Blockchain Ready Port Supply Chain

Using Distributed Ledger

David King Boison1,∗ and Ahmed Antwi-Boampong2

1
Ghana Technology University College, Accra, Ghana
2
Centre for Communications, Media and Information Technologies, Department of
Electronic Systems, Aalborg University, Copenhagen, Denmark
Email: [email protected]; [email protected]
∗
Corresponding Author

Received 08 January 2020; Accepted 08 January 2020

Published 28 January 2020

Abstract
Blockchain technology, as a bedrock for distributed ledgers, offers a platform
for innovation for a new decentralized and transparent transaction machinery
in industries and businesses, and the port is not an exception. The inbuilt
features of this technology enrich trust through transparency and traceability
within any transaction of data, goods, services, and financial resources.
Notwithstanding initial doubts about this technology, lately government and
large corporations have offered to adopt and enhance this technology in
various fields of applications, from social and legal industries, and finance
to design, maritime and port networks. In this paper, the authors review the
current status of the Blockchain technology and some of its applications.
The potential benefit of such a technology in port and maritime supply
chain is then discussed, and a vision for the future Blockchain ready port
and maritime supply chain are proposed. The importation of containerized
vehicles is used as an example to demonstrate how such technology can be
deployed in a global port industry. Finally, the requirements and challenges to
adopt this technology in the future in relation to, port and maritime systems
are discussed.

Journal of NBICT, Vol. 1, 1–32.

doi: 10.13052/nbjict1902-097X.2020.001
This is an Open Access publication. c 2020 the Author(s). All rights reserved.
2 David King Boison and Ahmed Antwi-Boampong

Keywords: Blockchain, trust, port and maritime systems, technology

adoption, global port industry.

1 Introduction
Marking the dawn of a new era, Blockchain is one of the most important and
innovative technologies developed in recent years [1–4]. Blockchain (BC)
technology is a ground-breaking innovation in decentralized information
technology. First invented as part of Bitcoin’s underlying infrastructure in
2008 [5], its potential application goes far beyond digital currencies and
financial assets. The BC technology is meant to minimize fraud risk, increase
transaction settlement speed, improve on the auditability of transactions,
minimize trading costs, and increase the effectiveness of monitoring [4, 6–8].
This technology is still in its infant stages and is yet to explode to reach
mainstream and enterprise adoption. It is instructive to note that as the
technology gained wider recognition and acceptance in recent years, there
has been an outbreak of advancements, new use cases, and applications [9].
BC is growing from a secure monetary transaction system into part of
an ecosystem of emergent technologies that include artificial intelligence,
robotics, Internet of Things (IoT), and crowdsourcing. Similarly, [10] expects
that BC will enhance collaboration among individuals and businesses, the
transparency of business processes and data, and, ultimately, the productivity
and sustainability of an economy. These technologies together epitomize the
technical groundwork of future commerce [10–13]. The range of potential
application of BC technology is unending, from digital currencies to BC
enabled legal contracts [14], with the most auspicious of application awaiting
to be developed.
Seaport trade remains one of the most important drivers of every economy
especially for most import dependent countries. Seaborne trade continues to
expand, generating benefits for importers/exporters across the globe through
competitive freight cost. According to [15], there are about 50,000 mer-
chant ships trading internationally, transporting every type and kind of cargo
besides the estimated annual income of over half a trillion dollars the oper-
ations of merchant ships generates. Therefore, the management of seaport
information is crucial to the survival of the port and maritime industry,
considering the fact that about 80 percent in volume of global trade is carried
by sea and over 70 percent of global trade by value are carried by sea and are
handled by ports worldwide [16].
 Blockchain Ready Port Supply Chain Using Distributed Ledger 3

There has been countless complains in the past and recent about the exces-
sive delays in the clearance of cargo in most of West Africa sea ports [17, 18].
Some of these delays are attributed to lack of integrated systems which has
led to excessive bureaucracies in the port supply chain network. Studies in
related areas in the port industry have stressed on the need to improve on
the efficiency of the port systems through port information management. For
instance, [19] and [20], stressed on the consequences of port congestion due
to delays on logistics and supply chain network in Africa.
Figure 1 illustrates a typical port supply chain network system where a
supplier at the port of origin (shipper) moves cargo to a customer (consignee)
at the port of discharge. To facilitate this movement of cargo, certain required
documents (Manifest, Bill of Lading, Bill of Entry, Commercial Invoice etc.)
must be exchanged via systems (mostly Electronic Data Exchange) by actors
or stakeholders (Customs, Port Authorities, Freight Forwarders, Regulatory
Agencies etc.) in supply chain to play their mandated roles to complete the
transaction. The various challenges identified by [19] and [20] among others
give rise to the need to explore the potential of adopting BC technology to
the port supply chain ecosystem using the importation of vehicles to ports
in West Africa sub-region as a scenario case. The purpose of this paper is to
propose a BC ready port supply chain for ports in West Africa. Specifically,
this paper explore the need for transparency and traceability in port supply
chain , the current state of the BC technology and the potential growth in
other areas and finally propose a BC ready port supply chain concept using
west Africa seaports as a case study.

Figure 1 Typical port supply chain network.

Source: Boison (2016)
4 David King Boison and Ahmed Antwi-Boampong

2 Need for Transparency and Traceability in Port Supply

Chain Eco System
Global seaborne trade continues to grow, reinforced by the 2017 pick-up in
the world economy. Increasing at 4.0 percent, the fastest growth in five years,
global maritime trade gained grounds and raised emotions in the shipping
industry [21]. Estimated total volumes reached 10.7 billion tons, reflecting
an additional 411 million tons, almost half of which were made of dry bulk
commodities [21]. Containerized trade accounted for 17.1% of seaborne trade
in 2017 and generally global seaborne trade growth is projected at an upsurge
of 3.8% from 2018–2023 [21]. However, there is very little knowledge of
how, where and when products (cargo) are moved from continent/region to
the other on the high seas. Even before cargo reaches its final destination and
is discharged and delivered to the consignee (customer), cargo travel through
a vast network of retailers, distributors, transporters, storage facilities and
suppliers before cargo is loaded on board a vessel, nevertheless in almost
every case these journeys remain an unseen dimension of our possession [22].
Supply chains are getting progressively more complex, more extended, and
more global. An event (natural or man-made) on one side of the world
can stop production or delivery of a service on the other side. However,
if the supply of a very important component or service is disrupted, the
consequences can be brutally harmful to stakeholders or companies further
along the network, both financially and in terms of reputation [23].
Additionally, there are many potential negative consequences of seaborne
trade causing threats to human life and cargo theft, disrupting the entire
supply chain network. For example, in April 2017, BBC reported that nine-
teen crew members were freed from a ship captured by Somali pirates
in the Gulf of Aden [24]. Another similar example also reported by the
BBC was the Somali pirates who hijacked an oil tanker and released it
without condition [25]. The International Convention for Safety of Life at
Sea (SOLAS) adopted in 1974 and came into force in May 1980, is one
of the most important treaties concerning the safety of merchant ships at
sea [26]. This Convention was spearheaded by the International Maritime
Organization to curb the disruptions of seaborne supply chain network which
normally culminates in delays and additional financial cost. Furthermore,
Maersk Group had to reinstall 45,000 new computers after hacker attack
in 2018. This attack, according to [27] was a major hit to the Maersk
Group. To be specific, 4000 new servers, 45,000 new computers and 2500
applications were installed as a result of the attack which hit a large part
 Blockchain Ready Port Supply Chain Using Distributed Ledger 5

of Maersk Group for days, corresponding to a replacement of a complete

infrastructure, causing serious disruption in the entire global seaborne supply
chain network [27]. The shipper and the consignee at the end of the supply
chain are sometimes unware of the various crisis involved with the movement
of the ship from a port of origin to a destination port or to be more specific
how these cargoes are moved to the final destination. The events such as those
mentioned earlier, have necessitated the demand for transparency in seaborne
supply chains as a matter of consumer/labor protection and risk prevention.
Due to the complexity in the seaborne trade, the current disruption and risk
associated to the network is currently developing into a general demand
for enhanced access to information in order to regain trust of stakeholders
or actors [28]. Sustainability standards and certifications such as Fairtrade,
or Organic have become vital tools that support reliable consumption by
providing stakeholders in the seaborne supply chain network with a better
understanding of the port service life cycle [29, 30]. Nevertheless, the result
is simply a logo of the certification printed on container/cargo, and consignees
are encouraged to accept this information without being able to validate nor
completely comprehend the meaning behind it.
Validating the integrity of the claims made by these certifications is a
costly process that requires strenuous auditing. For example, verifying or
validating the authenticity of a bill of lading (BL) or a commercial invoice
(CI) which is part of the required documents to release cargo from a terminal
is expensive and difficult. Furthermore, the extension of certification schemes
to regions with levels of high corruptions further endangers the credibility of
such standards [22]. One of such examples of abuse of trust in the port and
maritime industry is the under-declaration of the weight of cargo or under-
invoicing in order to evade tax. The recent corruption allegation at Mombasa
Port in Kenya involving cargo theft in 2016 is a classic example of breach
of trust by the port authority [31]. We can also recount the 2015 scandal of
abuse of trust by VW emissions [32] and Nissan in 2016.
Supply chain visibility is a key in seaborne trade, with most stakeholders
having little or no information on their own considering that manifest infor-
mation (document detailing the cargo, passengers, and crew of a ship, aircraft,
or vehicle, for the use of customs and other officials) cannot be accessible
until other processes have been performed. For instance, in most ports in the
West African sub-region, a manifest information must be rotated (validated
and given a unique code) by customs before all other stakeholders can access
this information. End to end visibility and transparency in the supply chain
transparency can aid model flow of cargo from the port of origin to the port
6 David King Boison and Ahmed Antwi-Boampong

of destination, loading of cargo on board the vessel, generating manifest and

BL, commercial invoice, import declaration form (IDF), payment of duties
and taxes, examination of cargo, delivery of cargo among others, enabling
new kinds of analytics for port and maritime operations, risk and sustain-
ability. Shipping lines giants like Hapag-Lloyd and Singapore-based Ocean
Network Express (ONE) Pte. Ltd announced they will join the BC-enabled
digital shipping platform, jointly developed by A. P. Moller – Maersk [33].
These are initiatives to visualize end-to-end seaport supply chain and provide
organizations with valuable knowledge on their third-party networks [34].
Nonetheless, this revolution of greater transparency in supply chains (port
and maritime) is incremental and mostly voluntary at the moment [35, 36].
Transparency enables one to comprehend the effects and consequences
of a decision on a cargo movement and its environmental circumstances.
However, managing information across the spectrum in the seaport supply
chain and control of transparent interactions about every ship and cargo
in the supply chain can be a very difficult task. Even though there are
cargo online tracking application like marinetraffic.com and other customized
online tracking apps for specific ports globally, there remain problems with
visibility across the port supply chain network. In view of these challenges,
there is the need for accurate data collection and secure data storage to enable
a flow of trusted information between stakeholders in the supply chain.
Currently, this responsibility is borne by shipping lines, port author-
ities, customs, governmental regulatory agencies or other third parties,
through centralized information pools. Depending on one single organiza-
tion/company to broker such sensitive and valuable information involves
a great deal of trust to be invested by every stakeholder in a port supply
chain. Such organizations (as stakeholders of the port system) will also gain
substantial power through the access to the possession of this valuable data,
which may be misused to damage, extort or manipulate other stakeholders, if
biased. For example, there have been instances the Ghana Revenue Authority
revoked licenses of some freight forwarders for under declarations in Ghana
[37] and these acts were negatively attributed to manipulation of commercial
invoices submitted to customs for duty assessment. Even if this stakeholder
can be trusted to be a good actor, it must possess the requisite technical
competences to handle and store this valuable information effectively. A
major risk associated to this type of centralized system, is its single point of
failure which exposes the entire system to risk (e.g. corruption or hacking).
Several occurrences in the past decades have shown that a robust system
with tight and high cost security features cannot assure total data security,
 Blockchain Ready Port Supply Chain Using Distributed Ledger 7

exposing stakeholders who use port information to potential risk. Until now,
a practical approach to achieve data security and controlled transparency in
the port supply chains was a centralized system, until BC was discovered.

3 Blockchain: Background and Application

Fundamentally, a BC could be identified as a distributed ledger: a sequential
chain of ‘blocks’ where each block contains a record of valid network activity
since the last block was added to the chain [9]. Each block can be defined
as an encrypted secured piece of information. BC was developed by [5].
Nakamoto used a chain of blocks to develop a decentralized, publicly avail-
able, and cryptographically secure digital currency system [5]. The system,
named Bitcoin, allows peer-to-peer digital currency trading. This eradicates
the need for financial intermediaries while establishing transaction safety.
The Bitcoin BC can be viewed as a new type of accounting database that
records the transactions of the digital currency into blocks [38]. The blocks
are arranged in linear chronological order and shared to a network [39–42].
Theoretically, anyone can add data to the chain of blocks by transacting in the
network, reviews can be made by anyone on this data at any time, but the data
cannot be changed by anyone without adequate authorization [43]. According
to [5], the main features of bitcoin BC include: (1) decentralization, (2) strong
authentication and (3) tamper-resistance. This means that all nodes in the
system have access to the entire list of transactions. Furthermore, this access
allows nodes to both validate and publish new transaction records onto
blocks, which are then occasionally added to the end of the main BC with a
time stamp [5]. As a result, a BC is a comprehensive and immutable history of
network activities, which are shared among all nodes of a distributed network
and as such the technology is seen for the first time, enables two or more
actors that may or may not know or trust each other to securely exchange
value over the internet without including a third party [43]. Instead, the
requirement for validation of transactions is attained through a process called
‘mining’ that warrants the security and validity of the information added to
the chain. BC technology can, therefore, be elucidated as the technology that
powers the Internet of Transactions [44].
An important asset of the BC is that it operates on a decentralized network
demonstrating there is no single entity that controls or governs the system.
Removing the need for third party control facilities towards eliminating
resistance in all types of value exchange that can arise in the form of costs,
risk, information and control [9]. Accordingly, enhancement to a system can
8 David King Boison and Ahmed Antwi-Boampong

be suggested by any user but are implemented only if accepted by all parties
involved in the network, hence, enhanced transparency and trust. Trust among
a distributed network is possible in a typical BC process due to the validation
or mining process where each new transaction is validated by the entire
network before being added to the network.
Mining is a process of adding new blocks of data onto the BC through
validation by each node on the network [43]. A BC miner can add new block
on the chain after a cryptographic algorithm is solved and which must be
accepted by all (based on a defined block) of nodes in the network as a
valid data. The miner is rewarded by the network for the addition of a valid
block to the chain in some form of a digital credit. The credit is primarily an
incentive for miners to regularly validate and maintain the consistency of the
data throughout the network, and this credit will be in the form of financial
gains, or an approval for an execution of an event once the block is accepted
by the entire network [1]. Miners are independent entities in a BC network
and no single miner is capable of changing or adding invalid data without it
being detected by the rest in the network as a ‘ruthless actor’. When a block
is rejected in the network, there is no reward for the miner, nonetheless, the
block rejected is logged in the system, recognizing the miner as a possible
threat to the network and this approach enhances the traceability in the BC
network.
Since 2009, BC has grown through three phases: BC 1.0, 2.0, and 3.0 [4].
BC 1.0 purely focuses on the trading of cryptocurrency. The purposes of
digital money transfer, remittance, and payment include a new ecosystem:
the “Internet of Money” [1]. BC 2.0 comprises of similar trading, but with a
broader range of financial applications. Such applications include derivatives,
digital asset ownership, smart property, etc. [4, 6]. To enlarge the trading from
simply digital currency to a large selection of products, a new type of appli-
cation called a “smart contract” [4] was introduced in the second generation
of BC. A BC-based smart contracts are computer programs operating on BC
that autonomously verify, enforce, and execute the terms in contracts [44, 45].
Smart contracts allow for the encoding of rules and situations that are agreed
upon by the various trading parties [38]. These contracts separately execute
pre-specified tasks, or settle a contract, by investigating variation conditions
in combination with the contract’s implanted rules. The concept (smart
contract) was first introduced by [46], who indicated that the effecting and
monitoring of contracts largely rely on a trusted central authority. The new
 Blockchain Ready Port Supply Chain Using Distributed Ledger 9

BC-based smart contracts decentralize the execution power to each node

in the BC network [38]. Also, as the trading history is distributed to every
entity in the network, repudiation or modification of a trade will be nearly
impossible. Those functions of BC aid to intensely limit the counter-party
risk [44].

3.1 Technological Advantages of Blockchain Technology

A number of studies have identified the relevant impacts of technology
readiness and capability in EDI or ERP adoption [47–50]. Similar problems
could be faced by BC forerunners. Many mainstream BC mechanisms, such
as Bitcoin, are highly requiring of storage and computational power in order
to guarantee the security of data, if even the data stream of transactions may
not be too huge [38]. Consequently, projected expansion of larger storage
systems, bigger bandwidth for data transmission, and substantial expansion
of computational power will be required for the adoption of BC technology
in big corporate systems. BC intrinsically offers many key technological
advantages as a result of its structural architecture. Some of which including
transparency, durability, immutability and process integrity are discussed in
Table 1 below.

Table 1 Advantages of blockchain technology

Themes Descriptions
Transparency The level of transparency ensures network activities and operations are
highly visible, thereby reducing the need for trust. This is because true
copy of a BC is preserved by each node on the network, permitting
auditing and inspecting of the data sets in real time [42].
Durability As a result of decentralized networks which eliminate single points of
failure as different to centralized systems, the distribution of risk among
its nodes makes the technology much more durable compared to
centralized systems and are well suited to prevent unauthorized
accesses [42].
Immutability Users can operate with the highest level of confidence because that is not
altered and is accurate. This is because data that is stored on a distributed
public BC is practically immutable due to the need for validation by
other nodes and traceability of changes [9].
Process Integrity Users are assured that actions described on the protocol are executed
correctly and timely without human intervention. Distributed open source
protocols are by nature executed exactly as written in the code [42].
10 David King Boison and Ahmed Antwi-Boampong

4 Rapid Growth in New Application Fields

The BC technology field has seen tremendous growth through many new
innovative and technological concepts put forward, since its discovery over
the past ten years. The bad reputation the technology gained during its initial
introduction was due to its association with some untraceable purchases on
the ‘dark net’ where users used digital currencies such as Bitcoin to make
unidentified purchases. Nonetheless, recent years have seen many big com-
panies such JPMorgan, IBM, Barclays and Maersk investing in research and
development of the BC technology [33, 51, 52]. Aside the interest from major
organizations, and the large amount of money in cryptocurrency circulation,
innovative and creative entrepreneurs and organizations have been fascinated
with the new field of technology. Many governments have also seen the
potential of this technology over its first affiliation with illegal activities, due
to its rapid growth, which has changed their perspectives [53]. Some existing
applications and use cases of BC are summarized below.

4.1 Social Applications

Digital Identity – BC technology could offer the infrastructure to scale digital
identity at tremendously low costs with momentous enhancements in security.
Instead of several governments issuing identities or passports to citizens, a
decentralized identity service on using BC technology can offer users from
all over the world to obtain their own digital identity through a decentralized
system [42]. This application had appealed to the consideration of many
governmental organizations.
Voting – This technology can be used for voting process using a “private
key”. Each voter has a key to authenticate the voting process. In this system,
the system protocol can be designed such that the identities of the users can
be validated but kept anonymous while calculating the result of the election
in real-time. Since the protocol is transparent, voters can be certain that the
results are accurate and not vulnerable to manipulation and fraud [42].
Birth and Deaths Registry – The BC technology could offer great gains for
a birth and death registry system which arguably should be the backbone
of any country. Birth and Death Registry provides accurate data about a
county’s population records, however, in most West African countries, pop-
ulation census is conducted nearly almost every ten years and the data is
mostly inundated with errors. In cases where the Birth and Death Registry
is computerized, issue of the integrity of the data is always brought to the
 Blockchain Ready Port Supply Chain Using Distributed Ledger 11

fore, as some people can change their date of birth and others also fake ghost
names on government payrolls.
BC can provide a trusted and secured decentralized network system which
will prevent people from accessing births and death data once initial data is
captured from the point of birth or death. BC technology has not been adopted
yet in this space in the West Africa sub-region, regardless of the countless
opportunities it evidently offers to some other industries and disciplines.

4.2 Financial Application

Currencies – Bitcoin was the first case study of BC technology, offering a
fully decentralized issuance of currency, and traceable payments. Subsequent
to Bitcoin’s increasing success, a large number of digital currencies have been
developed, which give differences of the Bitcoin system architecture. There
are over 600 different digital currencies currently that use BC technology as
their fundamental technology layer [54]. Digital currencies are the further-
most popular use case of BC technology, nevertheless, improvements and
innovations in this field, have also resulted to many other use cases [42].
Exchanges – The facilitation of exchange of digital currencies such as Bitcoin
or the exchange of any other form of assets that can be registered with its
own digital identifier on the network can be deployed by the BC technology.
Firms such as Coinbase, ItBit and Kraken are instances of digital currency
exchanges that presently exist [55, 56].
Stock Market – BC technology can be powered by decentralized stock mar-
kets [57], where the stocks can be traded on a platform that is not controlled
by any one governing body as different to present systems. Users are assured
that the exchanges are carried out accurately since the system will only
function as designated by the system protocol. Nonetheless, this application
is yet to be considered.

4.3 Legal Application

Smart Property – The common idea of smart contracts is premised on the
notion of transacting all property in BC-based models [58]. A BC system can
create digital identities for any physical world hard asset. Ownership can be
regulated or controlled through smart contracts by using these identities. For
example, the expiration of insurance will prevent the user from driving the
car, or the payment of rent automatically grants the user access to the room
12 David King Boison and Ahmed Antwi-Boampong

or the payment of roadworthy of a vehicle automatically grants the driver

the access to drive the vehicle. Local governments in West Africa and beyond
can leverage on BC technology to draw several property owners to the tax net,
thereby increasing government revenue and creating visibility and assurance
in the transactions.
Smart Contracts – There is the emergence of BC-based smart contracts as a
use case of BC technology [59]. The concept of smart contracts is forthright:
A software protocol executes an action (purchase goods or services, releases
funds, sends information, etc.) when certain required conditions are satisfied
(the outcome of an event is determined, a payment is received etc.). The BC-
based contracts reduce the level of human participation required to create,
execute and enforce a contract, thereby reducing its cost whereas guaran-
teeing the assurance of execution and enforcement processes. For instance,
a consignee (owner of cargo) can effect payment to a freight forwarder in
a BC enabled crypto and Fintech platforms. So a software protocol action to
notify the consignee that cargo has arrived at the port of discharge, is executed
on the platform, the consignee verifies the details of the cargo (ship name,
cargo weight, BL number, cargo description etc.) and executes payment. This
technology is yet to be implemented at the port and maritime industry.

4.4 Other Potential Application

Port Operations Application – Despite the countless advantages that the BC
technology offers to other industries, the port and maritime industry is yet to
benefit. Port operations applications are designed to basically import/export
(inbound and outbound), stack (storage) and delivery cargo to consignees
(customers). There have been incidences of missing cargo and wrong deliv-
eries which compromise data integrity. How is it possible, for instance,
that, cargo that has been manifested and discharged in a port of discharge
(destination port) can be missing without any traceable events? Because in
most cases data can be edited by some parties without authorization, and
port operation application has not offered a comprehensive solution to deal
with this menace. A BC enabled port operations application will provide
decentralized secured platform that will ensure authentication, traceability
and visibility to all transactions of parties.
Customs Classification Compliance – This concept relates to payment of
duties and taxes by most of the customs port in the world. Most ports in
Africa use the ad valorem (based on the value of the cargo) concept to
 Blockchain Ready Port Supply Chain Using Distributed Ledger 13

calculate the duties and tax based on how the said cargo is classified by
World Customs Organization (WCO), which is nomenclature of all items
(cargoes) that are traded on international trade. For example, worn clothing
has a code of 6309000000, bicycle has a code of 8712000000 etc. Each
code provides the value of the cargo, and duties and taxes are computed
accordingly. There have been instances where cargo is wrongly classified, or
a feature of cargo is changed either to evade tax and duty or to assist in doing
same. These trust issues are one of the main causes of excessive congestion
in most ports in West Africa [20], because Customs will have to institute
additional checks in the clearance process which evidently leaves cargo at the
terminal for several days, accruing additional rent along its related demurrage
charges. A BC enabled platform will provide a secured decentralized cargo
classification which will prevent nefarious consignees, freight forwarders and
custom officers to alter cargo features to evade taxes and duties.
Asset Tracking – This is also an area where significant gains can be made
using BC technology to trace physical assets which permit a record of
ownership to be established for each asset. For instance, Everledger (a firm)
tracks diamonds through creating a digital identity for each diamond on a BC
network [60]. This helps the authentication of the transaction, for instance,
by avoiding what is known as “blood diamonds” to enter the jewelry market.
Another example of asset tracking is provided by a shipper’s authority, which
focuses on creating visibility of the movement of the cargo from the port of
loading through the high seas to the port of discharge (destination) alongside
with every activity that affects the cargo in the terminal till cargo is delivered
to the consignee. However, the latter example is not BC enabled and this
concept could incorporate BC technology capabilities.
Port Supply Chain Applications – BC technology can be implemented in a
complex port and maritime supply chain systems which are deemed to be
the next potential application domain. The authors envisage a number of port
supply chain related transactions that can immediately benefit from the BC
approach. These include: cargo tracking from a port of loading to a port of
discharge and after discharge; controlling cargo classification for import and
export taxes and duties; regulatory agencies controlling compliances of cargo
registrations and certifications; terminal operators and customs, controlling
the movement of cargo within and outside the container freight stations;
controlling financial transactions between and within stakeholders or actors
in the port supply chain; tracking the condition of cargo at the destination
port terminal and its clearing processing, until cargo exits the destination
14 David King Boison and Ahmed Antwi-Boampong

terminal to the consignee/customer. This is the focus of this article, using

a typical example in the West African sub region, Ghana to be precise on the
importation of containerized vehicle from Europe.

5 Methodology
The qualitative approach was adopted based on a case study design (Ports
in West Africa). The sub region was chosen because of the similar customs
processes employed. An extensive literature reviews of BC technologies in
known sectors and potential sectors that BC could be deployed were con-
ducted. In addition, contemporary and contentious issues in the BC growth
in rapid areas were reviewed specifically in areas such as the birth and death
registry, customs classification compliance, port supply chain application and
asset tracking. Based on these reviews a proposed BC ready port supply chain
concept was proposed and its merits and demerits discussed.

6 Port Supply Chain Transparency and Traceability

Using BC Technology
Supply chain in port and maritime industry comprises of a series of system
entities including people, logistical resources (Ships, Containers, Equipment,
Terminal Space, Vehicles, Train etc.), processes, knowledge, financial con-
tracts and transactions that facilitate moving a cargo from shipper at the
port of loading to consignee at the port of discharge. It is tough to have the
overall picture of all transactions within the chains in a large supply chain
system [61]. This information is traditionally stored in multiple locations and
are accessible to some system operators or stakeholders. In such systems,
the consignee (final consumer or stakeholder in the network) normally has
partial access to the entire information [62]. In some cases, fragment of the
information is handled as a commodity for a shipping line (provider of the
carrier service). Nonetheless, as a result of the low level of transparency,
trust is arrogated only between the system actors to ensure tractability of
transactions.
The application of BC technology in the port supply chain through
immutable record of data, controlled user accesses and distributed stor-
age can possibly enhance the transparency and traceability in the network.
Throughout the entire service cycle, the technology can offer a decentralized
distributed system collect, store and manage key service information of each
 Blockchain Ready Port Supply Chain Using Distributed Ledger 15

individual cargo being shipped and this system is proposed in this paper using
a containerized vehicle as a scenario. Individual BLs along with specific
cargo information, with such distributed block of information potentially
create a secure, shared record of transactions for the service. The proposed
system is explained in the following sections, including, the types of actors at
the port of loading and discharge, how they register and access information
in the network, and how data entry is validated, stored and authorized.

6.1 BC Ready Port Supply Chain

Figure 2 is an illustration of proposed application of BC in port supply
chain systems. The method proposed comprises of a BC system that uses
a decentralized distributed technology to collect, store and manage key cargo
information of each cargo throughout its service life cycle. This creates a
secured and shared record of exchange for each cargo along with specific
cargo information. As cargo moves through its service life cycle (movement
of cargo from port of loading to port of discharge and delivery to consignee),
it is possessed by a number of actors, for example, the shipper, shipping line
(owners or agents of ships or vessels), customs, port authorities, terminal
operators, regulatory authorities (e.g., Food and Drugs Authority, Environ-
mental Protection Agency and, Standards Authority), freight forwarders,
customs house agents and the final consignee (customer). Each of these
stakeholders or actors play an important part in this system, logging in key

Figure 2 Overview of the proposed port BC concept.

16 David King Boison and Ahmed Antwi-Boampong

information about the cargo and its current status (current location of the
cargo whether on terminal or on ship) onto the BC network. Each cargo
listed on the BL would have a unique digital profile containing all related
information, populated during various stages in the movement of the cargo.
This scenario is based on the entire port logistics and transport supply chain
from the port of loading to the port of discharge including all processes to
ensure that cargo is delivered to the consignee.
Each voyage (movement of a ship from a port of loading to a port of
destination) would have a unique transaction code (voyage ID), representing
a unique digital cryptographic identifier that links a voyage made by a ship
to specific cargoes to its identity on the network. It is very instructive to note
that containers are used as enclosures to hold the cargo on board a ship in
the scenario used as specified earlier. These containers would also have same
unique digital cryptographic identifier (RFIDs, barcode etc.) that links the
container (based on its type: either 20 or 40 feet) to its cargo. It is presumed
that each cargo in a container with a BL number could be a type of product
which has its own information tag with specific unique digital cryptographic
identifier (RFIDs, barcode or QR Code) from a manufacturer.
This virtual identity is offered on the system software as a part of the
cargo digital profile within the service cycle. Stakeholders or actors upon
registration on the system can also maintain their own digital profile on
the network. This profile displays information such as their cargo ID, cargo
description, BL No., container ID, shipper’s identity, ship’s name, port of
loading, port of discharging, date of departure, expected date of arrival,
certifications (Regulatory authorities) associated with the cargo. A cargo
that has been signed or handled by an actor (shipper, customs, regulatory
authorities etc.) would have a link from the cargo profile to the actor’s profile.
The system allows actors to change the privacy of their profile to different
types of actors. Actors are registered on the system through a registrar with
details that provide the role of the actor in the service cycle. Actors who
intend to remain anonymous in the system, must, however, be certified by a
registered certifier or auditor to establish trust in the system.
The system provides accreditation services and a unique identity to the
system actors through registration of themselves on the network by a registrar
A public and private cryptographic key pair are generated for each actor
upon registration. The public key is used to identify an actor within the
network whilst the transactions of the actor is authenticated by a private
key in the system. Transactions can be executed with the network by actors
by cryptographically authenticating themselves by means of their private
 Blockchain Ready Port Supply Chain Using Distributed Ledger 17

Table 2 Actors/stakeholders and their roles in the port supply chain network
Registrars Register and provide unique identities to actors on the network as
well as certification of the actors to participate in the network.
Shipping Lines Carrier who move cargo from the port of loading to a port of
discharging based on predefined rules (SOLAS conventions etc.)
Port Authorities and Define standards’ schemes for cargo and ships (such as Fairtrade,
Regulatory Authorities protocols for ship arrivals and departure, IMO Standards, SOLAS
Conventions)
Terminal Operators Handle ships and cargoes in a safe and secured manner based on
predefined regulations by the port authorities.
Customs Responsible for collection of import duties and taxes on cargo
Customs House Act as agents to consignees to facilitate the clearance of cargo
Agents/Freight For- through predefined processes at the port of discharge. Most of the
warders/Consignees initial data entries to start the transaction are initiated by them on
the BC network
Fintech and BC Provide platforms for actors to use to facilitate payments of goods
Enabled Crypto and services.
Platforms

unique keys. This allows each cargo and its voyage to be digitally signed
by the actors when being moved from one port to the other or added to
further down in the port supply chain. Table 2 above illustrates the types of
actors/stockholders and their mandated roles in the proposed system.
This system provides each actor to access a specific network of BC using
a user interface. A specific digital profile of a cargo used by an actor can be
configured by the application software. Parties trusted in the port supply chain
network (such as port authorities, customs etc.) develop the system software
and make them accessible for registered organizations and stakeholders to
download and run on their systems. Consignees and custom house agents
would have customized versions of the user interface to access data about a
cargo they are associated with. The system software facilitates the access
to existing data and new entries. The system is run on a BC that offers
programmable code to be executed, for example, Ethereum BC [14].
Anyone running the system software with an appropriate authentication
can access all data stored on the BC network. However, access to data by
actors would be based on their types and positions in the port supply chain
network. How the actors are to interact or transact business and share data on
the network with the system are pre-defined by these rules (type and position).
Actors cannot change these rules which therefore guarantee integrity and
18 David King Boison and Ahmed Antwi-Boampong

the prerequisite for the validity of data. As far as these rules are defined
and stored on the BC system, they cannot be altered without notifications
to all nodes and verifications by key actors. Fairtrade or FSC which are
standard and certifications programs, for instance, can be implemented on the
system [29, 62]. Certifiers and auditors in the network will visit the ports and
terminals to inspect if the rules for standard programs are being met. As soon
as confirmed by the certifiers, the actor’s profile and its cargo can be digitally
signed by the certifiers and standards organization, to show their certification.
All actors are inspected by the certifiers to verify their identity. The certifiers
are required to disclose all actors’ identity to the network through a registrar.
The purpose is to enhance the transparency of system elements, while at the
same time maintaining the security and integrity of data.

6.2 Data Entry

To enable trades and updating of cargo profile, each physical cargo in the
proposed system has to be presented digitally on a BC network, to ensure
direct access of the cargo profile by stakeholders responsible for such updates.
For instance, the shipping line should have direct access to the cargo profile
to be able to update the type of ship and location of the cargo on the BC
system. Applying the digital identities of the actors and cargoes, enables the
possibility for a “smart contract” to be created for each cargo in the form of
rules, so that only the parties with the correct digital keys have access to that
cargo.
At a given time, a cargo is ‘owned’ by an actor (for example at the port
of loading, the shipper owns the cargo and at the port of discharging the
consignee owns same). Only this actor has the authorizations to enter new
information onto that cargo’s profile or initiate a transaction with another
party. Therefore, when the cargo is moved from a port of loading to another
actor at the port of discharging, both parties must sign a digital contract to
endorse the exchange. Once all parties have signed the contract, the particu-
lars of the transaction will be added to the BC. The network will process this
data and update the position of that cargo profile, depicting its new parties.
This presents the network to establish an unquestionable record of ownership
for each cargo. When the transaction is completed, the system updates the
authorizations such that only the new owner can establish a new entry and
update the cargo’s particulars. Meanwhile both parties must demonstrate their
identity by signing with their individual private keys, the particulars entered
onto the profile is guaranteed to have been entered by the individual party.
 Blockchain Ready Port Supply Chain Using Distributed Ledger 19

Table 3 Types of cargo and description

Types of Data Description
Ownership data Orderly list of all previous owners of the cargo or entity in the
BC network including the current owner. Each time the cargo
is exchanged between two parties, a new entry is created by the
system recording the details of the transacting parties and is
added to the cargo’s profile. The transacting parties are referred
to by their digital identity. Thus, enabling the system to assign
data entry authorizations to the correct party. Moreover, this
enables implementing a controlled level of transparency
amongst related parties.
Location data Where the cargo has been (port of loading, port of discharging,
container freight station, etc.) and where is it now currently, are
recorded using the location data. Meanwhile, the system has
location details of all the registered actors; it can record the
location of a cargo anytime an actor effects a new entry. The
location information may be simply a unique location ID, or
dynamic GPS data, which could be implemented for other
supply chains.
Time stamping When a new entry is created on a cargo’s profile, the system
automatically records the exact time of that entry. This allows
the network to establish a logical order of entries related to that
specific cargo. Time cargo is loading on board the vessel,
sailing time, arrival time and discharge time of cargo are all
recorded.
Cargo specific data This is the key information that is specific to a cargo (cargo
details). This information can be used to prove certain
attributes of the cargo or provide performance data as feedback
to shipping lines, regulatory authorities, customs, and the
terminal operators.
Environmental impact data Provides additional information regarding the environmental
impact of the cargo. For instance, dangerous cargos (chemicals,
explosives, etc.) are handled with predefined safety standards.

By using the private key data, this could be added manually or automatically
to connect the network.
A platform is provided to the actors through the software application to
create a new consignment. The system can collect a range of data, depending
on the type of cargo, status of the cargo, and the standards that are to be
implemented for this cargo. When the transaction is initiated (when cargo is
moved by a ship from a port of loading to a port of discharging), the records
are updated automatically. Furthermore, cargo specific information is added
20 David King Boison and Ahmed Antwi-Boampong

by the owner of the cargo when they are given access to generate a new entry.
In Table 3 above are several types of data that can be collected on some types
of cargo.
Some types of cargo could be configured to transmit their performance
data to the BC system during their shipment period from one port to the
other. For instance, a refrigerated cargo could update information about
the temperature of the cargo during movement on the high seas and at the
terminal before it is finally delivered to a consignee. This information could
then be accessed by the respective manufacturers, shippers, shipping lines
and terminal operators and regulatory authorities, to improve their services
based on such feedback. Another example of this would be a dangerous cargo
class 1 (explosives) that is connected to the Internet, which automatically
uploads conditions and environmental effect data to the BC system whilst
in transit through the entire port supply chain activities. Future shippers and
of explosives will have access to these historic performance data to make
informed decisions as well as manufacturers and designers of explosives.

6.3 Data Access

All actors in the port supply chain use the cargo digital profile as the primary
source of accessing cargo information. Figure 3 illustrates an example tem-
plate of a cargo profile. Each entry is time stamped and digitally signed by
the actors. The certifications (registrars, regulatory authorities etc.) affiliated
with the cargo are also recorded in the digital profile of the cargo (see
Figure 3). To establish control over users’ access, the information within
a profile, including the specific cargo details and identities of actors and
specific rules would be embedded into the cargo’s profile. All actors must use
their respective private keys to authenticate themselves when accessing the
profile of the cargo. This allows the system to display the profile, according
to the permissions set to that actor. Figure 3 shows the access as a locked
or unlocked entry for each actor, which signifies the level of authorizations
allowed for each different user accessing this cargo profile.
For example, a vehicle cargo such as a van would have a profile that con-
tains details like Brand name, year of make, chassis number, engine capacity,
horsepower, displacement etc. A consignee importing that vehicle would have
access to these details but not the specific names of the manufacturers. Mean-
while, a distributer or quality controller would have access to more informa-
tion such as the manufacturing warehouse and details of the parts and other
quality control information that are required to pass the standards required.
 Blockchain Ready Port Supply Chain Using Distributed Ledger 21

Figure 3 Example template for a BL cargo profile.

7 Application Scenario (West Africa Seaport Process)

In this section, we use an example of an application scenario to explain and
better clarify the potential for the proposed concept. The application of the
BC ready port supply chain is considered for the shipment of a containerized
vehicle from a port of loading to a destination port (port of discharging).
There are numerous actors involved in the transportation of the cargo on
the high seas. The application of BC in this instance could extend to other
transportation supply chain network of other products. The scenario focuses
on a branch of the port supply chain (seaport), which includes the movement
of containerized cargo (vehicle) from a port of loading to a destination port
stage as depicted by Figure 4. Through the BC system, all actors mentioned in
this scenario, have registered themselves through a registrar service, and have
been assigned their own unique identity on the network, including an actor
profile. The system software created for the actors in the industry provides
an interface to interact with among themselves. In a BC ready containerized
cargo scenario, the following business processes would be involved:
22 David King Boison and Ahmed Antwi-Boampong

1 2 3 4
Shipping Port of Port of
Shipper
Line/Agent Loading Discharging

5a 5b 5c
Terminal Regulatory
Customs
Operators Authories

7 6
Customs
House Agent/
Consignee
Freight
Forwarder

Figure 4 Port supply chain of movement of containerized vehicle from port of loading to
port of discharging.

1. Shipper: The vehicle to be exported is entered with specific details

(type of vehicle, make, year of make, engine capacity, weight, consignee
name, address and port of destination, etc.). A new trade is initiated
between the shipper and the consignee, where cargo is exchanged,
after signing of a digital contract stored on the BC (data entry could
be through a handheld device or a desktop computer). The registrar
appoints the certifiers to do physical checks if regulations have been
complied with as indicated on the system. The certificate is then
displayed on the shipper’s profile with digital signatures of both the
certifiers and standard organizations (regulatory authorities).
2. Shipping Line/Agent: The shipper selects a shipping line on the system
and signs a digital contract with the shipper after cargo has been physi-
cally moved to the terminal of the shipping line. The shipping line enters
additional information on the cargo by indicating ship details, details of
the container (Container Number, Weight, Size, etc.) and moves cargo to
the port for loading/destination after signing a digital contract with the
port authority to perform cargo works. This information is also displayed
on both the port authority’s and shipping line’s profile on the system.
3. Port of Loading: The port assigns a specific berth and yard to the
shipping line to berth ship and stack cargo for loading activities to
commence respectively. This transaction is made possible after a digital
contract is signed between the shipping line and the port authority. In
instances where duties and taxes would have to be paid on exported
cargo, cargo is blocked in the system unless payment is made and
 Blockchain Ready Port Supply Chain Using Distributed Ledger 23

a customs officer physically validates that physical cargo at the yard

matches the features specified and a digital signature of the officer added
to the shipper’s profile. When cargo is loaded on the ship, the port tally
clerks indicate the movement of the cargo at each stage in the yard
to the ship to show which equipment handled the cargo before it was
stacked on the ship. This gives time stamp records of every activity at
the port. If a ship departs as scheduled, the shipping line indicates that
on the system, however, if there are any delays, a new expected time of
departure is indicated by the shipping line, and all actors on the system
are notified accordingly.
4. Port of Discharging: Prior to arrival of a ship at the destination port,
the system gives a platform to all actors with GPS capabilities to view
the location of the ship and the status of each cargo on board. The
destination port (port of discharging) assigns berth and yard space for
the ship before its arrival and this data is entered on the cargo profile
by the officer at the port of discharging. Every activity on the cargo is
captured by the assigned officer using a handheld device based on the
permission level.
5. a. Terminal Operators: Most often cargo at the berth at the port of
destination is transferred to an off-dock terminal where processes for
delivery of the cargo are executed. Some ports operate as terminal
operators. Cargo is moved from the port of destination to a terminal
yard after a custom officer display’s the container movement report on
the cargo profile on the BC system indicating that location of cargo
has changed. An officer at the off-dock terminal receives the cargo and
gates-in the cargo into the terminal with a handheld device indicating
the condition of the cargo at the time of receipt, and this data is added to
the cargo profile.
b. Customs/Regulatory Authorities: At the port of destination or the
off-dock terminal, duties and taxes must be paid on the cargo before it is
delivered to the consignee. The customs house agent performs physical
activities on behalf of the consignee to obtain a release for the cargo.
Duties and taxes to be paid are already known on this system through
an inbuilt algorithm on the BC platform which classifies cargo based
on the WCO classification nomenclature and respective duties and taxes
are automatically calculated after the shipper initiates the first entry on
the system. Similarly, fees and other levies (penalties) to be paid by
a consignee to comply with the required standards are built through
similar algorithms as executed in the case of duty calculations.
24 David King Boison and Ahmed Antwi-Boampong

Certifiers confirm in the terminal that all requirements have been

adhered to and display a digital certificate on the cargo’s profile. These
data also form part of cargo risk profile for the shipper and the consignee.
The system groups these risks into three categories (Red-Bad, Yellow-
Fair and Green-Good) indicating levels of severity. It is instructive
to note cargo can only be released on the system when customs and
regulatory requirements have been met.
6. Customs House Agents/Freight Forwarders: The movement of cargo
from the shipper’s location to the terminal (port of loading or port of
discharging) is facilitated by a customs house agent or a freight for-
warder. In the same manner, the delivery of cargo from the discharging
port to the consignee is facilitated by customs house agent or the freight
forwarder. These practices where agents facilitate import and export
processes for consignees are prevalent in most African seaports and
normally enshrined in the regulations of customs. In this wise, a customs
house agent uses a private key to access the system after a digital
contract has been signed between the consignee and the customs house
agent. This contract gives the customs house agent the authorization
to facilitate all processes in import or export of cargo. In ports, where
customs house agents are not actors in the supply chain network, the
consignee performs these activities directly with the shipping lines,
customs, regulatory agencies and the terminal operators.
7. Consignee: The consignee at any point in time can access the platform
to ascertain the status of cargo transactions. For instance, number of
releases made, pending releases, duties and taxes paid, terminal handling
charges, cargo turnaround time and every detailed historic information
about the cargo. The consignee receives cargo from the customs house
agent and indicates receipt of cargo by updating the cargo profile on
the system. An inbuilt Fintech and crypto BC platform will thus enable
seamless financial transaction to be executed without any intermediary.

8 Conclusions
The role of BC technology plays in transforming many existing traditional
systems to a more secured, transparent, distributed, collaborative system to
empower users cannot be over emphasized. In this paper, the authors reviewed
some of the main features of the BC technology and deliberated potential
application discipline. The focus of the paper was pitched on the application
 Blockchain Ready Port Supply Chain Using Distributed Ledger 25

of the technology within the port supply chain network using a containerized
cargo scenario transportation from a port of loading to a port of discharging.
A conceptual vision for a BC ready port supply chain was proposed using
same scenario within the context of West Africa seaport where port processes
appear to be similar. In this paper, a concept has been proposed to demonstrate
potential benefits and stimulate further research and subsequently devel-
opment of the concept into a BC application platform. The authors fully
comprehend the cultural and technical difficulties ahead. Nonetheless, it is
believed that the numerous potential benefits to actors in the network in
facilitating port and maritime trade should provide adequate impetus to adopt
this technology.
The port authorities can report comprehensively on detailed statistics
about cargo handled within a certain time horizon at various stages (sea,
terminal, delivery point) of cargo movements. Non-compliance cargo can
easily be detected in the system and as a result owner of such cargo (shipper
and consignee) could be blocked from the system due to bad risk data
attached to cargo profile.
The integration of smart contracts into this system can enhance the secu-
rity of transactions as each cargo can only be received by the consignee who
has signed the relevant contract with the shipper; permitting the system to
identify duplicated transactions or misplaced cargoes. Furthermore, it would
replace the laborious task of always sending manifested information by the
shipping lines through EDIs or other data exchange platforms to actors in
the network or the calculation of customs duty based on classifications.
Conversely, this technology requires some level of IT infrastructure in place
for all actors, such as access to the Internet, which may not be feasible in
areas where there is unstable or nonexistent Internet connectivity.
The digital profiles of cargo need to be updated regularly by manual or
automated devices such as simple or RFID tags. Users of the system should
derive incentives using smart contracts embedded to enable BC to govern
progress of a business transaction and process. In some cases, performance
capability of such secured system may be seen to be a bottleneck for the
implementation of proposed solution.

9 Recommendations
The proposed system will facilitate the collection of large amount of data
about cargo and its actors in the port supply chain network, which can
26 David King Boison and Ahmed Antwi-Boampong

demonstrate to be beneficial to a number of stakeholders (government, orga-

nizations, investors, producers, retailers, shipping lines, consignees etc.) For
example, this allows consignees (consumers) to readily access accurate data
specific to any cargo that has been transported through a BC enabled port sup-
ply chain, thus allowing them to make better shipment decisions. Companies
engaged in the design, manufacturing and production can derive an improved
understanding of how their products are repackaged and transported along the
seaport supply chain. This degree of feedback can be leveraged to improve
on their production, marketing and technology strategies.
It would be necessary that the large ports and maritime originations be
involved in championing the potential benefits of the proposed port supply
chain systems. Some may be reluctant initially to features such as lead times
of cargo, transparency and automated payments (digital currencies) as spo-
radically these are used as a business leverage. Nevertheless, the experience
from digital currencies and large financial institutes have demonstrated that
big industrial and governmental organizations will realize the potential and
endeavor to remain unbiased towards this technology.
Future studies will look at the possibility of using transactions generated
from the port BC ready system to be integrated into a public BC platform that
allows for multiple coins, smart contracts and distributed applications to be
built and mined. Extensive research is needed to develop this concept to the
next level for port industry to be deployed on a large scale with close col-
laboration between research, port and maritime industry, and governmental
institutions.

References
[1] G. W. Peters and E. Panayi, “Understanding modern banking ledgers
through blockchain technologies: Future of transaction processing and
smart contracts on the Internet of Money. In Banking Beyond Banks and
Money,” pp. 239–278, 2016.
[2] M. Pilkington, “Blockchain Technology: Principles and Applications,”
2016. [Online]. Available: https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/Papers.cfm?abs
tract_id=2662660. [Accessed 25 November 2019].
[3] PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC), “Money Is No Object: Understanding
the Evolving Cryptocurrency Market,” 2015. [Online]. Available: https:
//www.pwc.com/us/en/financial-services/publications/assets/pwc-cryp
tocurrency-evolution.pdf. [Accessed 25 November 2019].
 Blockchain Ready Port Supply Chain Using Distributed Ledger 27

[4] M. Swan, Blockchain: Blueprint for a New Economy, Boston, MA:

O’Reilly Media, Inc, 2015a.
[5] S. Nakamoto, ““Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System,”
Consulted,” pp. 1–9, 2008.
[6] K. Fanning and D. P. Centers, “Blockchain and its coming impact
on financial services,” Journal of Corporate Accounting and Finance,
vol. 27, no. 5, pp. 53–57, 2016.
[7] M. Pilkington, “Blockchain Technology: Principles and Applications,”
2016. [Online]. Available: https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/Papers.cfm?abs
tract_id=2662660. [Accessed 25 November 2019].
[8] D. Yermack, “Corporate governance and blockchains,” Review of
Finance, 2017.
[9] S. Bogart and K. Rice, “The Blockchain Report: Welcome to the Interest
of Value,” 2015.
[10] Deloitte, “Blockchain: Enigma, Paradox, Opportunity,” 2016. [Online].
Available: https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/nl/Docume
nts/financial-services/deloitte-nl-fsi-blockchain-enigma-paradox-oppo
rtunity-report.pdf. [Accessed 25 December 2019].
[11] S. Omohundro, “Cryptocurrencies, smart contracts, and artificial intelli-
gence,” AI Matters, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 19–21, 2014.
[12] A. Dorri, S. S. Kanhere and R. Jurdak., “Blockchain in Internet
of Things: Challenges and Solutions,” 2016. [Online]. Available:
https://arxiv.org/ ftp/arxiv/papers/1608/1608.05187.pdf. [Accessed 25
November 2019].
[13] E. C. Ferrer, “The Blockchain: A New Framework for Robotic Swarm
Systems.” 2016. [Online]. Available: https://arxiv.org/pdf/1608.00695v1.
pdf. [Accessed 25 November 2019].
[14] V. Buterin, “A Next-generation smart contract and decentralised appli-
cation platform.” Etherum, pp. 1–36, 2014.
[15] I. C. O. Shipping, “Shipping and Word Trade,” 2019. [Online].
[Accessed 8 August 2019].
[16] UNCTAD, “Review of maritime transport,” United Nations, New York
and Geneva, 2018, 2019.
[17] A. Jean-François, O. Lauri, W. Christina, S. Ben, R. Anasuya, D. Karly-
gash and K. Tuomas, “Connecting to Compete 2018: Trade Logistics in
the Global Economy,” World Bank, Washington, DC, 2018.
[18] G. Raballand, S. Refas, M. Beuran and G. Isik, “Why Cargo Dwell Time
Matters in Trade,” World Bank, 2012.
28 David King Boison and Ahmed Antwi-Boampong

[19] U. Gidado, “Consequences of Port Congestion on Logistics and Supply

Chain in African Ports,” IISTE Knowledge Sharing Partners, vol. 5,
no. 6, p. 1, 2015.
[20] G. Emeghara and. N. O. Boniface, “Delay Factors Evaluation of Nige-
rian Seaports (A Case Study of Apapa Ports Complex, Lagos),” Greener
Journal of Physical, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 97–106, 2012.
[21] UNCTAD, “Review of maritime transport,” United Nations, New York
and Geneva, 2018, 2018.
[22] B. Jessi, S. Jutta and. G. Wood, “Provenance White Paper,” 2016.
[23] D. P. A, “Supply Chain Failures,” 2013.
[24] BBC, “Hijacked ship’s crew rescued from pirates near Somalia,” BBC,
2017.
[25] BBC, “Somalia ship hijack: Pirates release vessel without ransom,”
BBC, 2017.
[26] IMO, “International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS),
1974,” 1974. [Online]. Available: http://www.imo.org/en/About/Conve
ntions/ListOfConventions/Pages/International-Convention-for-the-
Safety-of-Life-at-Sea-(SOLAS),-1974.aspx. [Accessed 28 November
2019].
[27] S. PICO, “Maersk had to reinstall 45,000 new computers after hacker
attack,” SHIPPINGWATCH, 18 January 2018. [Online]. Available:
https://shippingwatch.com/carriers/article10246494.ece. [Accessed 28
November 2019].
[28] M. F. and L. T., “Transparency in Supply Chains: Is Trust a Limiting
Factor?,” 2006.
[29] E. S. D., Z. H. and L. B. P., “Is Fairtrade certification greening agri-
cultural practices? An analysis of Fairtrade environmental standards in
Rwanda,” J. Rural Stud, vol. 32, pp. 264–274, 2013.
[30] B. A., “Organic Certification Process,” Review Literature And Arts Of
The Americas, p. 8, 2005.
[31] A. Farrow, “Analysis into the corruption at mombasa port,” Maritime
Security, 2016.
[32] T. E. and C. A., “Volkswagen takes $18 billion hit over emissions
scandal,” Reuters, 2016.
[33] Maersk, “TradeLens blockchain-enabled digital shipping platform con-
tinues expansion with addition of major ocean carriers Hapag-Lloyd
and Ocean Network Express,” Maersk, 2 July 2019. [Online]. Avail-
able: https://www.maersk.com/news/articles/2019/07/02/hapag-lloy
 Blockchain Ready Port Supply Chain Using Distributed Ledger 29

d-and-ocean-network-express-join-tradelens. [Accessed 29 November

2019].
[34] B. L., “Sourcemap: eco-design, sustainable supply chains, and radical
transparency,” XRDS Crossroads – ACM Mag, vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 22–26,
2011.
[35] L. D., “Path to Supply Chain Transparency,” 2014.
[36] N. S., “Preventing Another Bangladesh Tragedy: Three Ways to Trans-
form Supply Chain Ethics,” Havard Business Review, 2013.
[37] CITIBUSINESSNEWS, “Gra Revokes Licenses of Some Freight For-
warders for Under Declaration,” CiITI Business News, 2018.
[38] J. Dai and M. A. Vasarhelyi, “Toward Blockchain-Based Accounting
and Assurance,” Journal of Information Systems, vol. 31, no. 3, pp. 5–21,
2017.
[39] K. Fanning and C. D. P., “Blockchain and its coming impact on financial
services,” Journal of Corporate Accounting and Finance, vol. 27, no. 5,
pp. 53–57, 2016.
[40] G. W. Peters and P. E., “Understanding modern banking ledgers through
blockchain technologies: Future of transaction processing and smart
contracts on the Internet of Money,” New York, NY: Springer Interna-
tional Publishing., 2016, pp. 239–278.
[41] D. Yermack, “Corporate governance and blockchains,” Review of
Finance (Forthcoming), 2017.
[42] S. A. Abeyratne and R. P. Monfared, “Blockchain Ready Manufactur-
ing Supply Chain Using Distributed Ledger,” International Journal of
Research in Engineering and Technology, vol. 5, no. 9, 2016.
[43] M. M. and M. A., “The Impact and Potential of Blockchain on the
Securities Transaction Lifecycle,” 2016.
[44] T. I. Kiviat, “Beyond Bitcoin: Issues in regulating blockchain transac-
tions,” Duke Law Journal, vol. 65, pp. 569–608, 2015.
[45] F. Zhang, C. E., C. K., J. A. and S. E., “2016,” in In Proceedings of
the 2016 ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications
Security, Town crier: An authenticated data feed for smart contracts.
[46] N. Szabo, “Smart Contracts”.
[47] K. K. Kuan, and C. P. Y., “A perception-based model for EDI adop-
tion in small businesses using a technology-organizationenvironment
framework,” Information and Management, vol. 38, no. 8, pp. 507–521,
2001.
30 David King Boison and Ahmed Antwi-Boampong

[48] J. R. J. Kuhn and S. S. G., “Continuous auditing in ERP system environ-

ments: The current state and future directions,” Journal of Information
Systems, vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 91–112, 2010.
[49] M. Pan and J. W. Y., “Determinants of the adoption of enter-
prise resource planning within the technology-organizationenvironment
framework: Taiwan’s communications industry,” Journal of Computer
Information Systems, vol. 48, no. 3, pp. 94–102, 2008.
[50] D. Schniederjans and Y. S., “Successful ERP implementation: An inte-
grative model,” Business Process Management Journal, vol. 19, no. 2,
pp. 364–398, 2013.
[51] C.-D. G., “IBM launches new cloud services for blockchain Reuters,”
Reuters, 2016.
[52] T. S., “Blockchain: understanding the potential,” 2015.
[53] UK Government, “Distributed Ledger Technology: beyond block
chain,” 2016.
[54] D. L., “The Future Of Canadian Currency May Be Digital | David
Leonhardt,” The Huffington Post Canada, 2016.
[55] V. P., “Coinbase Raises $75 Million in Funding Round – WSJ,” The Wall
Street Journal, 2015.
[56] P. L., “Kraken’s business booms, as Money Partners Group joins SBI
Investment in ‘multi-million dollar’ investment? Brave New Coin,”
Brave New Coin, 2016.
[57] A. I., “Overstock’s Patrick Byrne: I feel the blockchain revolution is my
victory,” International Business Times, 2016.
[58] S. M., “Blockchain: Blueprint for a New Economy,” O’Reilly Media,
2015.
[59] Bitfury Group, “Smart Contracts on Bitcoin Blockchain,” 2015.
[60] P. Rob, “This London startup could make diamond theft a thing of the
past – and that’s just the start,” Business Insider UK, 2015.
[61] I. Haq, R. Monfared, R. Harrison, L. Lee and A. West, “A new vision for
the automation systems engineering for automotive powertrain assem-
bly,” International Journal of Computer Integrated Manufacturing
(IJCIM), vol. 23, pp. 308–324, 2010.
[62] Forest Stewardship Council A.C., “FSC International Standard. FSC
Principles and Criteria for Forest,” FSC Stand, vol. 01, no. 4, pp. 1–13,
1996.
[63] M. Swan, “Blockchain temporality: Smart contract time specifiability
with blocktime,” In International Symposium on Rules and Rule Markup
Languages for the Semantic Web, pp. 184–196, 2016.
 Blockchain Ready Port Supply Chain Using Distributed Ledger 31

Biographies

David King Boison is a consultant, lecturer at Ghana Technology University

College (GTUC), adjunct lecturer at Methodist University College – Accra
Ghana and former IT Manager of Ghana Ports and Harbours Authority
(GPHA). As a process improvement and automation consultant, he has for
the past six years, been responsible for providing leadership in process
improvement and automation at Ghana Ports and Harbours Authority (from
2013 – January 2017). He has been involved in consultancy works in the areas
of business process remodeling, strategic planning, critical and analytical
approach to solving problems, digitization of business process, business
simulation and IT projects implementation. He holds a BBA in Accounting
with First Class Honors, Msc in Supply Management with Distinction (Best
Student) and Msc in Management Information System with Distinction.
He holds a Doctorate Degree in Business Administration, Supply Chain
Management option with CASS Europe France Business School. He was the
concept developer and implementer for the Port Automation System (now the
Paperless Port System) at Ghana Ports and Harbours Authority (June 2012 –
January 2017) and also a Prince2 Project Practitioner.

Ahmed Antwi-Boampong is a Ph.D. fellow at the Aalborg University,

Copenhagen Campus in Denmark since spring 2016. He attended the
32 David King Boison and Ahmed Antwi-Boampong

University for development studies, Ghana where he received his B.Sc.

Agriculture technology in 2002. Ahmed went to pursue an MBA in project
management and a Bachelor of Law degree from The Ghana Institute of
Management and Public Administration in 2010 and 2016 respectively. His
Ph.D. work centers on harnessing the utilities of Information Communication
Technologies (I.C.T) and how it’s utility can be applied to social use cases in
developing countries.