses.

Storage pests, the main are

 Rice weevil (Sitophilus oryzae),
 Flour beetle(Tribolium castaneum)
 Grain moth (Sitotroga cerealella).

YIELD

Average sorghum grain yields on farmers’ fields in Africa are as low as 0.5–0.9 t/ha
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because sorghum is often grown in marginal areas under traditional farming practices
(low inputs, traditional landraces). Under favourable conditions sorghum can produce
grain yields up to 13 t/ha
Forage yields from single-cut cultivars and hybrids can reach 20 t/ha of dry matter.
Multi-cut cultivars and hybrids usually give only slightly higher total yields but produce
better quality forage.

HANDLING AND HARVEST

The harvested grain of sorghum is usually sun-dried, often in the panicle. Panicles,
particularly those to be retained for seed, may be stored hanging from the ceiling of
kitchens over cooking fires where the smoke helps to deter insect attack. Alternatively,
the heads may be threshed after drying and the grain stored in granaries, above or below
ground, designed to prevent insect attack.

NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION
The composition of sorghum grain per 100 g edible portion is: water 9.2 g, energy 1418
kJ (339 kcal), protein 11.3 g, fat 3.3 g, carbohydrate 74.6 g, Ca 28 mg, P 287 mg, Fe 4.4
mg, vitamin A 0 IU, thiamin 0.24 mg, riboflavin 0.14 mg, niacin 2.9 mg and ascorbic
acid 0 mg. The essential amino acid composition per 100 g edible portion is: tryptophan
124 mg, lysine 229 mg, methionine 169 mg, phenylalanine 546 mg, threonine 346 mg,
valine 561 mg, leucine 1491 mg and isoleucine 433 mg..

USES.
Sorghum is an important staple food, particularly in semi-arid tropical regions of
Africa.. In the simplest food preparations, the whole grain is boiled (to produce a food
resembling rice), roasted (usually at the dough stage), or popped (like maize). More
often the grain is ground or pounded into flour, often after hulling. Sorghum flour is
used to make thick or thin porridge, pancake, dumplings or couscous, opaque and
cloudy beers and non-alcoholic fermented beverages. In Africa sorghum grain is
germinated, dried and ground to form malt, which is used as a substratum for
fermentation in local beer production. White grain is generally preferred for cooking
while red and brown grains are normally used for beer making.

PROF. J. A. ADIGUN : ROOT AND TUBER CROPS

General Characteristics
 Tubers are crops that store their food in underground tissues
 The crops in this section are adapted to varying elevations.
 Most are herbaceous and are produced from parts of tubers
 The major rot and tubers crops grown in the tropics are
 Cassava (Manihot esculenta)
 Yams (Discorea sp)
 Sweet potaoes (Ipomea batatas)
 Cocoyams (Colocasia esculenta)
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Ecological Factors
 Due to their diversity, few of these root and tuber crops have ecological
requirements in common
 They generally require deep well-drained soils which are well prepared before
planting so that the underground portion can develop without restriction.
 Many of these crops are grown on ridges due to high rainfall conditions.
 Many intercropping patterns exist among various root and tuber crops
 High temperature tolerance is a feature of many root and tuber crops although
high soil temperatures are generally damaging.
 Many crops in this group tolerate high rainfall, particularly the lowland crops
such as cocyam
 Irrigation in any period is essential for the medium and high elevation crops to
maintain a regular growth rate.
 Nutrient requirements vary with each species but a high level of organic
material in the soil is necessary for the successful production of most crops.
 Nitrogen and potassium are mostly in demanded and additional dressings in
the early stages of growth are generally recommended.

Economic Importance
 These crops provide an essential part of the carbohydrate content of the average
diet.
 They are grown for domestic consumption or sale in local markets.
 The possibilities for export are limited because of their short post-harvest life.
 Post-harvest diseases and diseases and pests can be serious on these crops hence
adequate measure should be taken to maintain god storage
 The tubers and corms are used as boiled vegetables. Many are roasted, baked or
fried.
 The young shoots and leaves of cocoyam and sweet potatoes are frequently
used as boiled vegetables.

YAM (Discorea spp) are among the most values tuber crops in the tropics.
 West Africa is one of the three largest yam-producing regions in the world and
Nigeria is the largest producer of yams in the world.
 Most of the yams grown in Nigeria are from smallholder farmlands.
 The various species of yam are as follows:
 Discorea rotundata Poir (White yam)
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 Discorea cayanensis Lamn (Yellow yam)

 Discorea esculenta (Chinese yam)
 Discorea bulbifera Linn (bulbil or potato yam)

Discorea rotundata Poir (White yam)

 This variety has long narrow, pale green oppositely arranged leaves, which tend
to be triangular in shape.
 The stems are prickly.

Discorea cayanensis Lamn (Yellow yam)

 Tuber of this variety has a yellow colour when peeled and this is the main
difference from the white yam.
 It possesses short broad heart shaped, deep green leaves.
 It does not keep for as long as white yam.
Discorea alata Lin (Water yam)
 This variety normally yields more heavily than the previous two and can also do
better in poor soils.
 It contains a higher proportion of water than either the white or yellow yam.
 The tuber may be white, yellow, brown or almost red in colour.
 The leaves are distinctively different from the other being heart shaped, long
brad and winged at the petiole.
 The stem climbs round the stake.

Areas of Yam Production

 The major yam producing areas in Nigeria include: Middle belt-Benue, Kabba,
Ilorin, Easter part of Nigeria-Owerri, Onitsha, Port Harcourt, Umuahia and Delta
areas and the south western part-Ondo, Benin, Oyo, Ibadan.
 Yam is well distributed in the humid tropics of southern part of West Africa
where they are valued as an important source of food.

Environmental Requirement
Discorea species are essential tropical plants.
Their growth is restricted to areas with temperature of about 200C and they generally
require temperature of 25-350C for normal growth and optimum yield.

Moisture
Yam thrives best when supplied with ample moisture throughout their growth cycle (7 –
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9 months: (planting to harvest)

If yam must be grown where the dry period is longer than 3 – 4months supplementary
irrigation must be provided.
Well distributed annual rainfall of over 150cm is reqiured

Soil Requirement
 High soil fertility is required for good growth and yield of yam marginal soils,
used for the production of cassava or sweet potato cannot support the production
of yam.
 Virgin soils, rich in organic mater are good for yam production.
 Loamy soils with low cation exchange capacity and clay soils which tend to
become water logged are not suitable for yam production. They also make
harvesting difficult.
 Stony or graveling soils should be avoided in yam production, because tubers
growing, through such soils could be distorted.
 The soil must be well drained. Yam cannot tolerate water logging poorly drained
and poorly aerated soils may lead to tuber rot.

Light
Light plays an important role in yam production
 Day length plays an important role in tuber formation and tuber growth
 High light intensity is required during active vegetative growth
 It is not a shade loving plant so plant grown extremely small tubers due to poor
exposure of foliage to light interception.

Planting Date
 Early planting is done in November, while the soil is still moist
 Late planting is done in February to April.
 For good yam production planting at high stand density can be carried out in
May.

Land Preparation
 Land clearing for yam cultivation in traditional agriculture is done essentially
with hand tools.
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 In such instances clearing is selectively done and several upright slender trees are
deliberately left standing to serve as stakes.

Seedbed Preparation and Planting Material

 Tubers require a friable soil in which the tubers can grown with little hindrance.
Many tuber crops grow initially from roots or stolons that penetrate the soil and
later begin to enlarge to form tubers as in cassava and potato.
 In the case of yam, however, tuber formation is not preceeded by any stolon
formation. In that case, it is the relatively enlarged lower meristematic part of the
tuber that accomplishes penetration through the soil.
 On the basis of the type of tillage four general methods of planting yam exist:
 Planting on mounds
 Ridges
 Holes
 Flat
 Yam is propagated by means of the tuber which may be planted whole or
divided into smaller pieces called sets weighing between 150-300gm.
 Tops with buds are better than bottoms. It is advisable to plant whole tubers
and early maturing tops, separately from bottoms or middles which sprouts
late.
 Germination starts 30 – 60 days after planting depending on rainfall.
Germination may take a longer period of bottoms and middles are planted.

Crop Management
 Mulching: Covering yam setts planted on mounts or ridges with grasses or
leaves is essential on the dry months.
Mulching reduces soil temperature as well as conserve soil moisture, thereby
providing optimum condition for growth.
 Staking: When the yam vines are about 1m tall, they should be provided with
stakes which they twines. This should be done about a month after emergence.
 Weed control: Weeding is the major operation after staking.
Weeding must be done carefully if hoes are used in order not to injure the shallow yam
roots.
Chemical weed control can also be done using pre-emergence herbicide of different
1.0kga.i/ha followed by supplementary hoe-wedding at about 8 weeks after sowing.
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Fertilizers at the rate of 125-250kg/ha of compound fertilizers is widely used.

Organic manure is also beneficial.
It is best to apply fertilizer ne month after emergence

Harvesting
The early crop matures at the end of July and the main crop from month of October –
January.
Two types of harvesting – each crop is harvested twice.
Single harvesting each harvesting is done only one time.

Storage: Barn storage, platform storage or underfront storage.

Problems of Yam Production

 Planting materials are bulky.
 Production operations are labour intensive.
 In storage, the shelf life is shorter

CASSAVA (Manihot esculanta)

 Cassava belongs to the geruis manihot of the natural order euphorbia
 Cassava is a staple food crop in many parts of the topics and it is capable of
producing high yields under condition of poor soil fertility and rainfall.
 Cassava is also an import component of traditional cropping systems.
Varieties
 Many varieties of cassava and cultivated in Nigeria
 The varieties can be differentiated by their height color of the stem, petiole and
skin of the root, late or early maternity
 Cassava varieties are grouped into two large species, the bitter varieties (Manihot
utilissma) and the sweet varieties (Manihot plamata)
 The bitter varieties contain prussic acid either free or combined as a constituent
of the glycoside linamarine
 While the sweet variety is considered to be free from this glycoside
 Both the sweet and the bitter cassava have been shown to contain hydrocyanic
acid or prussic acid although this acid thirds to concentrate in the peel of the
sweet varieties and is lardy removed by peeling.
 The most common high yielding varieties are TMS 30572, 30555 TMS
14(2)1425. All developed by IITA Ibadan.
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 Odongbo is an unimproved but high yielding local variety.

 Improved disease resistant varieties of cassava should be planted.

Production System
Cassava can be planted on moulds, ridges or on the flat after ploughing. In most
traditional cropping systems, cassava is interplanted with cereals such as maize and rice
or legumes such as cowpea and soyabeans in the first three months after planting.

Soil Requirement
Cassava can tolerate poor soils, but it does very well drained, rich and viable soil.

Fertilizer Application
Cassava responds favourably to N, P and K application, particularly on poor soils:
 Where the soil is moderately rich and legumes are ploughed in it, it is
recommended that 10kg of 10-10-20 fertilizer be applied.
 Ideally, nitrogen and phosphorus should be applied after the cutting have been
planted or at land preparation.
 Fertilizers can be applied by broadcast at land preparation or by side by side
placement after the cuttings have been planted.
 A complete fertilizer (NPK) should be applied in addition manure or compost
before planting.
 Dressings of N & K are also beneficial during the growing period.
 Plants are often earthed up after they have become established to encourage corm
development.
 Most varieties mature in 180 – 120 days.
 The corms are lifted by hand and the main tuber is often harvested with the
smaller corms left to develop later.
 Yields may range from 4 – 6 t/ha (500g/m2). Yields of 15 t/ha have been
recorded.


Planting
 Usually cassava is propagated from stem cuttings of 20-30mm which at
maturity carries 4-6 growth buds.
 It is cut and planted either horizontally or slanting at an angle of 45 0 with the
buds facing up.
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 Cuttings are taking from cassava that have been harvested or ready for
harvest
 Spacing at 100 × 100 cm for sole crop for mixed crop of cassava/maize can
be planted at 200× 50 cm.
 Optimum spacing is 80 × 100 cm or 100×100 cm in the tropical rain forest.

Weed Control
 Weeds can be controlled both mechanically or chemically or by a
combination of both.
 Two to three manual weedings are required
 Herbicides can be applied pre- emergence: primextra, diuron or lasso can
be used.
 Pest and disease control
 Use improved high yielding and disease resistant varieties.
 Select healthy cuttings.
 Use balanced fertilizer to reduce the incidence of bacteria blight.
 Maintain good crop management.

Harvesting
This is done manually although mechanical single-row harvester has been
developed, but the use of this is not yet wide spread.

SWEET POTATO (Ipomoea batata)

General Characteristics
Sweet potato is a perennial herb cultivated as an annual with trailing or twinning
stem 1-5 m in length.
The stems are mainly prosrate, sometimes twinning and light green to purple.
The leaves are spirally arranged and either simple or deeply lobed.
They are up to 15 cm long with pointed tips and may be green to purple
The root system is extensive and roots grow from the stem nodes where nodes
contact the soil
Tuber structure is mainly globular and smooth or ridge
The tuber surface may be white, yellow, orange, red or purple
The flowers may be single or in cluster(cymes). The calyx is five-lobed the
corolla is funnel-shaped or tubular and petals are purple with pale margins.
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Environmental Factors
Sweet potatoes are grown at optimum temperature of 24-250C and well
distributed rainfall in the range of 75-125 cm per year
Full exposure to sun is essential
Sweet potato is a short day plant and a photoperiod of less than 11 hours induces
flowering
The plant tolerate a range of soil conditions, but a well drained sandy loam with
a Ph of about 6.0 is preferable.
The crop is sensitive to water logging

Cultural techniques
 stem cuttings are most frequently used for planting
 These are 25 – 45cm in length obtained from terminal shoots.
 Ridges are constructed about 45cm high and 75cm apart and the cuttings
are inserted 26 – 30cm apart
 If soil moisture content is not adequate, furrow irrigation may be used.
 Sweet potatoes respond may well to manure although too much Nitrogen
may promote excess stem and leaf growth instead of tuberous roots .

Planting
 Planting is done between April and September.
 May and June being the best time.
 Vine of 25 to 30 cm long are planted on ridges at an agle of 45 degrees.
 Spacing can be 1.5 – 2.0m apart.
 Seed rate 21,750 cuttings per ha – requiring about 800 kg green lines per
ha.
 It is planted in May – June when the rains are stable.
 It is planted like yams on low mounds or ridges.
 Depth of planting is 10 – 15cm at the set per stand using cormel.
 Spacing 100cm x 100cm
 Seed rate: 2.45 tons – 3.40 tons/ha.
 Maturation: 6 – 8 months.
 Harvest: by hand uprooting of the corms.

Weed Control
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 Is done manually.
 About two like weeding are required at 3 and 6 WAS.
 Subsequently weeds will be smothers by the plant itself.

Maturity
 It takes about 4 – 6 months to mature.
 The stems turn from green to brown at maturity.
Pests
 Root – knot nematode (Meloidogyne spp)
 Stem borer (magastes grandalis)
 Sweet potato hawk moth (Agrius convoliuli)
 Sweet potato weevil (Cylas formicarius, C. brunneus)

Diseases
Black rot (Ceratocystis fimbriata)
Sclerotial wilt (Sclerotium rolfsii)
Soft rot (Rhizopus nigricans. R.. Stolonifer)
Storage or black rot (Botrgodiplodia theobromae)

COCOYAM (Colocasia esculenta, Xanthosoma sagittifolia)

General Characteristics
 Cocoyam is an erect herbaceous perennial.
 The crop usually has a main corn and several other corms (corme(s) at the
base.
 The leaves are large, pale green and oval with long petioles.
 Two forms exist – one with green and the other with purple petioles.
 Cocoyam rarely flowers.

Environmental Factors
 The Cocoyam produces optimum yields when planted in fertile soils with a
high water retaining capacity.
 It is traditionally planted along streams or rivers but some forms tolerate
upland conditions.
 Cocoyam is adapted to high temp areas with high humidity and most forms
respond well to stable temp.
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Cultural Techniques
 Propagation is by corms or sections of corms.
 Preferably planted during the wet season after they have gebun sprouting.
 For bed planting rows should be 90 – 100cm apart with 30 – 45cm
between plants in the row.
 For ridge planting they should be 1m apart with 45 – 60 cm between
plants.

DR.S.O.ADIGBO : LEGUMINOUS AND PULSES.

Pulses can be defined as leguminous species (members of the families Papilionaceae,

Caesalpniaceae, Mimosaceae often considered as one family leguminosae (fabiaceae)
produces edible mature seeds. Most species of pulses are adapted to a wide range of
ecological conditions. The majority love heat. Only lens culinaries, Pisum sativum and
Vicia faba do not thrive at high temperatures, and so are grown in the cool season of the
year, or high altitude above sea-level. Also Cicer arietinum, Lathyrus sativus, Lupins
spp. and Trigonella foenum prefer lower temperatures, although they can stand more heat
than the first three species mentioned. For a high yield of seed, most pulses need full
sunshine. Some pulses were originally definitely short-day plants, but ever for these there
are now day-neutral cultivars available (Lablab purpureus, Vigna unguiculata, Glysine
max).
Many of the pulses do not have high requirements in terms of water supply. Because of
their deep-rooted system, they have a large volume of soil at their disposal and can
survive long dry periods. The following are particularly drought tolerant: Cajanus cajan,
Macrotyloma uniflorum, Larthyrus sativus, Phaseolus acutifolius, Vigna unguiculata,
and V. subterranean. On the other hand, there are species which are of interest because
they can stand moist conditions and there is an increased cultivation of these pulses in
the humid tropic. They are Canavalia spp., Glysine max, LablaB purpureus, Larthyrus
sativa, Psophocarpus tetragonolobus, Vigna radiate etc. Waterlogging damages all of
them, and in the regions with high rainfall, deep, well-drained soil is the pre-condition
for good growth.
There is a range of legumes which make very few demands on soil fertility. Cajanus
cajan, Macrotyloma uniflorum, Lablab purpureus, Lathyrus sativus and others grow well
even on very poor soils. Species such as Glysine max, Phaseolus vulgaris and Pisum
sativum have greater need for fertile soil and for high yield, they need a soil with soil
with a good structure and high nutrient content. Many tropical legumes also thrive on
acid soils (cultivars of Glysine max and V. unguiculata, V. subterranea etc.)
As a result of their symbiosis with rhzobia, legumes have the ability to fix molecular
nitrogen. With most species, the use of N-fertilizer is not necessary to achieve maximum
yields, however, with high-yielding cultivars such as pea and beans N supplies of up to
120 t ha_1 can be economically justifiable.
For efficient N-fixation, it is frequently necessary to inoculate the seed with rhizobia
specific for the genus or the species, or even with bacterial strain selected for a particular
cultivar. However, from numerous genera, more than one species of rhizobia have been
isolated (particularly Rhizobium loti and Bradyrhizobium spp.) and tropical soil rhizobia
are often so abundant that inoculation is not necessary. Further conditions for efficient N-
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fixation include adequate supplies of Ca, Mo Co, Fe and Cu, a high rate of
photosynthesis and soil temperatures below 32 oC.
The 1 st 2 weeks are often decisions for the good development of the plants. If the soil is
very low in N, it is recommended to give a light dressing of N fertilizer at sowing (about
10-20 kg N ha-1). If the elements named above are deficient, then it is usually sufficient
to pelletize the seed with them (Ca, Mo etc) in order to ensure early nodulation.
SOYABEAN (Glycine max)
Origin and geographic distribution
Soya bean was domesticated in the north-east of China around the 11th century BC. From
there, it spread to Manchuria, Korea, Japan and other parts of Asia. Soya bean was
introduced into Korea between 30 BC and 70 AD, and it was mentioned in Japanese
literature around 712 AD. It reached Europe before 1737. Soya bean was introduced into
the United States in 1765 and into Brazil in 1882. It is unclear when soya bean first
reached tropical Africa. There are reports of its cultivation in Tanzania in 1907 and
Malawi in 1909, but it is likely that soya bean was introduced during the 19th century by
Chinese traders who were active along the east coast of Africa. Nowadays, soya bean is
widely cultivated in tropical, subtropical and temperate regions throughout the world.
The slow distribution outside Asia is explained by the absence of soya bean specific
rhizobia in the soils of other regions; the crop only developed in the United States at the
beginning of the 20th century, following the discovery of the nodulation process by
scientists.
Uses
In tropical Africa dry soya bean seeds are boiled for use in relishes, or used in the
preparation of milk substitutes and flour. A popular use of soya bean milk in Nigeria is to
make a tofu-like product that is deep fried and sold as a snack or breakfast food. The
flour is used as a component of bread or mixed with maize flour to make a fortified
porridge (‘ugali’, ‘sadza’). In West Africa soya bean flour is used to thicken soup and to
replace a traditional flour that is made from the seed of egusi melon (Citrullus lanatus
(Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai). ‘Okara’ is the pulp and bran left over from making soya
milk; this cake is used in almost all the same ways as soya bean flour. Soya bean seeds
are dry roasted and used directly as a snack or as a coffee substitute. The seed is also
milled into flour and mixed with maize meal to serve as a relief food during famine. In
Asia soya bean is used in the preparation of a variety of fresh, fermented and dried food
products like milk, tofu, tempeh, miso, yuba, soya sauce and bean sprouts (soya bean
sprouts are meant here, and not mung bean sprouts, which are more common in Western
countries, and which are often called ‘germes de soja’ in French). Immature soya bean
seeds are eaten as a vegetable.
Soya bean seed is processed to extract oil for food and for numerous industrial purposes;
the crop is currently the world’s most important source of vegetable oil. The edible oil
enters the market as cooking oil, salad oil, margarine and shortening. Soya bean lecithins
are used as emulsifier in the food industry, in pharmacy, and in the industrial production
of decorating materials, printing inks and pesticides. Soya bean oil is the main
commercial source of α-tocopherol (natural vitamin E) and contains stigmasterol, which
is used for the commercial synthesis of steroid hormones and other pharmaceutical
products. The cake remaining after oil extraction is rich in protein and is an important
animal feed. Uses of soya bean proteins in food include defatted flours and grits,
concentrates, isolates, textured flours and textured concentrates (commonly used as meat
extender). The protein is also used in the production of synthetic fibres, glues and foams.
Soya bean is also grown as fodder and as green manure; it is suitable for haymaking and
silaging. The leafy stems remaining after pod removal can also be used as fodder.
Botany
Usually erect, bushy annual herb up to 2 m tall, sometimes viny; taproot branched, up to
2 m long, lateral roots spreading horizontally to a distance of up to 2.5 m in the upper 20
cm of the soil; stem brownish or greyish pubescent. Leaves alternate, 3(–7)-foliolate;
stipules broadly ovate, 3–7 mm long; petiole 2–20 cm long, especially in lower leaves;
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leaflets ovate to lanceolate, 3–15 cm × 2–6(–10) cm, base cuneate or rounded, apex acute
to obtuse, entire, glabrous to pubescent. Inflorescence an axillary false raceme up to 3.5
cm long, often compact, densely hairy, (2–)5–8(–35)-flowered. Flowers bisexual,
papilionaceous; pedicel up to 3 mm long; calyx tubular, with 2 upper and 3 lower lobes,
hairy; corolla 5–7 mm long, white, pink, purple or bluish, standard obovate to rounded, c.
5 mm long, glabrous, wings obovate, keel shorter than the wings; stamens 10, 9 fused
and 1 free; ovary superior, style curved with head-shaped stigma. Fruit a slightly curved
and usually compressed pod 2.5–8(–15) cm × 1–1.5 cm, hairy, dehiscent, (1–)2–3(–5)-
seeded. Seeds globose to ovoid or rhomboid, 6–11 mm × 5–8 mm, yellow, green, brown
or black, or blotched and mottled in combinations of those colours; hilum small, black,
brown or yellow. Seedling with epigeal germination; cotyledons thick and fleshy, yellow
or green; first leaves simple and opposite.

Growth and development

Soya bean seedlings emerge within 5–15 days after sowing; a seedbed temperature of
25–33°C is optimal. Flowering starts from 25 days to more than 150 days after sowing,
depending on daylength, temperature and cultivar. Flowering can take 1–15 days. Soya
bean is normally self-pollinated and completely self-fertile with less than 1% cross-
pollination. Pollen is normally shed in the morning, before the flowers have completely
expanded. At higher altitudes with lower temperatures, flowers are usually
cleistogamous. The time from flowering to pod maturity is 30–50 days. The total crop
cycle from sowing to maturity is 65–200 days. Development to maturity is usually
shorter with short days than with long days. The number of pods per plant varies from a
few to more than 1000.
Although older literature indicates that soya bean is nodulated exclusively by slow-
growing rhizobia (Bradyrhizobium spp.; initially called ‘cowpea-type rhizobia’) it is now
well established that the fast-growing Sinorhizobium fredii can also form effective
nodules with the crop. Soya bean genotypes differ enormously in their ability to nodulate
with indigenous rhizobia in soils. The ability to nodulate spontaneously and prolifically
with indigenous rhizobia is known as the ‘promiscuous’ character, compared with the
‘specific’ character of soya bean types that normally require inoculation with a specific
type or with a few specific types of rhizobia in order to grow well. However, it has now
been established that all soya bean genotypes nodulate to some extent with indigenous
rhizobia, but the diversity of strains with which they can nodulate determines the extent
of their promiscuity. Rates of N2-fixation in soya bean are greatest in the more luxuriant
and late maturing genotypes. Studies conducted in Nigeria have measured a N2-fixation
rate of 126 kg of N per ha for an uninoculated late-maturing soya bean line.

Propagation and planting

Soya bean is propagated by seed. The 1000-seed weight is 100–250 g. The seed can be
sown before the start of the rainy season, or when the soil is moist. Seed rates are 40–120
kg/ha. Soya bean is sown in rows (20–)40(–75) cm apart. Within the rows, 2–3 seeds are
sown in hills spaced at 7.5–10 cm intervals, at a depth of 2–5 cm. With intercropping,
sowing rates are less than for sole cropping. In traditional agriculture the land is prepared
by hand or animal traction before sowing. Soya bean is grown mainly on the flat, but
sowing on hills or ridges may be practised where the soil is heavy, the water table high,
or rainfall heavy. Small-scale farmers in tropical Africa grow soya bean as a sole crop or
in mixed cropping with maize, sorghum or cassava.

Management

Soya bean is usually weeded 1–3 times during the first 6–8 weeks after planting, after
which its canopy should be sufficiently developed to suppress weeds. Irrigation is
uncommon except for dry season production. Basal fertilization with 20–25 kg P per ha
is often required for adequate symbiotic N2-fixation and general growth. Soya bean is
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commonly grown in rotation with cereals, such as maize, rice, sorghum, wheat and finger
millet, whereby all fertilizer may be applied to the cereal.

Diseases and pests

Various fungal diseases affect soya bean. Soya bean rust (Phakopsora pachyrhizi and
Phakopsora meibomiae) is a devastating disease that can reduce yields by as much as
90%. It is widespread; in tropical Africa it is recorded from Sierra Leone, Ghana,
Nigeria, DR Congo, Uganda, Tanzania and Zambia. Partial resistance has been found in
various cultivars; fungicides may reduce damage. Red leaf blotch (Dactuliochaeta
glycines, synonym: Pyrenochaeta glycines) is confined to Africa; it is economically
important in Zambia and Zimbabwe, where yield losses of up to 50% have been
recorded. Seeds are not infected, but the fungus can survive in the soil for many years.
Tolerant cultivars have been developed in Zimbabwe. Frogeye leaf spot (Cercospora
sojina, synonym: Passalora sojina) occurs worldwide. It is primarily a leaf disease, but it
may also affect stems, pods and seeds. It survives on stored seeds and crop residues and
is spread by wind. Control measures include seed treatment (e.g. with thiram), deep-
ploughing of crop residues, crop rotation and application of fungicides. Resistant
cultivars are available. Purple seed stain and leaf blight are caused by Cercospora
kikuchii, also occurring worldwide. Recommended control measures are crop rotation,
the use of clean seed, ploughing back of crop residues, spraying with fungicides and the
use of tolerant cultivars. Among the bacterial diseases of soya bean, bacterial blight
(Pseudomonas syringae pv. glycinea, synonym: Pseudomonas savastanoi pv. glycinea)
is common wherever soya bean is grown. Control practices of this foliar disease include
the use of resistant cultivars, the use of clean seed, crop rotation and burying of crop
residues. Bacterial pustule (Xanthomonas campestris pv. glycines, synonym:
Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. glycines) is also widespread. It is seed-transmitted and
survives on crop debris. Control measures are similar to those of bacterial blight. Virus
diseases of soya bean include soya bean mosaic virus (SMV), cowpea mild mottle virus
(CPMMV) and bean yellow mosaic virus (BYMV), but these are of little importance in
tropical Africa.
Soya bean cyst nematode (Heterodera glycines) and root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne
spp.) can cause severe damage, especially on sandy soils. Therefore, soya bean should
not be grown continuously or in rotation with other susceptible crops, such as tobacco.
Soya bean cultivars resistant to nematodes are available.
The most widespread and probably most serious pest of soya bean in tropical Africa is
the southern green stink bug or soya bean green stink bug (Nezara viridula), of which the
nymphs and adults feed on soya been seeds. Control is by using insecticides. The most
important leaf-eating pest is probably the soya bean looper (Xanthodes graellsii). Bean
flies (mainly Melanagromyza sojae and Ophiomyia centrosematis) can cause complete
yield loss. Soya bean seedlings are occasionally damaged by cutworms (Agrotis spp.).
No major storage pests are recorded from Africa, except rodents.
Harvesting

Mature seeds of early-maturing soya bean cultivars can be harvested 65 days after
planting; late maturing cultivars may need more than 150 days. In tropical Africa the
plants are generally allowed to dry in the field and the whole plants (above ground) are
collected by hand when most leaves have turned yellow and fallen, and when the pods
have turned brown. The moisture content of the seeds at harvesting should be 14–15%.
Pods of older cultivars have a tendency to shatter in the field when drying and plants
need to be harvested on time to prevent major loss of yield. Combine-harvesting is used
on large farms and estates. Soya bean seed for vegetable use is harvested when the pods
are still green but the seeds fill the pod.
Yield
Average world soya bean yields are 2.25 t/ha; those in the United States 2.5 t/ha. Under
smallholder farming conditions in tropical Africa yields are often as low as 0.5 t/ha due
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to a combination of poor soil conditions and poor management. However, yields of more
than 2 t/ha have been recorded on smallholder farms in Zimbabwe and Nigeria,
particularly when farmers are growing soya bean as a cash crop to sell in urban food
markets or for processing for oil and feed. The average yield of commercial, large-scale
farmers hovers around 2 t/ha. Under optimal growing conditions yields of more than 4.5
t/ha have been recorded in Zimbabwe. In Nigeria and most of West Africa the yield
potential of soya bean is about 3 t/ha.

Handling after harvest

The whole plants are dried in the sun. They are then threshed by beating with sticks. The
seeds are winnowed, cleaned and prepared for store or market. For on-farm storage a
seed moisture content of 10–12% must be maintained. Deterioration of seed in storage is
a major problem in the humid tropics and is attributable to poor storage conditions and
pests. In the savanna region of West Africa producers have developed appropriate seed
handling methods that ensure good seed germination when they save their own seeds.

Propagation and planting

Soya bean is propagated by seed. The 1000-seed weight is 100–250 g. The seed can be
sown before the start of the rainy season, or when the soil is moist. Seed rates are 40–120
kg/ha. Soya bean is sown in rows (20–)40(–75) cm apart. Within the rows, 2–3 seeds are
sown in hills spaced at 7.5–10 cm intervals, at a depth of 2–5 cm. With intercropping,
sowing rates are less than for sole cropping. In traditional agriculture the land is prepared
by hand or animal traction before sowing. Soya bean is grown mainly on the flat, but
sowing on hills or ridges may be practised where the soil is heavy, the water table high,
or rainfall heavy. Small-scale farmers in tropical Africa grow soya bean as a sole crop or
in mixed cropping with maize, sorghum or cassava.

Management

Soya bean is usually weeded 1–3 times during the first 6–8 weeks after planting, after
which its canopy should be sufficiently developed to suppress weeds. Irrigation is
uncommon except for dry season production. Basal fertilization with 20–25 kg P per ha
is often required for adequate symbiotic N2-fixation and general growth. Soya bean is
commonly grown in rotation with cereals, such as maize, rice, sorghum, wheat and finger
millet, whereby all fertilizer may be applied to the cereal.

Diseases and pests

Various fungal diseases affect soya bean. Soya bean rust (Phakopsora pachyrhizi and
Phakopsora meibomiae) is a devastating disease that can reduce yields by as much as
90%. It is widespread; in tropical Africa it is recorded from Sierra Leone, Ghana,
Nigeria, DR Congo, Uganda, Tanzania and Zambia. Partial resistance has been found in
various cultivars; fungicides may reduce damage. Red leaf blotch (Dactuliochaeta
glycines, synonym: Pyrenochaeta glycines) is confined to Africa; it is economically
important in Zambia and Zimbabwe, where yield losses of up to 50% have been
recorded. Seeds are not infected, but the fungus can survive in the soil for many years.
Tolerant cultivars have been developed in Zimbabwe. Frogeye leaf spot (Cercospora
sojina, synonym: Passalora sojina) occurs worldwide. It is primarily a leaf disease, but it
may also affect stems, pods and seeds. It survives on stored seeds and crop residues and
is spread by wind. Control measures include seed treatment (e.g. with thiram), deep-
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ploughing of crop residues, crop rotation and application of fungicides. Resistant

cultivars are available. Purple seed stain and leaf blight are caused by Cercospora
kikuchii, also occurring worldwide. Recommended control measures are crop rotation,
the use of clean seed, ploughing back of crop residues, spraying with fungicides and the
use of tolerant cultivars. Among the bacterial diseases of soya bean, bacterial blight
(Pseudomonas syringae pv. glycinea, synonym: Pseudomonas savastanoi pv. glycinea)
is common wherever soya bean is grown. Control practices of this foliar disease include
the use of resistant cultivars, the use of clean seed, crop rotation and burying of crop
residues. Bacterial pustule (Xanthomonas campestris pv. glycines, synonym:
Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. glycines) is also widespread. It is seed-transmitted and
survives on crop debris. Control measures are similar to those of bacterial blight. Virus
diseases of soya bean include soya bean mosaic virus (SMV), cowpea mild mottle virus
(CPMMV) and bean yellow mosaic virus (BYMV), but these are of little importance in
tropical Africa.
Soya bean cyst nematode (Heterodera glycines) and root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne
spp.) can cause severe damage, especially on sandy soils. Therefore, soya bean should
not be grown continuously or in rotation with other susceptible crops, such as tobacco.
Soya bean cultivars resistant to nematodes are available.
The most widespread and probably most serious pest of soya bean in tropical Africa is
the southern green stink bug or soya bean green stink bug (Nezara viridula), of which the
nymphs and adults feed on soya been seeds. Control is by using insecticides. The most
important leaf-eating pest is probably the soya bean looper (Xanthodes graellsii). Bean
flies (mainly Melanagromyza sojae and Ophiomyia centrosematis) can cause complete
yield loss. Soya bean seedlings are occasionally damaged by cutworms (Agrotis spp.).
No major storage pests are recorded from Africa, except rodents.

Harvesting

Mature seeds of early-maturing soya bean cultivars can be harvested 65 days after
planting; late maturing cultivars may need more than 150 days. In tropical Africa the
plants are generally allowed to dry in the field and the whole plants (above ground) are
collected by hand when most leaves have turned yellow and fallen, and when the pods
have turned brown. The moisture content of the seeds at harvesting should be 14–15%.
Pods of older cultivars have a tendency to shatter in the field when drying and plants
need to be harvested on time to prevent major loss of yield. Combine-harvesting is used
on large farms and estates. Soya bean seed for vegetable use is harvested when the pods
are still green but the seeds fill the pod.

Yield

Average world soya bean yields are 2.25 t/ha; those in the United States 2.5 t/ha. Under
smallholder farming conditions in tropical Africa yields are often as low as 0.5 t/ha due
to a combination of poor soil conditions and poor management. However, yields of more
than 2 t/ha have been recorded on smallholder farms in Zimbabwe and Nigeria,
particularly when farmers are growing soya bean as a cash crop to sell in urban food
markets or for processing for oil and feed. The average yield of commercial, large-scale
farmers hovers around 2 t/ha. Under optimal growing conditions yields of more than 4.5
t/ha have been recorded in Zimbabwe. In Nigeria and most of West Africa the yield
potential of soya bean is about 3 t/ha.

Handling after harvest

The whole plants are dried in the sun. They are then threshed by beating with sticks. The
seeds are winnowed, cleaned and prepared for store or market. For on-farm storage a
seed moisture content of 10–12% must be maintained. Deterioration of seed in storage is
 http://www.unaab.edu.ng

a major problem in the humid tropics and is attributable to poor storage conditions and
pests. In the savanna region of West Africa producers have developed appropriate seed
handling methods that ensure good seed germination when they save their own seeds.

Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp).

Origin and geographic distribution

Vigna unguiculata originated in Africa, where a large genetic diversity of wild types
occurs throughout the continent, southern Africa being richest. It has been introduced in
Madagascar and other Indian Ocean islands, where it is sometimes found as an escape
from cultivation. The greatest genetic diversity of cultivated cowpea is found in West
Africa, in the savanna region of Burkina Faso, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Niger, Nigeria and
Cameroon. Cowpea was probably brought to Europe around 300 BC and to India 200
BC. As a result of human selection in China, India and South-East Asia, cowpea
underwent further diversification to produce two cultivar-groups, Sesquipedalis Group
with long pods used as a vegetable, and Biflora Group grown for the pods, dry seeds and
for fodder. Cowpea was probably introduced to tropical America in the 17 th century by
the Spanish and is widely grown in the United States, the Caribbean region and Brazil.
Cowpea is the most important pulse crop in the savanna regions of West and Central
Africa, where it is also an important vegetable and a valuable source of fodder. In East
and southern Africa it is also important both as a vegetable and a pulse. Only in humid
Central Africa is it less prominent.

Ecology

Wild types of Vigna unguiculata grow in savanna vegetation, often in disturbed localities
or as a weed, up to 1500 m altitude, but some can be found in grassland subject to regular
burning, sandy localities close to the coast, woodland, forest edges or swampy areas,
occasionally up to 2500 m altitude.
Cowpea grows best at day temperatures of 25–35°C; night temperatures should not be
less than 15ºC and consequently cultivation is restricted to low and medium altitudes. At
altitudes above 700 m growth is retarded. Cowpea does not tolerate frost, and
temperatures above 35°C cause flower and pod shedding. It performs best under full
sunlight but tolerates some shade. Cowpea is generally grown as a rainfed crop in sub-
Saharan Africa, but in Asia it is sometimes grown on residual moisture after an irrigated
rice crop. Short-duration determinate types can be grown with less than 500 mm rainfall
per year; in experiments in Senegal ‘Ein al Ghazal’ produced 2400 kg/ha of seeds with
only 450 mm rain. Long-duration types require 600–1500 mm. Yard-long bean tolerates
high rainfall; a fully-grown crop has a water requirement of 6–8 mm per day. Cultivation
in the dry season with ample irrigation is practiced, as well as cultivation during the rainy
season, although sowing during the rainy season can result in damage to the emerging or
young plants. Most cowpea cultivars are quantitative short-day plants, but day-neutral
types also exist. Cowpea can be grown on a wide range of soil types with pH 5.5–6.5(–
7.5), provided they are well drained. It is moderately sensitive to salinity and exhibits
greater salt tolerance during later stages of growth.
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Botany

Climbing, trailing or more or less erect annual or perennial herb, cultivated as an annual;
taproot well developed, with many lateral and adventitious roots; stem up to 4 m long,
angular or nearly cylindrical, slightly ribbed. Leaves alternate, 3-foliolate; stipules ovate,
0.5–2 cm long, spurred at base; petiole up to 15(–25) cm long, grooved above, swollen at
base, rachis (0.5–)2.5–4.5(–6.5) cm long; stipels small; leaflets ovate or rhombic to
lanceolate, (1.5–)7–14(–20) cm × (1–)4–10(–17) cm, basal ones asymmetrical, apical one
symmetrical, entire, sometimes lobed, glabrous or slightly pubescent, 3-veined from the
base. Inflorescence an axillary or terminal false raceme up to 35 cm long, with flowers
clustered near the top; rachis tuberculate. Flowers bisexual, papilionaceous; pedicel 1–3
mm long, with spatulate, deciduous bracteoles; calyx campanulate, tube c. 5 mm long,
lobes narrowly triangular, c. 5 mm long; corolla pink to purple, sometimes white or
yellowish, standard very broadly obovate, hood-shaped, c. 2.5 cm long, wings obovate, c.
2 cm long, keel boat-shaped, c. 2 cm long; stamens 10, 9 fused and 1 free; ovary
superior, c. 1.5 cm long, laterally compressed, style upturned, with fine hairs in upper
part, stigma obliquely globular. Fruit a linear-cylindrical pod 8–30(–120) cm long,
straight or slightly curved, with a short beak, glabrous or slightly pubescent, pale brown
when ripe, 8– 30-seeded. Seeds shapes are oblong to almost globose, often laterally
compressed, 0.5–1 cm long, black, brown, pink or white; hilum oblong, covered with a
white tissue, with a blackish rim-like aril. Seedling with epigeal germination; cotyledons
oblong or sickle-shaped, thick; first two leaves simple and opposite, subsequent leaves
alternate, 3-foliolate.

Growth and development

Germination of cowpea takes 3–5 days at temperatures above 22°C. The optimum
temperature for germination is about 35°C. Flowers open in the morning and close before
noon; they fall the same day. In dry climates cowpea is almost entirely self-pollinated,
but in areas with high air humidity cross-pollination by insects may amount to 40%.
Only fairly large insects are heavy enough to open the keel. The length of the
reproductive period is very variable, with the earliest cultivars taking 30 days from
planting to flowering, and less than 60 days to mature seeds. When leaves are harvested
during the early growth stages, senescence starts 1.5–2 months after sowing and the plant
dies after 3–4 months, depending on crop health and intensity of harvesting. Late
cultivars with indeterminate growth take 90–100 days to flower and up to 240 days for
last pods to mature. Cowpea forms N-fixing nodules with Sinorhizobium fredii and
several Bradyrhizobium species.

Propagation and planting

Farmers normally use farm-saved seed for planting. The 1000-seed weight of cowpea is
150–300 g. The seed rate for pure stands is 15–30 kg/ha. Seed dressing with an
insecticide and a fungicide (e.g. thiram) prior to planting is recommended. In tropical
Africa cowpea is mostly grown intercropped or in relay with other crops such as yam,
maize, cassava, groundnut, sorghum or pearl millet. Pure stands are not common except
in the coastal areas of East Africa, and also in Asia and Western countries. In the forest
and Guinea savanna zones of West Africa cowpea is mainly intercropped with maize,
cassava, yam or groundnut, at a very low density (1000–5000 hills/ha). In the northern
Guinea savanna zone cowpea is intercropped with groundnut and/or sorghum. The
component crops are normally planted in rows with systematic intercropping patterns,
which may vary from alternate row intercropping to within-row intercropping with
varying distance, giving a grid of groundnut or sorghum rows crossed by the cowpea
rows every 2–3 m. The cowpea population is low, with individual plants spread over a 2–
3 m radius. In the Sudan savanna cowpea is intercropped with pearl millet, sorghum
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and/or groundnut, in diverse and complex traditional intercropping patterns with varying
interplant distances and planting sequences of component crops. For instance, in some
areas of Kano state in Nigeria (Minjibir and Gezawa areas) pearl millet is planted first in
rows 1.5–3 m apart at the onset of the rains (May–June), with 1 m distance within the
row, resulting in 4000–6000 hills/ha. When the rains become more stable towards the
end of June, pulse-type early cowpea cultivars are planted between alternate pearl millet
rows at a distance of 1 m. Fodder-type, late-maturing cowpea is planted later, in mid-
July, in the remaining rows. When grown as a sole crop, cowpea is sown at densities
ranging from 22,000 plants/ha for prostrate types to 100,000 plants/ha for erect types.
Recommended planting distances for sole-cropped cowpea in Kenya are 60 cm between
rows and 20 cm within the row. In Swaziland spacings are 50 cm between rows and 15
cm within the row for erect cultivars. For landraces the spacings are much wider,
especially for the dual purpose types. Often 2–3 seeds are sown per pocket, with thinning
afterwards, e.g. during weeding. The sowing depth is 4–5 cm. Cowpea requires soil with
fine tilth for good root growth. Generally, deep ploughing followed by harrowing
provides an adequate tilth. In intercropping systems, tillage normally follows the crop in
which cowpea is interplanted.
Peri-urban vegetable farmers use special cultivars for ratoon cropping of the leaves. They
broadcast the seed on raised beds, made on well-manured soil, aiming at a dense stand of
about 25 plants per m2.
Farmers in Africa use yard-long bean seed harvested from a previous crop, in contrast to
South-East Asia, where many farmers procure healthy seed from improved cultivars. The
1000-seed weight of yard-long bean is lower than that of cowpea, 100–150 g. Seed is
sown in pockets of 2–4 seeds. Cultivation is usually on raised beds for good drainage and
easy surface irrigation and for easy staking and harvesting. Earthing-up the young plants
protects the shallow root system and gives support to the seedlings. Some farmers apply
mulch of rice straw, but this is not a common practice.

Management

Cowpea derives a significant amount of its nitrogen requirements from the atmosphere
and may leave 75–150 kg/ha in the soil for the benefit of the succeeding crop. If cowpea
is grown in localities where it has not been grown recently, inoculation with nitrogen-
fixing bacteria has been found to be beneficial. Cowpea requires phosphorus for
nodulation and root growth. Incorporation of 25 kg/ha P is adequate for plant growth in
phosphorus-deficient soils. In soils known to be deficient in potassium, application of 25
kg/ha K is recommended. Cowpea must be kept weed free during the early stages of
growth. Two to three weedings during the first 6 weeks after planting are recommended;
once the crop is established it outcompetes weeds. Weeding is usually done by
superficial hoeing.

Cowpea grown as a vegetable and yard-long bean have a high mineral uptake. In soils of
average fertility an application is recommended of 5–10 t/ha of farmyard manure during
soil preparation, together with N 20 kg/ha, K 25 kg/ha and P 40 kg/ha. Three weeks after
emergence a top dressing of 50 kg/ha urea is given. In yard-long bean, 2–2.5 m long
stakes are inserted near the seed beds before sowing or during the first two weeks after
emergence, before the plants have reached a height of 30 cm. A cheap method of staking
is to relay-plant yard-long bean next to the stems of maize before or just after the cobs
are harvested.

Diseases and pests

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Cowpea is susceptible to a wide range of diseases and pests. Yard-long bean suffers from
the same diseases and pests as cowpea but seems less susceptible than cowpea under
humid conditions. Fungal diseases are more troublesome during the rainy season,
whereas insect and mite pests and virus diseases cause more damage during the dry
season.
The major fungal diseases are anthracnose (Colletotrichum lindemuthianum), Ascochyta
blight (Phoma exigua), brown blotch (Colletotrichum truncatum), leaf smut
(Protomycopsis phaseoli), leaf spot (Cercospora canescens, Septoria vignae,
Mycosphaerella cruenta synonym: Pseudocercospora cruenta), brown rust (Uromyces
appendiculatus), scab (Elsinoë phaseoli), powdery mildew (Erysiphe polygoni), pythium
soft stem rot (Pythium aphanidermatum), stem canker (Macrophomina phaseolina) and
web blight (Thanatephorus cucumeris, synonym Rhizoctonia solani). Crop rotation and
the use of chemicals and resistant cultivars are necessary for integrated disease control.
Bacterial diseases include bacterial blight (Xanthomonas campestris pv. vignicola),
which occurs worldwide, and bacterial pustules (Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. glycines
synonym: Xanthomonas campestris pv. vignaeunguiculatae) reported from Nigeria.
These bacteria are seed-transmitted and secondary spread occurs by wind-driven rain.
Control measures include the use of pathogen-free seeds, seed treatment with a mixture
of antibiotics and fungicides such as streptocycline plus captan, and strict crop rotation.
Resistance genes are available for bacterial blight and bacterial pustules.
Many viruses attack Vigna unguiculata. Some viruses of economic importance are
cowpea aphid-borne mosaic potyvirus (CABMV), cowpea mottle carmovirus (CPMoV),
cowpea yellow mosaic virus (CYMV), black eye cowpea mosaic potyvirus or bean
common mosaic potyvirus (BCMV), cucumber mosaic cucumovirus (CMV-CS) and
cowpea golden mosaic virus (CPGMV). Some of the viruses are seedborne, while
aphids, white flies and beetles perform field transmission. Control measures include use
of healthy seed of resistant cultivars if available, and weeding to remove alternative
hosts. In poor sandy soils, cowpea is attacked by root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne
spp.). It is also a host plant of, among others, reniform nematodes (Rotylenchus spp.),
root-lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.) and lance nematodes (Hoplolaimus spp.).
Crop rotation and resistant cultivars are used to control nematodes.

Insect pests are also a major factor limiting cowpea production and may even cause total
seed loss. In tropical Africa much damage is caused by cowpea aphids (Aphis
craccivora), flower thrips (Megalurothrips sjostedti), legume pod borers (Maruca
vitrata, Etiella zinckenella), pod bugs and seed suckers (e.g. Clavigralla tomentosicollis,
synonym: Acanthomia tomentosicollis). Lygus beetle (Lygus hesperus), cowpea curculio
(Chalcodermus aeneus) and green leafhoppers (Empoasca spp.) are of less importance.
Yard-long bean is especially attractive to aphids (Myzus persicae, Aphis gossypii), green
stink bug (Nezara viridula) and red spider mite (Tetranychus spp.); greasy cutworms
(Agrotis ipsilon) often cause damage just after emergence. The bean shoot fly
(Ophiomyia phaseoli) is a common pest; the larvae tunnel in the leaves and stems, and
severely attacked young plants will die, whereas older plants will suffer from hampered
growth and serious yield reduction. Lodging incidence is generally high in infested
fields; tolerant cultivars may produce aerial roots above the wound. Another common
pest is the bean pod fly (Melanagromyza sojae). The larvae damage the petioles and
young pods. Control of insect pests involves protecting the seed with a systemic
insecticide (e.g. carbofuran) at sowing or applied as a solution to the emerging seedlings
in the planting holes. Plant debris and affected plants must be burned. Cowpea seeds are
extremely vulnerable to storage pests, with the cosmopolitan cowpea weevil
(Callosobruchus maculatus) being the major storage pest. Measures to reduce pest
damage include application of inoffensive vegetable oil, neem (Azadirachta indica
A.Juss.) oil or wood ash, roasting and bagging the seeds in airtight plastic bags, and
storing as whole pods.
Use of chemicals, resistant cultivars, biological control and proper crop management
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such as intercropping and weeding are necessary for integrated pest management.
Chemical control of insects is common practice on yard-long bean, but not on cowpea.
Because of the risks for farmer and consumer (especially when leaves are harvested),
these sprayings must be reduced to the strict minimum.
Two parasitic weeds are a serious problem: Alectra vogelii Benth. prevalent in the
southern savanna regions of West Africa, East Africa and southern Africa, and Striga
gesnerioides (Willd.) Vatke prevalent in the savanna regions of West and Central Africa.
Crop rotation, deep cultivation, intercropping, early planting and use of resistant cultivars
reduce infestation by these parasitic weeds.

Harvesting

Cowpea leaves are picked in a period from 4 weeks after emergence of the seedlings to
the onset of flowering. In crops grown for the seed, farmers often harvest 10–20% of the
leaves before the start of flowering with little detrimental effect on the seed yield.
Stronger defoliation increasingly reduces flowering, fruiting and seed yield. Growers of
leafy cowpea types cut the plants at about 10 cm above the ground for a succession of
new shoots (ratooning). Green pods are harvested when the seed is still immature, 12–15
days after flowering. Harvesting of dry seed is done when at least two-thirds of the pods
are dry and yellow. In indeterminate types harvesting is complicated by prolonged and
uneven ripening; for some landraces harvesting may require 5–7 rounds. Mature seeds
are usually harvested by hand. Sometimes plants are pulled out when most of the pods
are mature. In the complex traditional intercrop patterns of Kano state (Nigeria), early
cowpea and sorghum cultivars are harvested at the end of August or the beginning of
September. The late cowpea and sorghum cultivars are harvested after the onset of the
dry season, between October and November, when the leaves show signs of wilting. The
fodder types are uprooted or cut from the base and rolled into bundles with the leaves
intact. These bundles are then kept on roof tops or in tree forks for drying, and are used
or sold in the peak dry season.

The first picking of yard-long bean pods in the desirable stage takes place 6–7 weeks
after planting, depending on cultivar and market requirements. Normally the pods are
picked when the outline of the seeds is just visible. Picking must be meticulous, because
pods which are passed over until the next harvest will become tough and discoloured,
with swollen seed, and may exhaust the plant. Successive harvests take place at least
once a week (twice a week for a better tuned grading) during 4–8 weeks.

Yield
Farmers may harvest up to 400 kg/ha of cowpea leaves in a few rounds with no
noticeable reduction of seed yields. In Nigeria climbing cultivars yielded 9–17 t/ha of
fresh pods, whereas decumbent cultivars yielded 6–15 t/ha. The mean dry seed yield of
the same cultivars was 1. 4–1.7 t/ha. The world average yield of dry cowpea seed is low,
240 kg/ha, and for fodder it is 500 kg/ha (air-dried leafy stems). Average yield of dry
cowpea seeds under subsistence agriculture in tropical Africa is 100–500 kg/ha. The
average seed yield in Niger is 120 kg/ha, in Nigeria 400 kg/ha, and in the United States
900 kg/ha. Apart from the effects of diseases and pests, the low yields are partly
explained by the fact that the crop is mostly grown at low densities in intercropping
systems, shaded by taller cereals. Furthermore, cowpea is often sown later in the rainy
season, which results in a shorter crop duration due to photoperiod-sensitivity. A yield
potential of 3 t/ha of seed and 4 t/ha of hay can be achieved in sole-cropping with good
management. In the United States seed yields up to 7 t/ha have been obtained.
For yard-long bean, a total yield of 15 t/ha in a harvest period of at least one month is
considered satisfactory, but yields as high as 30 t/ha have been reported.
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Handling after harvest

Harvested leaves cannot be kept for long; they have to be sold within 2 days. The shoots
can be kept longer by putting them in a basin with water. Cowpea leaves are frequently
dried in the sun for preservation, either after boiling and squeezing to black balls, or
directly as whole or broken leaves, or as powder. Green yard-long bean pods are tied in
bundles of 20–40 and packed in baskets or crates for transport to the market. Yard-long
bean is less susceptible to loss of weight by transpiration and to transport damage than
most other vegetables. In cool storage (8ºC) the pods will keep for 4 weeks. Immature
fresh cowpea seeds have a limited shelf life if stored at ambient temperatures, but at 8°C
they can stay fresh for 8 days. In Europe, the United States and Japan, immature tender
green pods are sometimes frozen or canned. As a pulse, the threshed seed should be dried
thoroughly to a moisture content of 14% or less for good storability.

Uses

Cowpea is the preferred pulse in large parts of Africa. The mature seeds are cooked and
eaten alone or together with vegetables, spices and often palm oil, to produce a thick
bean

soup, which accompanies the staple food (cassava, yam, plantain). In West Africa the
seeds are decorticated and ground into a flour and mixed with chopped onions and spices
and made into cakes which are either deep fried (‘akara balls’), or steamed (‘moin
moin’). In Malawi the seeds are boiled with their seed coat, or the latter is removed by
soaking and leaving the seeds in the soil for a few hours. Small quantities of cowpea
flour are processed into crackers, composite flour and baby foods in Senegal, Ghana and
Benin.

The leaves and the immature seeds and pods of cowpea are eaten as vegetables. Cowpea
leaves are served boiled or fried and are usually eaten with a porridge. The leaf may be
preserved by sun-drying or boiling and then sun-drying to be used during the dry season.
Leaves to be preserved for later use are generally plucked towards the end of the season.
It is believed that leaves developed towards the end of the season are tastier as they tend
to grow under conditions of stress. In Botswana and Zimbabwe boiled cowpea leaves are
kneaded to a pulp and squeezed into small balls, which are dried and stored. Immature,
green and still soft seeds are cooked to a thick soup and used as relish. The tender
seedless cowpea pods are sometimes used as a cooked vegetable, as are young pods of
yard-long bean. In Asia this is the most important use of cowpea, in Africa it is
uncommon. In Benue State, Nigeria, the stringless coiled pods with little parchment of a
landrace called ‘Eje-O’Ha’ are parboiled for a few minutes, opened and split in half. The
seeds are eaten directly while the pod walls are dried and preserved for later use. Pods
are also eaten locally in Benin. The roots are sometimes eaten, e.g. in Ethiopia and
Sudan.
Cowpea is used as fodder in West Africa, Asia (especially India) and Australia; it is used
for grazing or cut and mixed with dry cereals for animal feed. In the United States and
elsewhere cowpea is grown as a green manure and cover crop. In Nigeria special
cultivars are grown for the fibre extracted from the peduncle after retting; the strong fibre
is especially suitable for fishing gear, and produces a good-quality paper. The dry seeds
have been used as coffee substitute.
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Various medicinal uses of cowpea have been reported: leaves and seeds are applied as a
poultice to treat swellings and skin infections, leaves are chewed to treat tooth ailments,
powdered carbonized seeds are applied on insect stings, the root is used as an antidote for
snakebites and to treat epilepsy, chest pain, constipation and dysmenorrhoea, and
unspecified plant parts are used as a sedative in tachycardia and against various pains.

Ground nut (Arachis hypogaea L.)

Botany
Annual herb, with erect or prostrate stem up to 70 cm long; root system consisting of a
well-developed taproot with many lateral roots, up to 135 cm deep, but generally
restricted to the upper layers of the soil. Leaves arranged spirally, 4-foliolate with two
opposite pairs of leaflets; stipules 1.5–4 cm long, with a slender free tip, but fused to the
petiole for about half their length; petiole 1.5–7 cm long; petiolules 1–2 mm long;
leaflets obovate or elliptical, 1–7 cm × 0.5–3 cm, cuneate-rounded at base, rounded or
emarginate and mucronate at apex. Inflorescence an axillary, 2–5-flowered spike.
Flowers bisexual, papilionaceous, sessile; receptacle long and slender, pedicel-like, up to
4 cm long; calyx with 4 upper lobes joined, lower lobe free; corolla pale yellow to
orange-red, rarely white, standard rounded, c. 1.5 cm × 1.5 cm, wings shorter, keel
incurved; stamens (8–)10, alternately with small, globular anthers and larger, oblong
anthers, joined at base; ovary superior but situated at base of receptacle tube, style free
within the tube, very long, ending in a minute club-shaped stigma. Fruit an oblong or
sausage-shaped pod, borne at the tip of an elongated fruit stalk (‘peg’) up to 20 cm long,
1–8 cm × 0.5–2 cm, surface constricted to varying degrees between the seeds and
reticulately veined, 1– 6-seeded. Seeds cylindrical to ovoid, 1–2 cm × 0.5–1 cm, with
pointed or flattened ends, enclosed in a thin papery seed coat ranging in colour from
white to deep purple. Seedling with epigeal germination; cotyledons thick and fleshy.

Growth and development

Seeds of ‘Virginia’ types have a dormancy period of 1–3 months, whereas ‘Spanish’ and
‘Valencia’ types are without dormancy. The optimum soil temperature for seed
germination is 25–30°C. Low temperatures retard germination and development and
increase the risk of seedling diseases. Upon germination, the primary root elongates
rapidly, reaching 10–12 cm before lateral roots appear. As growth proceeds, the outer
layer of the primary root of a seedling is sloughed off so that root hairs do not form.
Branching is dimorphic, with vegetative branches and reduced reproductive branches.
Secondary and tertiary vegetative branches can develop from the primary vegetative
branches. Flowering may start as early as 20 days after planting, but 30–40 days after
planting is more usual. The number of flowers produced per day decreases as the seeds
mature. Up to 50% of the embryos may abort even under ideal environmental conditions,
but this percentage becomes much higher during times of drought or other environmental
stress. However, plants can produce a ‘second crop’ of seeds if adequate moisture
becomes available again. Groundnut is self-pollinating, but outcrossing can occur when
bees pollinate the flowers. Groundnut generally produces more flowers under long day
conditions, but reproductive efficiency is greater under short days. Only one of the
flowers in an inflorescence opens at a given time. Flowers wither within 24 hours after
anthesis. Fertilization usually occurs within 6 hours after pollination, when the basal part
of the ovary starts elongating into a structure called ‘peg’. The embryo initiates a growth
phase until it reaches an 8–16-cell stage. It then becomes quiescent during the 5–15 days
required for the ‘peg’ to enter the soil. The ‘peg’ stops elongating within a day or two
after soil penetration, the embryo then restarting growth. In wild Arachis species the
‘peg’ may continue to grow to a length of nearly 2 m.
Seeds in ‘Spanish’-type cultivars usually mature within 90–120 days after planting,
whereas ‘Virginia’-type cultivars take 130 days or more. Pods of the same size may
differ significantly in maturity and seed weight.
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Groundnut is usually effectively nodulated by N2-fixing Bradyrhizobium bacteria.

Because root hairs are absent, the bacteria infect the root through cracks in the epidermis
near multicellular hairs at the basis of the root.
Ecology

The optimum mean daily temperature for groundnut growth is 27–30°C; growth ceases
when temperature drops below 15°C. Groundnut is mainly grown in areas with an
average annual rainfall of 500–1000 mm; 500–600 mm of rain reasonably well
distributed over the growing season allows satisfactory production. Nevertheless,
groundnut is drought-tolerant and can withstand severe lack of water, though yield is
generally reduced. A dry period is required for ripening and harvesting. The phenology
of groundnut is determined primarily by temperature, with cool temperatures delaying
flowering. In controlled environments, photoperiod has been shown to influence the
proportion of flowers producing pods and distribution of assimilates between vegetative
and reproductive structures (harvest index) in some cultivars. Long photoperiods (greater
than 14 hours) generally increase vegetative growth and short photoperiods (less than 10
hours) increase reproductive growth. Groundnut can be grown up to 1500 m altitude.
The best soils for groundnut are deep (at least 30–40 cm), friable, well-drained sandy
loams, well-supplied with calcium and a moderate amount of organic matter. It is
important to maintain near to neutral soil pH levels and Ca:K ratios lower than 3.
Propagation and planting
Groundnut is propagated by seed, but vegetative propagation using cuttings is possible.
The 1000-seed weight ranges from 150 g to more than 1300 g. Sowing high-quality seed
in a well-prepared, moist seedbed is essential for crop establishment. Groundnut seeds
are often planted at a depth of 4–7 cm at a rate of 60–80 kg/ha. Groundnut pods intended
for sowing are often hand-shelled 1–2 weeks before sowing. Only fully mature pods are
selected. Before sowing, groundnut seed may be treated with a fungicide to control
seedling diseases. In general, early sowing improves yields and seed quality. Early sown
crops also suffer less risk of disease such as groundnut rosette virus. However the
appropriate sowing date depends on the maturity period of the cultivar. Small-seeded
‘Spanish’ types are spaced at 60–75 cm between rows and 10 cm within the row. This
gives an optimum plant population of 133,000–167,000 plants per ha. Large-seeded
‘Virginia’ types are spaced at 75 cm between rows and 15 cm within the row, giving an
optimum plant population of 89,000 plants per ha. Groundnut can be grown on the flat,
or on ridges as is often the case in Malawi. Groundnut grown on ridges tends to give
higher yields, probably because of more loose soil favourable for pod development and
easier uprooting.
In tropical Africa groundnut is grown as a sole crop or intercropped between rows of
cereals such as maize, sorghum or pearl millet.
Management

Groundnut does not compete effectively with weeds, particularly in the early stages of
development. The crop should be thoroughly weeded within the first 45 days. Once the
development of the ‘peg’ begins, earthing-up is kept to a minimum. Weeds at this stage
are hand pulled. Pre-and post-emergence herbicides may be used to eradicate weeds, but
they are too expensive for most small-scale farmers in Africa. In sound rotation systems,
groundnut benefits from residual fertility; in general no additional fertilizer is given if the
crop is sown on a well-managed soil previously treated with a balanced fertilizer.
However, in order to ensure good crop establishment, high yield and good seed quality, a
fertilizer containing Ca, such as gypsum or single superphosphate, should be applied.
Calcium is absorbed directly by the pods if soil moisture is adequate. A shortage of Ca in
the zone where the pods develop will result in empty pods, particularly in cultivars of the
‘Virginia’ type. Groundnut is normally a rainfed crop, but it is grown under irrigation in
Sudan.
Groundnut should preferably not be grown in the same field more than once in 3 years to
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limit damage by soil-borne diseases, nematodes and weeds. It fits into a wide range of
rotations and it can follow any clean-weeded crop, e.g. maize, sorghum, pearl millet,
cassava, sweet potato or sunflower. To reduce the incidence of diseases and pests,
groundnut should not be sown after cotton or tobacco. Groundnut does well on virgin
land or immediately following a grass ley or well-fertilized crop such as maize.
The intensity of management of groundnut varies considerably around the world,
depending on the economic return for the crop or the role of groundnut in the farming
system. In the United States, Australia and parts of South America the crop is grown
with intensive management, generally with high levels of mechanical and chemical
inputs. In many countries groundnut is grown as a cash crop primarily for export.
Diseases and pests
Groundnut is susceptible to a number of diseases, such as early leaf spot (Cercospora
arachidicola), late leaf spot (Cercosporidium personatum, synonym: Cercospora
personata), rust (Puccinia arachidis), groundnut rosette (caused by a complex of 3
agents: groundnut rosette virus (GRV), groundnut rosette assistor virus (GRAV) and a
satellite RNA) and aflatoxin contamination caused by Aspergillus fungi. Foliar diseases
of groundnut are among the most important yield-limiting factors in groundnut
production. Early and late leaf spots and rust together may cause up to 70% yield losses;
even where fungicides are applied significant yield reductions occur. Spraying with
fungicide when the disease appears controls both leaf spots effectively. Dusting
groundnut leaves with sulphur, early in the morning when there is still dew on the leaves,
has been reported to control both early and late leaf spots. The use of sulphur has also
been observed to increase leaf retention, thus increasing the quantity of leafy stems
available for livestock feed. Cultural practices to control leaf spots include crop rotation
and burning of crop residues. Cultivars with partial resistance to leaf spots have been
developed. Rust generally occurs sporadically and at low severity, although it can cause
crop losses up to 40% when an epidemic occurs. The cultural practices and fungicidal
control measures recommended for leaf spots are also applicable to rust. Resistant
cultivars are available. Groundnut rosette virus, transmitted by the aphid Aphis
craccivora, is endemic to sub-Saharan Africa and widely prevalent in Ghana, Nigeria,
Malawi and Zambia. It is the most destructive disease of groundnut leading to 30–100%
yield loss. Early sowing at high plant populations controls the spread of groundnut
rosette by giving complete soil coverage as quickly as possible and restricting the
movement of aphids. Cultivars resistant to groundnut rosette are widely grown in Africa.
In Malawi it is common practice for farmers to interplant groundnut and cowpea to
control groundnut rosette. Aspergillus fungi can invade groundnut pods and seeds,
producing toxic compounds known as aflatoxin. Contaminated produce can be poisonous
to people and livestock, and cannot be exported. Aflatoxin contamination also affects
groundnut seed, leading to low germination percentage and poor seedling establishment.
It can occur before harvest, during field drying and curing, and in storage. Pre-harvest
contamination is likely to be most serious under drought. Post-harvest contamination
occurs if groundnut pods or seeds become moist and/or damaged. Various methods are
used to control aflatoxin. They include avoiding mechanical damage to pods or seeds
during weeding, harvesting and storage, harvesting as soon as the pods are mature,
proper drying and curing, and storing in the shell at low temperature under moisture-free
conditions.
Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) may cause considerable yield loss in
groundnut; they can be controlled by crop rotation. On a global scale the most important
insect pests include aphids (Aphis craccivora), thrips (Frankliniella spp.), jassids
(Empoasca dolichi), white grubs (larvae of various beetles), termites (mainly
Microtermes sp.) and the red tea bug Hilda patruelis. False wireworms and millipedes
seem to occur less frequently. In general, soil pests cause more damage than foliage
feeders or sucking pests. However, aphids are particularly harmful because they transmit
groundnut rosette virus. In Asia and Africa white grubs, termites, millipedes and ants are
important pests; in the United States the lesser cornstalk borer (Elasmopalpus
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lignosellus) and the southern corn rootworm (Diabrotica undecimpunctata) are the main
insect pests of groundnut. Pests attacking stored groundnut pods and seeds include
bruchids (Caryedon serratus, Callosobruchus spp., Acanthoscelides spp.) and flour
beetles (Tribolium spp.).
Parasitic plants (Alectra vogelii Benth. and Striga spp.) are recorded as causing damage
to groundnut in various African countries.

Harvesting

The indeterminate flowering pattern of groundnut makes proper timing of harvest

difficult, even though such timing is crucial for obtaining maximum yield and quality.
Harvest at the proper time ensures that the maximum number of pods have attained their
greatest weight and that pods are not falling off. Methods to determine the proper time
for harvesting groundnut are available, but some are environment-specific or are
prohibitively expensive. Presently only the shell-out method and the hull-scrape method
are widely used for groundnut maturity determination. The shell-out method is based on
colour changes within the pod wall (‘hull’) that occur as the pod matures. The internal
pod wall surface of most cultivars changes from white to brown or black blotches
covering a large percentage of the area. The colour of the seed coat changes from white
to dark pink or tan at the same time. A sample of plants is taken and pods opened. The
percentage of pods with dark colour inside the pod wall is determined. Harvesting should
begin when the percentage is 60–80, but recommendations vary. The shell-out method is
widely used because it can directly be used in the field without further handling of pods,
requires no equipment and provides an immediate answer. The hull-scrape method,
developed in the early 1990s, is currently accepted as the most accurate means of
assessing the maturity of ‘runner’-type groundnuts. The method is based on the fact that
the pod mesocarp (the area just beneath the pale brown coloured exterior of the
groundnut pod) changes from white to yellow to orange to brown to black as the crop
matures. The method requires colour charts and a pocket knife to scrape the pod surface.
Harvesting is carried out manually in most parts of Africa, as well as Asia. In the United
States harvesting is normally done using a digger shaker inverter. When plants are
harvested manually, they are loosened with a hoe and pulled out of the ground, after
which they are turned to expose the pods to the sun to facilitate drying. When dry, the
pods are ripped off the plants. With mechanical harvesting, the plants are cleanly
removed from the soil and deposited in inverted windrows. Pods have to remain in the
windrows until the average moisture content is 18–24%. Pods are then picked using a
combine. Rainfall during windrowing may promote mould growth resulting in reduced
milling quality.
Yield
In tropical Africa the average yield of groundnut pods in the early 2000s was about 850
kg/ha, which is only slightly higher than the average yield in the 1970s (730 kg/ha).
National average yields of groundnut pods in tropical Africa range from 300–1000 kg/ha.
Average world yields of groundnut pods increased from 0.9 t/ha in the 1970s to 1.4 t/ha
in the early 2000s. With good management practices and proper disease control, yields
up to 5 t/ha can be achieved. On average 100 kg of pods yield 70 kg of seeds, containing
35 kg oil.

Handling after harvest

Produce quality is closely related to proper harvesting date, harvesting method and
drying; every step is critical to obtaining or maintaining quality. Groundnut pods are
dried to an average moisture content of about 10%. Removing foreign materials early
helps to maintain quality during storage. Cleaning equipment to remove the foreign
material has been developed and includes sand screens and belt screens.
Groundnut pods are stored in granaries, tanks, bins, concrete silos, warehouses or in the
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open. In storage, ventilation is crucial to prevent moisture build up which can promote
mould growth and aflatoxin production. Excessive heat should be avoided. Storage
structures should be examined frequently for moisture and insect problems as these can
greatly reduce quality. Seeds can be protected from mechanical damage by storage and
transport in the pods. In many areas groundnut is only shelled when it is to be used or
sold; in local markets unshelled pods are often offered for sale. Both mechanical and
manual shelling are common.
Groundnut removed from storage is transported to shelling centres where the pods are
graded, cleaned and shelled, and the seeds are separated into commercial grade sizes.
Shelling operations may damage the seeds. Shelling of 100 kg of groundnut pods yields
60–80 kg of seeds. Generally groundnut seeds can be stored at 1–5°C and 50–70%
relative humidity for 1 year without loss of quality. Groundnut seeds tend to absorb gases
and off-flavours, which should be avoided.
Oil is extracted from groundnut seed by expeller pressing, hydraulic pressing, solvent
extraction, or a combination of these methods. Expeller pressing is most widely used.

Uses

Groundnut seed is mainly used as food and for oil extraction. The seeds are eaten raw,
boiled or roasted, made into peanut butter, confectioneries and snack foods, and are used
for thickening soups or made into sauces to be eaten with meat and rice. In northern
Nigeria groundnut flour is mixed with ‘gari’ (coarse fermented cassava meal) and made
into balls that are eaten as a snack. In the United States and Argentina most of the crop is
used as food, but in most other countries the primary use of groundnut is for the oil
market. Worldwide, more than 50% of groundnut production is crushed into oil for
human consumption or industrial use (e.g. in cosmetics). In countries such as Senegal,
Gambia and Nigeria oil extraction has been an important cottage industry for years. The
use of groundnut in confectionery and for oil and meal production is increasing, and
there is gradual shift taking place from oil and meal to confectionery use, especially in
Latin America and the Caribbean. In South America groundnut seeds are fermented into
alcoholic drinks.
The press cake from oil extraction is a feed rich in protein, but it is also made into
groundnut flour, which is used in many human foods. Fermented groundnut cake is eaten
fried in Indonesia. The cake finds industrial application in the production of glues, sizes
for paper and starches for laundering and textile manufacture. Protein from groundnut
cake is made into a wool-like fibre, which can be blended with wool or rayon. Groundnut
shells are used as roughage in fodder, as fuel, fertilizer, mulch, in the manufacture of
particle board and building blocks, and can be used as a source of activated carbon,
combustible gases, organic chemicals, reducing sugars, alcohol and extender resins.
Young groundnut pods and leaves are consumed as a vegetable; in West Africa the
leaves are added to soups. The foliage is an important fodder, especially in the Sahel; it
may be eaten fresh or as hay or silage. In southern India the haulms are sometimes
applied as a green manure.
Groundnut has a range of uses in traditional African medicine. Pod extracts are taken as a
galactagogue, and used as eye-drops to treat conjunctivis. Macerations of peeled seeds
are drunk to treat gonorrhoea, macerations of the seed coats against syphilis, while
macerations of the seed coats and shells are applied against ophthalmia. Sap of ground
leaves and seeds is used for ear-drops against ear discharge. Leaf macerations are drunk
as a diuretic. Leaf infusions are drunk against female infertility, and used for eye-drops
to treat eye injuries and cataract. Plant ash with salt is applied in case of caries. Pod
extracts and young plants are credited with aphrodisiac properties. The plant is also used
to relieve cough and is considered emollient and demulcent; emulsions are taken to treat
pleurisy, enteritis (including colitis), and dysuria.
Agglutinins (lectins) from groundnut seeds are often used in medical research for
histochemical investigations.
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General characteristic of Fibre crops

Vegetable fibres have served mankind since our beginnings. Early in the prehistoric
epoch man learned to process them into textiles by weaving. Some of the plants were
among the first cultivated plants (fax, sunn hemp, cotton, kenaf). The most important
fibres are those that can be processed to make the finest fabrics for clothing and bed-
linen; of these, cotton has been by far the most important since the 19th century. Other
fibres are of greater economic importance too, such as those that are used for the
production of bags and other packaging materials for curtain materials and floor covering
(jute, kenaf, agave fibre), and those fibres which are indispensable for tear-proof paper.
Finally some plant fibres are irreplaceable for doormats (coir), brooms (piassava,
sorghum and others), and for basket-work and binding materials (raffia and other palm
fibre, agave fibres). The tropics and subtropics have almost a monopoly in the production
of plant fibres. In terms of value they provide 96% of the world’s production
In spite of competition from the development of the synthetic fibre industry, plant fibres
have retained their dominant role. Cotton alone supplies 46% of all fibres, the total for all
plant fibres is 65%, animal fibres (wool and silk) supply 5% and artificial fibres
(cellulose and synthetic) fibres) provide 30% of the world’s production.
Quantitatively dominant role of plant fibres is based on their low price compared to
animal and some synthetic fibres as well as their technical characteristics (e.g. high
capacity for the absorption of moisture, which is indispensable for under wear and
bedding, or for packaging materials). Other fibres are superior for other purposes (eases
of dyeing and warming effect of wool and silk, tensile strength, shrink resistance and
non-creasing qualities of many synthetic fibric).
From the view point of environmental effects, the biodegradability of natural fibres is to
their advantage, especially for packing materials. The major share of the market will
always remain with plant fibres. In the field of utilization, where they are in competition
with the synthetic fibres, their market position is also relatively good, as long as efficient
production methods are used, and as long as they are available at a maintained quality
and in sufficient quantity.
The only fibre for which the production has risen further in the last decade is cotton,
which provides 78% of the plant fibres. Jute, kenaf, and similar fibres provide 14%, sisal
2%. Then follow the two fibres which are predominantly produced in the temperate zone:
flax 3% and hemp 1%. The remainder is extracted from a large number of other fibre
plants moast of which are of only locally importance.

Cotton (Gossypium spp.)

The cultivated forms of cotton are divided into four species of genus Gossypium,
Malvaceae.
1) G. herbaceum L, 2) G. arboretum L (old world species) 3) G. hirsutum L and 4) G.
barbadense Mill (New world species). The origin of cotton are found in Africa (forms of
G,herbaceum). Very early in prehistoric time, G.herbaceum reached South Asia and
America, where the hybridization with indigenous Gossypium species took place.

Morphology and Anatomy

All cotton species are potentially perennial even though they are normally grown for
only one year in modern agriculture. They form strong tap root, which develops even at
the seedling stage, and which can reach depth of 3 meters. The shoot system is
dimorphic: main axis and lower branches are monopodial and vegetative (that is no
flower form on the leaf axils), the fruiting branches are sympodial (each flower stands at
the end of the shoot, further occurs from the axil of the subtending leaf, so that the fruit
appears to be inserted opposite the leaf). Leaves and stems are mostly hairy. All parts of
the plant usually bear glands which are visible as dark spots, abnd gossypol is formed in
these. Each flower is surrounded by three deeply divided bracts (epicalyx). The fibres
themselves are single-celled hairs, which develop from the outer epidermis cells of the
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integument. Some of the hairs remain short, and form the fuzz covering the ripe seeds
(linters). The most useful ones are the long hairs (lint), which are more than 20 mm long
in modern cultivars, in primitive types more than 9.5 mm.
The fruits (bolls) grow very quickly after pollination. After 20 days they reach their final
size, and they are ripe after a further 25-45 days. With most species, the dry walls open
in the middle of each carpel, and the fibre-mass emerges. However, the seeds remain
clinging to the placenta, and are first separated from the fruit by picking (in unfavourable
weather, this can also occur with strong winds). When the seed ripen, the hairs die and
their wall collapses so that only a narrow cavity remains inside, which still contains the
remainder of the protoplasm. The wall of the hairs is composed of many layers of
cellulose fibres, which run spirally. The direction of the spiral bands reverses at certain
points and changes from layer to layer. This explains the twisting which is characteristic
for dry cotton fibre. As part of the epidermis, the hairs are covered with a cuticle.
Because of the layer of wax, unprocessed cotton fibres feel fatty to the touch and repel
water. Species and cultivar differences are found in the type of branching in the leaf
shape of the bracts, in the length and shape of the bolls and in the amount and quality of
the fibre. Modern cultivars are often difficult to identify on the basis of vegetative
characteristics Reliable seed propagation methods are therefore especially important for
the cultivation of cotton.
Ecophysiology
Cotton is a decidedly warmth –loving plant. The seed should not be sown at soil
temperature under 18 oC and 35 oC is optimal. Further development, 27oC is the
optimum. At temperatures over 40 oC, and strong insolation, the bolls will be damaged
and fall. Cotton is extremely sensitive to frost. Its cultivation is only possible where 200
frost free days can relied on. G. hirsutum is mostly day-neutral, the flowering time being
primarily governed by the temperature. But short daya accelerate the development if the
temperature liessubstantially below the optimum. A lot of sunshine promotes flowering
and fruit-setting. Therefore the highest yield are achieved in dry areas underirrigation.
Cotton originated in the semi-arid summer rainfall region. Cultivation is possible with
rainfall of between 600-1500 mm. The ripening time should occur in a rainless period,
because rainfall after opening of bolls damages the quality of the fibres, and can lead to
considerable losses. The plants are drought tolerant due to their deep-reaching root
systems. However, prolonged dryness during flowering and boll development leads to
noticeable decreases in the yield. Strong winds can damage the seedlings, and can blow
away the fibres after the opening of bolls
Cotton needs deep soil with sufficient drainage. Otherwise, its demands are slight. The
pH should be lie between 6-8. It is relatively salt tolerant and salt content of 0.5- 0.6%
generally causes no damage, although there are considerable difference among cultivars
with regard to sensitivity to salt. The nutrient uptake ability is strong, and the nutrient
requirements are moderate. Too much N fertilization encourage vegetative growth and
extends the the vegetation period. Sufficient supplies of K are important for attaining
good fibre quality and for disease resistance. The requirement for Ca is decidedly high.
Deficiencies of B have been reported from various countries, and can be eliminated by
spraying at the correct time. On the other hand, cotton withstands relatively high B
concentration in the soil
Cultivation
Good preparation of the land is especially important before sowing cotton, because the
seedlings which germinate epigeally, can only penetrate hard or crusted soils with
difficulty and until they are three weeks old, they have little ability to compete with
weeds. Sowing is carried out by hand in many countries. For mechanical sowing the fuzz
must be removed from the seeds either mechanically or chemically because the seeds
otherwise cling together. The density of sowing varies within wide limits, depending on
the cultivar, soil fertility, cultivation and harvest methods. The row spacing lies between
50 and 120 cm, the spacing within the row between 20 and 60 cm. For mechanical
harvesting, types which are weak branching are densely sown in order to achieve an early
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uniform ripening in the crop. Here, the spacings are reduced to 15-20 cm between the
rows and 8- 10 cm within the rows. Such “short-season” cultivars are available only of
G. hirsutum. The seed should be sown not deeper than 5 cm.
Cotton can be sown on level soil, in furrows (protected against drift sand), or on ridges
Sowing on ridges is necessary with poorly drained soil. It make irrigation easier, and
assists the entry of water into the soil. However, in regions with irregular rainfall, it
makes the control of weeds and mechanical harvesting more difficult.
In USA, the most economical methods of weed control has proved to be the application
of a strip of soil herbicide over the row of seeds, and later, the flaming of the weeds
between the rows. At later stages weeds are not a serious pro blem where the seed is
sown thickly with cultvars which have a strong tendency to shed their young bolls (up to
10 days after flowering), a spraying with NAA (napthylactic acid) is recommended.
Considerable increases in yield have been reported from various countries where CCC
(Cycocel) and other growth inhibitors ( eg.mepiqual ) have been utilized.
To decrease the infestation by pest and, to control the various soil0borne diseases, cotton
is seldom cultivated in monoculture. In many countries, not only is crop rotation
prescribed (the cotton is usually grown in the same field only every third year), also the
destruction of thr harvested plants. For this, the plants should be pulled up with their
roots, to eliminate the diseases carriers as much as possible
Harvesting and processing
The majority of the world’s harvest is picked by hand. It is a labour intensive operation
(a picker gathers 20 to 80 kg of seed cotton a day), but it produces the cleanest cotton and
highest yields per surface area (repeated picking 3, 4 or even more times). There is still
no other procedure nowadays for fine, long-fibre cotton. In the USA, Russia and
Australia, cotton is almost exclusively harvested by machines and other countries
partially. Of the two types of bmachines, spindle pickers and stripper, spindle picker
work more slowly, but it deliversa more uniform and less impure product than the
stripper. For mechanical harvesting, only low growing, weakly branching cultivars can
be considered. The main source of impurity are pieces of leaf. By spraying with
defoliants, the leaves are therefore made to fall off before harvesting. In spite of this, a
special cleaning of the fibre is necessary with mechanical harvesting and this is carried
out in the gin, mostly after the seed removal process.
The yield of cotton (seed cotton) can reach 4 t/ha under optimal conditions, but in
practice it is seldom over t and the global average is only 1.6 t because the yield in many
countries is still very low (india 0.6 t/ha). With primitive cultivars the yield of fibres
(ginning out-turn) is 20-25 %, good upland cultivars nowadays yield at least 35%, and
the best more than 40%. The ginning in carried out mechanically in all countries. In
grading of the fibres, apart from length and fineness, cleanness (colour and freedom from
foreign matter) play decisive role.