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How does genetic structure change?

•natural selection

Module 10 • mutation spontaneous change in DNA


• creates new alleles
•migration
More Populations • ultimate source of all
•genetic drift genetic variation
Community Ecology
Ecosystems •non-random mating

1 2

Departures From Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium


How does genetic structure change?
Agents of Evolution
•natural selection
Mutation
•mutation
• inherited change in genotype
• migration individuals move into population
• must be found in gametes
• introduces new alleles
• Infrequently found in each gamete •genetic drift “gene flow”

• original source of genetic variation •non-random mating

3 4

Departures From Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium


How does genetic structure change?
Agents of Evolution
•natural selection
Migration (Gene Flow)
• movement of organisms into •mutation
or out of populations
•migration
• population gains or loses
• genetic drift
alleles

• likely in most populations •non-random mating

5 6

1
Departures From Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Departures From Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

Agents of Evolution Agents of Evolution


Genetic Drift - change in allele frequency
Genetic Drift
due to chance
• change in allele
frequency in small
population due to chance

• likelihood greatest for


very small populations

7 8

Departures From Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium


Agents of Evolution

Genetic Drift - specific cases


• 1. Founder effect – when a few individuals
from a population colonize new habitats,
they seldom carry alleles in the same
frequency as the alleles in the gene pool
from which they came

9 10

Departures From Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Departures From Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium


Agents of Evolution Agents of Evolution

• Genetic Drift - specific cases Genetic Drift - Bottleneck effect

• 2. Bottleneck effect - Larger population


greatly reduced in size; resulting
population not representative of original
population

11 12

2
Bottleneck – so what? Bottleneck – so what?
• Decrease in genetic diversity makes • A population with high genetic diversity is
population less likely to withstand more likely to have some individuals with a
environmental stress and more susceptible to combination of genes that allows them to
extinction withstand environmental changes

13 14

An example to illustrate the importance of genetic diversity


Heterozygote Advantage (multiple alleles and adaptability)
• If the environment changes, heterozygotes
are able to adapt more than homozygotes

15 16

Departures From Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium


How does genetic structure change?
Agents of Evolution
•natural selection
Non-random Mating
•mutation • assortative mating -
mating based on
•migration similarity in phenotype,
increases
•genetic drift homozygosity

• non-random mating

17 18

3
Departures From Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Departures From Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
Agents of Evolution Agents of Evolution
Sexual Selection Sexual Selection
• form of natural selection
• Based on differential mating success based
on phenotypic characteristics
• Involves female choice or direct male
competition for mates

19 20

What is Ecology?
• Ecology: study of relationships of
organisms to their environment and to
other organisms
• We will look at some benefits and costs
associated with these relationships

21 22

Tolerance Range Energy


• Energy: ability to do work
• Tolerance range: certain range of values
of abiotic (non-living) factors in which • To supply energy needs,
animals live animals are either:
– Temperature – Heterotrophic: ingest
– Precipitation other organisms
– Geology – Autotrophic: carry on
– Topography photosynthesis or other
– Altitude carbon-fixing activities

23 24

4
Preserving Energy
Preserving Energy
(several ways to increase efficiency)
• 2. Hibernation
• 1. Torpor – Time of decreased metabolism and lowered
– Time of decreased metabolism and lowered body temperature; may last weeks or
body temperature; brief period months

25 26

Preserving Energy Preserving Energy


• 3. Winter sleep • 4. Aestivation
– Large energy reserves – Period of inactivity in some animals that
sustain large mammals must withstand extended periods of drying
through periods of winter
inactivity
– Body temperatures do not
drop dramatically and
animal can become active
very quickly

27 28

Biotic Factors How do scientists use these factors to


describe and manage populations?
• Other living
things within an Study populations to determine:
organism’s
• Survivorship
environment
• Growth
• Regulation
• Interactions
• Adaptations

29 30

5
Survivorship Type I Survivorship
• Animal populations change over time • Individuals survive
due to birth, death, immigration, and to an old age then
emigration die rapidly
• We can characterize a population with • Environmental
survivorship curves
factors have little
– Type I
influence on
– Type II
mortality rates
– Type III

31 32

Type II Survivorship Type III Survivorship


• Constant probability of death throughout • Very high juvenile mortality
their lives • Those reaching adulthood have lower
• Environment has an important influence mortality rate
on death across all ages

33 34

Population Growth
• Another method of characterizing
populations
• In general, populations have the capacity
to experience exponential growth
• Factors affecting population growth
– Likelihood of survival to maturity
– Duration of breeding period
– Age to maturity

35 36

6
Logistic Population
Exponential Growth
Growth
• Carrying capacity: the
population size that a
particular environment
can support

37 38

Logistic Population Growth Population Regulation


• Density-independent factors: influence
• Taking carrying capacity of an environment
animals in a population without regard to
into account, the population growth curve
the number of individuals per unit space
becomes S-shaped
(density)
– Logistic population growth

39 40

Population Regulation Interactions:


• Density-dependent factors: have more of Intraspecific Competition
an effect when the population density is • Competition among members of the
high same species
– May occur with or without direct contact
between individuals

Direct
contact

41 42

7
Interactions: Interactions:
Intraspecific Competition Interspecific Competition
• Competition among members of the
different species
Without direct – Again, may occur with or without direct
contact, contact between individuals
“early bird
gets the worm”

43 44

Interactions:
Interspecific Competition
Interspecific Competition
• Competition among members of different
species
– Again, may occur with or without direct contact
between individuals

45 46

Adaptations: Coevolution Adaptation: Symbiosis


• The evolution of ecologically related species
that exert a strong selective influence on each • Parasitism: one organism lives in or on a
other second organism (the host)
– Competing for same resource • Commensalism: one member of the
– Predator-prey interactions relationship benefits and the second is neither
– Flowers and Pollinators
helped nor harmed
• Mutualism: both members benefit

47 48

8
Adaptations: Camouflage Adaptations: Camouflage
• Camouflage: color patterns help to hide an • Cryptic coloration: an animal takes on the
animal from another animal color pattern in its environment
– Cryptic coloration
– Countershading
– Aposematic coloration
– Mimicry

49 50

Adaptations: Camouflage Adaptations: Camouflage


• Countershading: darkly pigmented on top and • Aposematic coloration: color patterns that
lightly pigmented on bottom warn predators that the animal is dangerous
or distasteful

51 52

Adaptations: Camouflage What is a community?


• Mimicry: one species resembles another • All populations living in an area
– Have a unique organization
• Keystone species: a species that is overriding
importance in a community and controls the
community characteristics

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9
Ecological Niche Ecological Niche
• All attributes of an animal’s lifestyle
– What and where it eats
• Competition arises when two niches overlap
– Where it mates and nests
– What temperatures and precipitation are in its
tolerance range?

55 56

Community Stability Succession


• Communities arise, evolve, and die • Pioneer community: first community to
become established in an area
• Community stability is related to the rate of
change within the community

57 58

Succession Succession
• Seral stage: each successional stage • Climax community: “final” community

59 60

10
ECOSYSTEMS What is an ecosystem?
• A community of organisms with their
environment
• We’ll look at in terms of energy flow

61 62

Ecosystems Ecosystems
• Primary production: total amount of • Biomass: total mass of all organisms in an
energy (usually sunlight) that is ecosystem
converted into living tissue in a given
area per unit time

63 64

Food Chains and Webs Food Chains and Webs


• Food chain: sequence of organisms through
which energy moves in an ecosystem • Food web: complex,
interconnected food
chains that involve
many organisms
–More realistic

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11
Conversion Efficiency Conversion Efficiency
• Energy that moves through the food web is • Biomass conversion efficiency = 10%
never converted 100% into new biomass
– Some energy is lost as heat, used for
maintenance or reproduction

67 68

Nutrient Cycling Ecological Problems


• Pollution: any detrimental change to an
• Biogeochemical ecosystem
– Pollution is cycled through the system too
cycles: movement of
matter through
ecosystems
– Constantly recycled

69 70

Ecological Problems
• Water pollution
– Eutrophication: The process by which a body of
water acquires a high concentration of nutrients,
especially phosphates and nitrates.

71 72

12
Ecological Problems Ecological Problems
• Air Pollution
• Biological magnification
(biomagnification, or
bioaccumulation): the
concentration of substances in
animal tissues as the
substances pass through
ecosystem food webs

73 74

Ecological Problems Ecological Problems


• Loss of biodiversity • Depletion of resources
– Losing variety in the ecosystem – Deforestation
– Result of pollution, acid rain, urban development, – Water usage and
and agriculture (habitat loss) pollution
– Overgrazing

75 76

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