How does genetic structure change?
•natural selection
Module 10 • mutation spontaneous change in DNA
• creates new alleles
•migration
More Populations • ultimate source of all
•genetic drift genetic variation
Community Ecology
Ecosystems •non-random mating
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Departures From Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
How does genetic structure change?
Agents of Evolution
•natural selection
Mutation
•mutation
• inherited change in genotype
• migration individuals move into population
• must be found in gametes
• introduces new alleles
• Infrequently found in each gamete •genetic drift “gene flow”
• original source of genetic variation •non-random mating
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Departures From Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
How does genetic structure change?
Agents of Evolution
•natural selection
Migration (Gene Flow)
• movement of organisms into •mutation
or out of populations
•migration
• population gains or loses
• genetic drift
alleles
• likely in most populations •non-random mating
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Departures From Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Departures From Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
Agents of Evolution Agents of Evolution
Genetic Drift - change in allele frequency
Genetic Drift
due to chance
• change in allele
frequency in small
population due to chance
• likelihood greatest for
very small populations
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Departures From Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
Agents of Evolution
Genetic Drift - specific cases
• 1. Founder effect – when a few individuals
from a population colonize new habitats,
they seldom carry alleles in the same
frequency as the alleles in the gene pool
from which they came
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Departures From Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Departures From Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
Agents of Evolution Agents of Evolution
• Genetic Drift - specific cases Genetic Drift - Bottleneck effect
• 2. Bottleneck effect - Larger population
greatly reduced in size; resulting
population not representative of original
population
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Bottleneck – so what? Bottleneck – so what?
• Decrease in genetic diversity makes • A population with high genetic diversity is
population less likely to withstand more likely to have some individuals with a
environmental stress and more susceptible to combination of genes that allows them to
extinction withstand environmental changes
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An example to illustrate the importance of genetic diversity
Heterozygote Advantage (multiple alleles and adaptability)
• If the environment changes, heterozygotes
are able to adapt more than homozygotes
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Departures From Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
How does genetic structure change?
Agents of Evolution
•natural selection
Non-random Mating
•mutation • assortative mating -
mating based on
•migration similarity in phenotype,
increases
•genetic drift homozygosity
• non-random mating
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Departures From Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Departures From Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
Agents of Evolution Agents of Evolution
Sexual Selection Sexual Selection
• form of natural selection
• Based on differential mating success based
on phenotypic characteristics
• Involves female choice or direct male
competition for mates
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What is Ecology?
• Ecology: study of relationships of
organisms to their environment and to
other organisms
• We will look at some benefits and costs
associated with these relationships
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Tolerance Range Energy
• Energy: ability to do work
• Tolerance range: certain range of values
of abiotic (non-living) factors in which • To supply energy needs,
animals live animals are either:
– Temperature – Heterotrophic: ingest
– Precipitation other organisms
– Geology – Autotrophic: carry on
– Topography photosynthesis or other
– Altitude carbon-fixing activities
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Preserving Energy
Preserving Energy
(several ways to increase efficiency)
• 2. Hibernation
• 1. Torpor – Time of decreased metabolism and lowered
– Time of decreased metabolism and lowered body temperature; may last weeks or
body temperature; brief period months
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Preserving Energy Preserving Energy
• 3. Winter sleep • 4. Aestivation
– Large energy reserves – Period of inactivity in some animals that
sustain large mammals must withstand extended periods of drying
through periods of winter
inactivity
– Body temperatures do not
drop dramatically and
animal can become active
very quickly
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Biotic Factors How do scientists use these factors to
describe and manage populations?
• Other living
things within an Study populations to determine:
organism’s
• Survivorship
environment
• Growth
• Regulation
• Interactions
• Adaptations
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Survivorship Type I Survivorship
• Animal populations change over time • Individuals survive
due to birth, death, immigration, and to an old age then
emigration die rapidly
• We can characterize a population with • Environmental
survivorship curves
factors have little
– Type I
influence on
– Type II
mortality rates
– Type III
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Type II Survivorship Type III Survivorship
• Constant probability of death throughout • Very high juvenile mortality
their lives • Those reaching adulthood have lower
• Environment has an important influence mortality rate
on death across all ages
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Population Growth
• Another method of characterizing
populations
• In general, populations have the capacity
to experience exponential growth
• Factors affecting population growth
– Likelihood of survival to maturity
– Duration of breeding period
– Age to maturity
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Logistic Population
Exponential Growth
Growth
• Carrying capacity: the
population size that a
particular environment
can support
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Logistic Population Growth Population Regulation
• Density-independent factors: influence
• Taking carrying capacity of an environment
animals in a population without regard to
into account, the population growth curve
the number of individuals per unit space
becomes S-shaped
(density)
– Logistic population growth
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Population Regulation Interactions:
• Density-dependent factors: have more of Intraspecific Competition
an effect when the population density is • Competition among members of the
high same species
– May occur with or without direct contact
between individuals
Direct
contact
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Interactions: Interactions:
Intraspecific Competition Interspecific Competition
• Competition among members of the
different species
Without direct – Again, may occur with or without direct
contact, contact between individuals
“early bird
gets the worm”
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Interactions:
Interspecific Competition
Interspecific Competition
• Competition among members of different
species
– Again, may occur with or without direct contact
between individuals
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Adaptations: Coevolution Adaptation: Symbiosis
• The evolution of ecologically related species
that exert a strong selective influence on each • Parasitism: one organism lives in or on a
other second organism (the host)
– Competing for same resource • Commensalism: one member of the
– Predator-prey interactions relationship benefits and the second is neither
– Flowers and Pollinators
helped nor harmed
• Mutualism: both members benefit
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Adaptations: Camouflage Adaptations: Camouflage
• Camouflage: color patterns help to hide an • Cryptic coloration: an animal takes on the
animal from another animal color pattern in its environment
– Cryptic coloration
– Countershading
– Aposematic coloration
– Mimicry
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Adaptations: Camouflage Adaptations: Camouflage
• Countershading: darkly pigmented on top and • Aposematic coloration: color patterns that
lightly pigmented on bottom warn predators that the animal is dangerous
or distasteful
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Adaptations: Camouflage What is a community?
• Mimicry: one species resembles another • All populations living in an area
– Have a unique organization
• Keystone species: a species that is overriding
importance in a community and controls the
community characteristics
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Ecological Niche Ecological Niche
• All attributes of an animal’s lifestyle
– What and where it eats
• Competition arises when two niches overlap
– Where it mates and nests
– What temperatures and precipitation are in its
tolerance range?
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Community Stability Succession
• Communities arise, evolve, and die • Pioneer community: first community to
become established in an area
• Community stability is related to the rate of
change within the community
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Succession Succession
• Seral stage: each successional stage • Climax community: “final” community
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ECOSYSTEMS What is an ecosystem?
• A community of organisms with their
environment
• We’ll look at in terms of energy flow
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Ecosystems Ecosystems
• Primary production: total amount of • Biomass: total mass of all organisms in an
energy (usually sunlight) that is ecosystem
converted into living tissue in a given
area per unit time
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Food Chains and Webs Food Chains and Webs
• Food chain: sequence of organisms through
which energy moves in an ecosystem • Food web: complex,
interconnected food
chains that involve
many organisms
–More realistic
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Conversion Efficiency Conversion Efficiency
• Energy that moves through the food web is • Biomass conversion efficiency = 10%
never converted 100% into new biomass
– Some energy is lost as heat, used for
maintenance or reproduction
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Nutrient Cycling Ecological Problems
• Pollution: any detrimental change to an
• Biogeochemical ecosystem
– Pollution is cycled through the system too
cycles: movement of
matter through
ecosystems
– Constantly recycled
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Ecological Problems
• Water pollution
– Eutrophication: The process by which a body of
water acquires a high concentration of nutrients,
especially phosphates and nitrates.
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Ecological Problems Ecological Problems
• Air Pollution
• Biological magnification
(biomagnification, or
bioaccumulation): the
concentration of substances in
animal tissues as the
substances pass through
ecosystem food webs
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Ecological Problems Ecological Problems
• Loss of biodiversity • Depletion of resources
– Losing variety in the ecosystem – Deforestation
– Result of pollution, acid rain, urban development, – Water usage and
and agriculture (habitat loss) pollution
– Overgrazing
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