• • • Trainee Book

Certificate in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages

Second Edition

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Contents Introduction 4

1 – Learners and teachers, and the teaching and learning context 1 Learning and
teaching contexts 2 Learners as individuals 3 What do teachers do?

6 9 13

2 – Language analysis and awareness 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

Introduction to analysing language Introduction to researching language

Vocabulary Teaching vocabulary The sounds of English Stress, rhythm and
intonation Teaching pronunciation Phrases and sentences Tense and aspect
Language functions Text and discourse Presenting the meaning and form of new
grammar items Checking the meaning of grammar items Practising new language
items Providing feedback on learner production Teaching language items reactively

16 22 27 33 37 43 48 53 58 64 69 73 79 84 90 95

3 – Language skills: listening, reading, speaking and writing 20 21 22 23 24 25

Focus on listening skills Focus on reading skills Focus on speaking skills Focus on
writing skills Teaching basic literacy Integrating skills

99 104 109 113 118 122

4 – Planning and resources for different teaching contexts 26 Lesson planning:

defining aims 27 Lesson planning: lesson design and staging 28 Lesson planning:
planning beyond the single lesson 29 The online classroom v the face-to-face
classroom 30 Choosing and using teaching resources 31 Teaching with limited
resources 32 Using educational technology

5 – Developing teaching skills and professionalism

125 131 135 138 141 145 148

33 Organizing and managing a class 34 Managing an activity 35 Teaching young

learners and teenagers 36 Teaching at different levels 37 Maintaining learner
motivation 38 Introduction to assessment 39 Developing as a teacher 40 Preparing
for the workplace

151 155

Pair and group work Teaching practice Classroom observation Guide to tutorials
Guide to written assignments 5-minute activities A brief guide to the English verb
Glossary Further reading Coursebook material

180 184 193 201 203 207 212 215 226 227

157 159 166 169 173 177

Acknowledgements 229

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Trainee Book

Introduction What is CELTA? The Certificate in Teaching English to Speakers of

Other Languages (CELTA) is an introductory language teaching course for
candidates who have little or no previous English language teaching experience. It
may also be suitable for candidates with some experience but little previous
training. The qualification is awarded by Cambridge English, part of the University
of Cambridge. Candidates can take CELTA full time (typically four to five weeks), or
part time (from a few months to up to a year). They can take it on a face-to-face
basis, online, or a mixed-mode combination of both of these formats. There are
five main topics of learning: 1 Learners and teachers, and the teaching and
learning context 2 Language analysis and awareness 3 Language skills: listening,
reading, speaking and writing 4 Planning and resources for different teaching
contexts 5 Developing teaching skills and professionalism CELTA is awarded to
candidates who have completed the course and who have met the assessment
criteria for all written and practical assignments. The overall assessment aims for
each topic are that candidates should be able to: 1 assess learner needs, and plan
and teach lessons which take account of learners’ backgrounds, learning
preferences and current needs 2 demonstrate language knowledge and
awareness, and appropriate teaching strategies 3 demonstrate knowledge about
language skills and how they may be acquired 4 plan and prepare lessons
designed to develop their learners’ overall language competence 5 demonstrate an
appropriate range of teaching skills at this level and show professional awareness
and responsibility There are two components to the assessment of CELTA:
Component One: Planning and teaching Component Two: Classroom-related
written assignments (of which there are four in total) CELTA is internally assessed
and externally moderated by a Cambridge English approved assessor, who
samples portfolios and teaching practice, and who discusses and agrees the
grades for all candidates. Each CELTA programme is designed by the individual
centre, using the syllabus and course objectives. Courses will have a minimum of
120 contact hours, including: • input • supervised lesson planning • teaching
practice (six assessed hours) • feedback on teaching • peer observation •
observation of experienced teachers (minimum six hours) • consultation time

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Introduction

Trainees are also expected to complete a minimum of 80 additional hours’ work,

including precourse preparation, reading, research, assignment writing, lesson
preparation and record keeping. For more information about CELTA, visit the
Cambridge English website: https://www.cambridgeenglish.org/teaching-
english/teaching-qualifications/ The CELTA syllabus can be accessed at:
https://www.cambridgeenglish.org/images/21816-celta-syllabus.pdf

What is The CELTA Course? The CELTA Course is a coursebook designed to

support trainees, trainers and centres running CELTA courses. It includes both a
Trainee Book and a Trainer’s Manual. It is designed to be used during course input
sessions (although some tasks may be set in advance of sessions or as follow-up
to sessions). The bulk of the course consists of 40 units, and they are grouped
under the five main topics of the course (see above). Each unit comprises a
number of tasks, starting with a warm-up task and concluding with a reflection
task. From these units and tasks, course trainers will select only those elements
that meet the needs and syllabus specifications of their particular courses: it is not
expected that trainees will do all the units and all the tasks in the book, nor that
they will do the units in the order that they occur in the book. Many of the units
contain material reproduced from ELT coursebooks. The full list of that material is
on pages 227–228. As well as the units, there is extensive supplementary material,
including advice on how to get the most out of teaching practice, a bank of
classroom observation tasks, and a resource file that includes a glossary and
recommendations for further reading. The CELTA Course is not only a coursebook:
it also serves as an invaluable resource for post-course review and reflection. We
hope that it enriches your experience of CELTA, and that CELTA, in turn, opens the
doorway to a fulfilling and worthwhile career in English language teaching.

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1 – Learners and teachers, and the teaching and learning context

1 Learning and teaching contexts A Warm-up 1 Think back to a language learning

situation you know well. Picture as many details as you can. Consider these
questions: • How many learners were in the class? • Was it a face-to-face class or
were lessons online? • What resources were available to the teacher? Recognizing
the complex and • What was the age range of the learners? diverse nature of ELT
classrooms • Did the learners share a common first language (L1)? around the
world … is the starting • What reasons did the learners have for learning the point
of our exploration of roles, language? How motivated to learn did they appear?
relationships and interactions in 2 Describe the learning context you thought about
to a partner. second language classrooms. How similar are the two contexts? How
do you think each context Graham Hall, 2011 impacted on the style of teaching
and the lessons generally?

B Learners’ purposes 1 Here are some commonly used abbreviations to describe

learners’ different purposes for learning English, and also the situations in which
they learn and use English. Can you match them to the definitions? 1 EFL English
as a foreign language

a The use of a language other than the learners’ L1 to teach a school subject such
as science or physical education, with the aim of developing competence in both
the target language and specified subject.

2 ESL English as a second language

b The way in which English is now used by many non-native speakers to

communicate with other non-native speakers; also called English as a lingua
franca (ELF).
3 CLIL Content and language integrated learning

c The teaching of English with the aim of developing a learner’s ability to function
effectively in a particular domain, such as business or medicine.

4 EIL English as an international language

d The learning of English in a context where English is not generally the medium of
communication. For example, this would include a Spanish student having English
classes in Spain.

5 ESP English for specific purposes

e An example of ESP with the aim of developing a learner’s ability to function

effectively in academic contexts, such as studying at an English medium
university.

6 EAP f The learning of English over a sustained period in a context English for
academic purposes where English is generally the medium of communication. For
example, this would include someone from China living and working in the UK. 6
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1 Learning and teaching contexts 2 Here are profiles of learners of English. In each
case, identify their purpose for learning English. Use the abbreviations above. •
Han is currently studying a course which focuses on writing essays, giving
presentations and following recordings of lectures. She hopes to enrol at an
English-speaking university, if she can pass the English language test required. •
Lucia is an Italian-speaking teenager who is studying English as one of her school
subjects in Bologna. She also attends an English class twice a week in a local
language school. • Kazankiran is an asylum-seeker in Canada. She speaks Kurdish
and Arabic, and is attending English classes with a view to settling in Canada
permanently. • Carmen, who is Brazilian, is the head of marketing in a large export
company. She attends a one-to-one English class in Sao Paulo to help her in her
business dealings, which are mainly with Middle Eastern clients. • Kah-Yee is
Malaysian and when she was at school, she learned mathematics in English. Her
English lessons aimed to ensure that she could follow the mathematics lessons
effectively.
C Needs and needs analyses 1 Which of the five learners above are likely to have
the most clearly specified needs? 2 Think about the questions below. When you
are ready, discuss your ideas in small groups. a How might the needs of an ESL
learner vary from those of an EFL learner? b How might the needs of an EAP learner
vary from those of an EFL learner? c In a CLIL context, where science is being
taught through the medium of English, what sort of language content would you
expect to be included? d Can you think of any implications for teaching if a student
is, or will be, a user of EIL (as opposed to using English in an environment in which
English is the main language)? 3 How could you find out more about the needs of a
particular learner or group of learners? What questions would you ask? Work with
a partner to write some questions which you could ask a member of your TP class.
When you are ready, compare your ideas with another group.

D More differences 1 Read the quote from Graham Hall (above). As well as the
learners’ purpose for learning English, what other things might contribute to ‘the
diverse nature of ELT classrooms’? 2 Your trainer will allocate you either a), b) or c)
below. Think about the needs of the learners, their likely motivations and any
specific activity types that you think would, or would not, be appropriate. a What
are the similarities and differences between teaching: • a group of 17–18-year-olds
who are at B2 level of English and have just started an ESP course in business
English? • a senior manager of a local company on a 1:1 basis, who will shortly be
travelling to the USA for a series of meetings?

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1 – Learners and teachers, and the teaching and learning context b What are the
similarities and differences between teaching: • a group of 40 14-year-olds who
share the same language, at a secondary school in a country where English is not
spoken as a first language? • a group of 15 14-year-olds of mixed nationality,
studying a three-week course in the UK over the summer? c What are the
similarities and differences between teaching: • an online general English class
with 15 learners? • an online general English class with one learner?

KEY WORDS FOR TEACHERS Check you know the meanings of these terms. • EFL
ESL CLIL EIL ESP EAP • needs analysis

REFLECTION Complete these sentences: 1 One reason that there is no single

‘correct’ way to teach is that … 2 I would like to find out about the needs of my
learners because … 3 I think I would be able to teach ESP in the area of … 4 EAP
learners are likely to need … 5 If I had a very small class, I would try to … 6 If I had a
very big class, I would try to … 7 In a class where everyone shares the same
language, I would … 8 In a class where a variety of languages are spoken, I would …

Reference Hall, G. (2011). Exploring English Language Teaching: Language in

Action. Abingdon: Routledge, p.4.

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2 Learners as individuals A Warm-up 1 Picture this scenario: You start teaching a

new class and find that everybody in the class has more or less the same level of
language proficiency. However, after several lessons you start to notice some quite
big differences in learners’ levels. Some appear to have made more progress than
others. What reasons can you think of for these differences emerging? 2 The
following learners all study in the same Beginners (A1) English class. How might
their language backgrounds impact on their progress? Name

Nationality

Languages spoken

Zhao

Chinese

Mandarin

Safia

Algerian

Derija (her local variety of Arabic), Modern standard Arabic and a little French from
when she was at school

Sophie
French

French, German (from school) and Italian

B Learner Preferences 1 Think back to a language learning experience of your own.

What things did you like doing? Were there any things that you did not like doing?
Look at the statements in the questionnaire and say the extent to which you agree
or disagree with them, based on your experience. 2 Compare your preferences
with other people. Did you have exactly the same responses as your partners?
What can you learn from this about planning and teaching lessons?

1. I like talking in groups about things that interest us. disagree 1

agree

agree

2. I like studying grammar rules on my own. disagree 1

3. I like it when the teacher explains grammar rules. disagree 1

3
4

agree

agree

4. I like having my mistakes corrected. disagree 1

5. I like translating sentences from my language into English. disagree 1

agree

6. I find it useful to review lessons when I get home. disagree 1

agree
7. I find language learning apps useful for reviewing new words. disagree 1

agree

agree

8. I like playing games in class. disagree 1

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1 – Learners and teachers, and the teaching and learning context

C Motivation 1 Think back to a learning experience of your own. Which factors

drove you to make an effort? Was there anything that decreased your desire to
learn? 2 Pick four items from the list below that you think are most important for
promoting and maintaining motivation in a language classroom. Be ready to justify
your choices. • a favourable attitude to the target language culture and its
speakers • immediate opportunities to use the language outside class • having a
good rapport with classmates • doing well in class and a feeling of progress • using
interesting materials/books in class • knowing there will be regular tests and
examinations • the personality of the teacher • liking the teacher’s way of teaching
• having a specific long-term goal, e.g. work, study, travel 3 When you are ready,
share your list with a partner. Look at your combined list of items and try to reduce
it to four.

D Language learning strategies 1 Look at the difficulties (on the left) that these
learners have with their English and in learning English. Can you think of any advice
to help them? 2 Match the difficulty on the left with the most appropriate strategy
used to compensate for it on the right. Learner A 1 I get very nervous and anxious in
English lessons …

Learner B

… so I watch videos on the internet with subtitles.

We learn a lot of new words but I often forget most of them …

Learner C

… so I find information about topics and plan what I can say.

I worry when I have to speak English in social situations …

Learner D

… so I do some deep breathing exercises before I go to class.

Listening is really difficult for me – people speak too fast!

Learner E I don’t get to practise speaking very much …

… so I arrive early to class and talk to the teacher before class starts.

5 … so I got an app on my phone and I make flash cards, which I look at a few times
a week.
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2 Learners as individuals 3 Which learner(s) . . . i . . . decided they needed to

control their emotions? ii . . . decided they needed more social interaction? iii . . .
realized that their learning wasn’t working very well? 4 What advice would you give
these learners? a I need to improve my grammar – what can I do? b I want to
improve my vocabulary – what can I do? c I want to improve my speaking – what
can I do? Simply stated, language learning strategies … are purposeful mental
actions … used by a learner to regulate his or her second or foreign language
learning. Rebecca Oxford, 2018

E Learner training

Learner training refers to the training given to learners to help them use strategies
to become more effective in their learning and to be able to make the most of
learning opportunities, both inside and outside the classroom.

1 Look at the coursebook you are using for TP. Does it provide any learner training?
For example, is there a section in each unit that gives learning advice, or are there
any questionnaires or other forms of guidance at the beginning of the book? If so,
does the material present individual strategies, or several strategies together that
share the same goal?

2 Look at the activities you will use in your next teaching practice lesson. i Are
there any opportunities to give advice to your learners on how to maximize
their learning? ii Which strategies do you think would help your class the most? iii
How could you present the strategies?

KEY WORDS FOR TEACHERS Check you know the meanings of these terms. •
learning strategies • learner training • learner autonomy • learner preferences

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1 – Learners and teachers, and the teaching and learning context

REFLECTION Answer the questions. 1 From what you already know about the
learners you are teaching, how similar or different are they, with regards to the
things we have discussed in this unit? 2 What other individual factors might
contribute to diversity in the classroom? 3 What practical things can a teacher do
to make everyone feel equally valued and included in lessons? 4 Look at the quote
from Bonny Norton. What are the advantages of teachers ‘understanding the
histories and lived experiences’ of their learners? How might they attempt to do
this? It is only by understanding the histories and lived experiences of language
learners that the language teacher can create conditions that will facilitate social
interaction both in the classroom and in the wider community, and help learners
claim the right to speak. Bonny Norton, 2013

References Norton, B. (2013). Identity and Language Learning: Extending the

Conversation (2nd edition). Bristol: Multilingual Matters, p.179. Oxford, R. (2018).
Language Learning Strategies. In A. Burns and J.C. Richards (eds.), The Cambridge
Guide to Learning English as a Second Language. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press p.81.

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3 What do teachers do? A Warm-up 1 Who am I? Listen to the clues that your
trainer gives you. Can you guess what profession is being described? 2 What clues
could you use to describe the work of a language teacher?

B Roles of teachers 1 Match what the teacher says on the left with their purpose for
saying it, on the right.

1 I can see how much effort you put into your homework! That’s great because you
really are improving.

a to correct learner output

2 When I was listening to you in your groups, I heard someone say: ‘Can you to
swim?’. How can we make the English better?

b to give instructions
3 Work with your partner and write five sentences.

c to motivate and encourage

4 Hi, Jorge – did you have a good weekend?

d to check understanding of new language

5 Look at this example: I used to live in Athens. Notice I don’t live there now – it’s
finished, completed.

e to build rapport in the class

6 So, if you do something on the spur of the moment, do you plan it first? Do you
think a lot?

f to focus on language

2 Look at the examples of teacher talk on the next page. i Which two are eliciting
language from learners? ii Which one is building rapport? iii Which one is checking
an exercise? iv Which two are part of managing the class?

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1 – Learners and teachers, and the teaching and learning context A

After a modal verb – things like will, may, might – what sort of word do we need?

Alex, please stop talking now. Alex. Thank you. Listen to what Monika is saying.

Good. Yes, the answer for question 3 is B. Good. And question 4? What’s the
answer for question 4?

OK, stop talking to your partners now. Thanks. Monika – tell us about your group.
What ideas did you discuss?

[As learners come into the room] Hello, Wang, how are you? Did you watch the
football last night? What a game!

What phrase can we use when we want someone to repeat something?

When you are ready, compare your ideas with a partner.

C Observation 1 Watch the lesson and complete Observation Task 14 on page 198.
2 Compare your notes with a partner. 3 Look back at the questions that were
asked. Which questions were ‘real’ questions (i.e. the teacher did not already know
the answer) and which ones were ‘display’ questions (i.e. the teacher invites the
learners to display their knowledge about language)?

D Anticipating roles A new teacher gets the following instruction: Use the grammar
presentation on used to + infinitive on page 57 of the coursebook. Do the gapfill
exercise that follows, but also add another more communicative activity to
practise the new language. Perhaps the learners could talk in groups about their
childhoods, for example. • What will the teacher need to do before the lesson? •
What roles will the teacher almost certainly need to fulfil during the lesson, or what
things will they need to do? • Can you anticipate any other roles that the teacher
may need to fulfil, or what things they will need to do?

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3 What do teachers do?

KEY WORDS FOR TEACHERS Check you know the meanings of these terms. • real
question • display question • rapport • eliciting • checking understanding •
monitoring
REFLECTION 1 How do the roles of a language teacher (or things they do) compare
with those of: – a maths teacher? – a tour guide? 2 Think back to a language
learning experience of your own. Which teacher roles did you feel were most
important? Why? 3 Look back at the observation sheet. Which things: • have you
already performed when teaching? • have you performed in some other work role
or as a student? • are you confident of performing? • do you think will take a lot of
practice? • do you think can be made easier by planning what you will say or do
during the lesson? 4 What roles will you need to perform in your next TP lesson?

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2 – Language analysis and awareness

4 Introduction to analysing language A Warm-up 1 Imagine language as a pyramid,

with its features in descending order from the smallest features to the largest. Map
these aspects of language onto the pyramid: phrases sentences
sounds syllables texts words 123456

2 Can you think of other features of language that could go onto the pyramid? The
answer to the question ‘What do I teach when I teach English?’ is, of course,
‘language’. As we have been saying all along – if you’re a language teacher,
language should be your thing! Tim Marr and Fiona English, 2019

B Basic concepts and terminology 1 Match the terms (1–10) with their definitions
(a–j). For example: 10–h. Terms used to talk aboutlanguage

Definitions

1 vocabulary

a the rules that govern the way words are combined, adapted and sequenced in
order to form sentences
2 grammar

b the purpose for which a language item is used, e.g. making requests; predicting

3 structure

c the place (in a text, or in the physical world) where an instance of

language occurs

4 concept

d the way that language sounds when it is spoken

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4 Introduction to analysing language 5 function

e the area of language learning that is concerned with word knowledge

6 register

f a continuous piece of speech or writing, having a communicative purpose and a

distinctive organization

7 pronunciation

g a pattern that generates examples, such as the present perfect: I’ve seen . . . ;
she’s met . . . ; they’ve worked . . .

8 context

h the way that words or sequences of words are spoken or written, e.g. /mi:t/ is
written as meat or meet; the past of meet is met

9 text

i the way that spoken or written language is adapted to its particular situation of
use, such as its degree of formality, e.g. Please remain seated v Sit down!
10 form

j the basic meaning of a word or grammar pattern, e.g. You can go now means You
are free to go now.

2 Read the following short text and identify: a what type of text it is b the context in
which it is typically found c its function d its register e any sets of words that relate
to the topic of the text f any distinctive features of its grammar

For the perfect cup, use one teabag per person and add freshly drawn boiling
water. Leave standing for 3–5 minutes before stirring gently. Can be served with or
without milk and sugar.

3 What is the effect on meaning of making the following changes to the above text?
1 For the perfect cup  For a perfect cup e.g. ‘the perfect cup’ suggests we know
which perfect cup – perhaps because there is only one; this can have a significant
effect on meaning, as in ‘The dog bit me’ v ‘A dog bit me’. 2 use one teabag  use
one bag of tea: Can you think of other examples that follow the same pattern? 3
add freshly drawn boiling water  add boiling water: What kind of effect is the writer
trying to create? 4 boiling water  boiled water: Finished or unfinished? 5 Leave
standing  Leave to stand: The same or different? 6 Can be served  It can be
served: Why is ‘it’ not necessary in this text? 7 Can be served  Should be served:
Which one suggests more choice?

c Syllabus decisions

For teaching purposes, the different aspects of language are often separated out
and organized into a sequence to form a syllabus. Here, for example, are the first
two units of an intermediate level course:

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CONTENTS 2 – Language analysis and awareness

Unit 1 And we’re off!

■

■■■■

■■■■

Grammar

Talk about personal achievements Discuss good employee qualities Make and
respond to introductions Write a comment on a blog post Practice a job interview

Talk about trends Talk about preparing food Make offers in social situations Write
the results of a survey Create a plan to improve a restaurant

Unit 3 What’s it worth?

■■

Exchange and discuss Make,■accept, and refuse Cool opinions food Write
situations a response to■a post A conversation offers■in social ■ Design an ad for
a product between friends Real-world strategy ■ Acknowledge an acceptance ■
Discuss different types of stories ■

wel and

he word

Unit 5 True stories

■
eleted

Vocabulary

Tense review (simple and continuous) Dynamic and stative verbs

Real conditionals Clauses with after, until, when

Pronunciation

Describing accomplishments Describing key qualities

Saying the letter y

Describing trends Preparing food

Saying the vowel sounds /aɪ/, /i/, and /eɪ/ Listening for deleted /t/ sounds

Unit 4 Going glocal

er y

■
■

Discuss time and money Discuss the value of things ■ Apologize for damage or
loss Functional language Listening ■ Write a product review ■ Meet someone
youto a negative review ■ Respond don’t know; introduce someone to others
Review 1 (Review of Units 1–3) Real-world strategy ■ Respond to an ■ Speculate
about a picture introduction ■ Talk about viral stories

too and enough Modifying comparisons

Talking about time and ■ Saying /s/ at the money beginning of a word ■ Talking
about prices and Reading Writing Speaking value A comment Flipping your job ■
Talk about a new activity ■ A comment on ■ Talk about personal achievements
interview ■ An article on ■ Describe your personal qualities an article ■ Agreeing
and ■ Play an introduction game interview skills disagreeing Time to speak Modals
of speculation ■ Talking about advertising ■ Saying the vowel ■ Ask and answer
interview questions Subject and object ■ Talking about people in sounds /ɔ/ and
/ɑ/ ■ Listening for topic relative clauses the media A report ■ Talk about fusion
foods organization ■ The results of ■ Discuss ideas to avoid food waste ■ Explain a
favorite recipe a survey about ■ Offer food and drink to others eating habits ■
Reporting research Time to speak Past perfect ■ Describing stories ■ Saying
consonants at results ■ Present a restaurant rescue plan was/were going to; ■
Making and breaking the end of a word ■

■ Talk about changes to plans ■ React toand bad news was/were supposed to A
product plansreview Make ■ an apology ■ Discuss things money can’t buy Buyer
beware! ■ what Write a formal apology ■ Short stories ■ Product reviews ■ Talk
about quality of life explain happened Evolve Level 4 ■ Piece together a full story ■
Expressing ■ Talk about relative value about good Real-world strategy ■ Talk about
a past apology opinions about and bad online ■ Respond to an apology Work in
pairs. Here are some more items from the same coursebook syllabus. Decide
which column they product features shopping Time to speak ■ Discuss charity and
volunteer work ■ Present and past passive ■ Discussing good works ■ Saying /b/ or
/v/ in the experiences go into: Grammar, Vocabulary, Pronunciation, or Functional
language. ■ Repair a customer relationship ■ Discuss acts of kindness ■ Passive
with modals ■ Describing good deeds middle of a word ■

Unit 6 Community action

1

••••••••••

wel /ɑ/ opic

ants at ord

v/ in the ord / ds

Unit 2 The future of food

Learning objectives

■ and Offer help with something present past passive ■ Write a report about a
community make an apology and explain what happened Building a brand ■
Exchangeproject and discuss ■ project A news report opinions about possible ■
Design a community saying /s/ or /z/ at the about end aof a word local actions
reported questions company that Review 2 (Review of Units 4–6) Real-world
strategy global ■ Make opinions more talking about time andwent money emphatic
was / were going to ■ React to problems and The perfect stressing words try to find
along solution apology ■ An article about keep your listener engaged Real-world
strategy corporate ■ Accepting bad news I wish apologies saying long or short
vowel sounds

Listening for /j/ between words ■ Talk about all the signs we see ■ Speculate about
a picture ■ Talk about viral stories ■ Give and support opinions Time to speak ■
Create and present an ad ■

A response A social media post ■ Writing about reasons and consequences ■

An apology A letter of apology from a company ■ Using referents to avoid repetition

■

Discuss good storytellers Tell someone’s life story ■ Tell the story of a change of
plans ■ Act out situations with bad news Time to speak ■ Connect events to tell
the story ■ ■

report ■ Make, refuse, and accept Talk about acts of kindness Painting safer 2 Work
in pairs. What factors might determine the choice of■Aitems to put into a■■
syllabus? A report on a Discuss charity organizations offers of help streets Real-
world strategy Imposing on somebody

D Parts of speech ■

A podcast about a community art project

community project ■ Using quotes as © Cambridge University Press support

Discuss helping others Make offers of help to strangers Time to speak ■ Discuss
helping your community ■ ■

reference purposes only classes). These are: xii In English there are at least eight
parts For of speech (also called word

•••••

nouns, such as cup, teabag, minutes pronouns, i.e. words that take the place of
nouns, such as it, they, ours verbs, such as use, be, leave, stirring adjectives, such
as perfect, boiling adverbs, such as freshly, gently

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4 Introduction to analysing language • prepositions, such as for, with, without •

determiners, such as the definite article the, the indefinite article a/an, and words
like one, some, this, when they go in front of nouns, as one teabag • conjunctions,
i.e. words that join parts of sentences, such as and, or, that Many common words
can function as different parts of speech, depending on their context. Water, for
example, can be a noun (a cup of water) or a verb (water the garden). One can be a
determiner (one teabag) or a pronoun (would you like one?)

Work in pairs. Identify the part of speech of each word in this text. In the empty
doorway many petals are scattered; As they fall they blend with the song of the
birds. Slowly, the bright spring sun appears in the window
And a thin line of smoke drifts from the incense burner. John Stevens, 1977

In

the

empty

preposition

determiner

adjective

As

they

conjunction

pronoun

Slowly

the

fall

bright

doorway

they

blend

spring

sun

with
many

petals

the

song

appears

in

are

of

scattered

the

birds

the

window

incense

burner

noun And

thin

line

of
smoke

drifts

from

the

E Content words v grammar words

Unlike some languages, English doesn’t have a lot of grammar in the form of verb
endings (as in Russian) or noun cases (as in German). Instead, a lot of grammatical
meaning is carried by the ‘grammar’ words. These act as the ‘glue’ that connects
the ‘content’ words, i.e. those words that carry the main meaning.

1 Work in pairs. Look at the poem from the last activity. 1 Identify the content
words. These are typically nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs. The first line has
been done for you: the content words are underlined. In the empty doorway many
petals are scattered; As they fall they blend with the song of the birds. Slowly, the
bright spring sun appears in the window And a thin line of smoke drifts from the
incense burner. 2 What is the proportion of content words to grammar words?
(There are 39 words altogether). 3 Do you think this would be the same for most
texts? Choose a text at random and check. 19 Downloaded from
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2 – Language analysis and awareness 2 What do you notice about the grammar
words? Here are some clues to help you: frequency, length, repetition, stress,
novelty. 3 A very important sub-group of grammar words are auxiliary verbs
(sometimes called ‘helping verbs’). Look at this summary – from a coursebook – of
the main uses of auxiliary verbs:

Uses of auxiliaries (1): auxiliaries in verb forms 1B 4 p11

REAL WORLD

1.2

●
We make continuous verb forms with be + verb+ing: I’m doing a Master’s. (Present
Continuous) She was hoping to do her first degree in four years. (Past Continuous)

We make perfect verb forms with have + past participle: It’s something I’ve (= have)
wanted to do for ages. (Present Perfect Simple)

We make all passive verb forms with be + past participle: I was told you were really
enjoying it. (Past Simple Passive)

In the Present Simple and Past Simple we use a form of do to make questions and
negatives: Does she know this guy? I didn’t think you were coming.

1.1

Keeping a conversation go

We often use short questions to keep a co and to show interest.

How’s (it) going? (= Are you enjoying it or be Why’s that? (= What’s the reason?) Like
what, exactly? (= Can you give me an How do you mean? (= Can you explain this
What’s (the teacher) like? (= What’s your op What else are you doing? (= Are you
doing Such as? (= Can you give me an example? How come? (= Why?/What’s the
reason?) In what way? (= Can you explain this more What sort of (dancing)? (= Can
you be more

MODAL VERBS ●

We also use modal verbs as auxiliaries. The modal verbs are: will, would, can,
could, may, might, shall, should, ought to, must and have to.
TIPS • In informal English, we also use How’s it goin Hi, Andy. How’s it going? (=
How are you?)

Modal verbs are different from the auxiliaries be, do and have because they have
their own meanings. Most modal verbs also have more than one meaning:

• We can also say Who else … ? and Where e are you going with? Where else are
you going?

I’ll see you at six. (a promise) I think we’ll win. (a prediction) Can you pick me up? (a
request) He can play the piano. (ability) You must be here at nine. (obligation) You
must see that film. (strong recommendation)

Uses of auxiliaries (2): other uses of face2face Upper Intermediate auxiliaries 1B 5

p11 1.3

• We can say What sort of … ?, What kind of … of … ?: What sort/kind/type of

course? QUESTIONS WITH PREPOSITIONS ●

We often make short questions with ‘questio

CHLOE I go every week. SOPHIE Really? Who with? SOPHIE I’m off to the USA on
Sunday. CHLOE Are you? How long for?

TIPS • In these types of short questions, both the q the prepositions are stressed.

Work in pairs small groups. We also useor auxiliaries in the following ways: a in
question tags: You’re doing Open University course, a Think of the learners you are
an teaching now. Rate this explanation in terms of its clarity, aren’t you? economy
and usefulness, from those learners’ point of view. • The most common question
words for these are Who, Where and What: to add emphasis: worry. It does get
easier. bb Assuming this is a Don’t review, at what stages in the learners’ progress
would they have likely A I’m going away. B Where to? c met in short to yes/no
questions: theseanswers points for the first time? (You might want to check with
the coursebook you are A I talked to Vicky. B What about? currently JESS Do using.)
you think you’ll have finished your degree by • We often use What for? as an
alternative to W next year? TONY No, Iother don’t.uses of auxiliaries not mentioned
here? c Can you think of any d to say it’s the same for you or other people with so or
nor: T I found the first few assignments a bit scary. J So does everyone.

20

J How do you manage to do everything? T Sometimes I don’t. J Nor do I.

A I’m going into town.

B What for?

• We also use echo questions (CHLOE It’s eve than creative writing. SOPHIE Is it?)
and que tags (It’s been ages, hasn’t it?) to keep a con

I’ve just started an English course.

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Really? How

4 Introduction to analysing language

KEY WORDS FOR TEACHERS Check you know the meanings of these terms. •
form, concept • structure, function, register • phrase • part of speech (or word
class) • syllable • noun, verb, adjective, adverb, determiner, article, pronoun,
preposition, conjunction • content words, grammar words • auxiliary verbs •
modal verbs • text

REFLECTION This unit has introduced you to some key elements of language
analysis – and a lot of terminology! Reflect on your language analysis skills at this
point in time: 1 How would you rate yourself, on a scale of 1 to 10, in terms of the
following? 1 Your current understanding of the main concepts introduced in this
unit. 2 Your grasp of the terminology that has been used. 3 Your familiarity with the
resources available for self-development in this area. 4 Your motivation to improve
your language analysis skills. 2 Can you identify any specific language areas on
which you would appreciate more clarification right now?

Reference
Marr, T. and English, F. (2019). Rethinking TESOL in Diverse Global Settings.
London: Bloomsbury Academic, p.230. Ryokan, trans. Stevens, J. (1977). One
Robe, One Bowl: The Zen Poetry of Ryokan. New York: Weatherhill, p.37.

21 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. University of Western

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2 – Language analysis and awareness

5 Introduction to researching language A Warm-up Work in pairs. Answer the

questions. 1 In the box are some questions which a teacher might need the
answers to before working on grammar, vocabulary or functional language with
learners. Look at the language analysis form from your trainer. Which questions do
you need to answer to complete the form? a b c d e f g

What situations is the language item likely to be used in? What does the language
mean (in this context)? What is the written form of the language? (What does it
look like?) What is the pronunciation (spoken form) of the language? (What does it
sound like?) What problems might learners have with the meaning or use of the
language? What problems might learners have with the written form of the
language? What problems might learners have with the pronunciation of the
language?

2 What sources could a teacher use to find out this information?

B Researching language using coursebooks 1 Your TP tutor UNIT has 6 given you a
grammar lesson to teach on the topic of ‘modals 5 GRAMMAR of obligation’. Look
at the coursebook Modals of obligation extract and complete the following tasks. a
What do you think people might i Underline the and find diffi cultwords when they
spend some time in a different culture? phrases which express obligation
and advice. b Read Culture shock. Find four things people a might find diffiWork
cult. out the ii Work with partner. rulescfromHave theyou example sentences. ever
experienced culture shock? When? Where?

The words or phrases you have d Read the part text again. Underline the identified
form of ‘model words or phrases which express sentences’. You can use them as
your obligation and advice (must, have to, examplesetc.). when working on
grammar with learners. e Complete rules 1–5 with the words in the box.
can can’t don’t have to have to must mustn’t ought to should 1 We use and to give
advice. 2 We use to say that something is not necessary. 3 We use and to say that
something is necessary. 4 We use and when we say that something is
forbidden/not allowed. 5 We use to talk about a choice to do something.

22

CULTURE SHOCK Some people choose to live in another country, other people
have to move for family or work reasons. If you’re going to live in a new place for
some time, you ought to be prepared to experience culture shock at some point. At
first, when you’re in a very different environment, everything seems exciting and
new. Then, the differences start to be annoying. Life feels too fast or too slow, the
food tastes strange, you miss your favourite television programmes. Laws are
different – there are things you mustn’t do here that you can do at home. This is
culture shock. The good news is, you don’t have to spoil your experience of living
abroad. Culture shock doesn’t usually last very long.

h A foreign visitor is coming to live in your country for six months.

Empower B1+

Prepare to give him/her some advice. Use the ideas in the box and your own ideas
to make a list of rules and tips. roads, pavements and cycle lanes public transport

eating and drinking talking to people who are older than you Now go to Grammar
Focus 6A on night clothes language parks and public spaces p.142 University of
Western Ontario, on 11 Decgoing Downloaded from
https://www.cambridge.org/core. 2023out at at 03:58:24, subject to the Cambridge
Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms.
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009091602.006

You mustn’t eat or drink when walking in the street.

family or work reasons. If you’re going to live in a new place for some time, you
ought to be prepared to experience culture shock at some point. 5 Introduction At
first, when you’re in a very to researching language

people might find difficult.

c

Have you ever experienced culture shock? When? Where?

d Read the text again. Underline the

different environment, everything

seems exciting and modals new. Then, the 2 The words next activity in thewhich
book asks learners to identify the meaning of four of obligation from the or phrases
express differences start to be annoying. Life obligation andextra advice (must,
have to, Try it yourself: context, plus four modals of obligation. feels too fast or too
slow, the food tastes strange, you miss your favourite television programmes. Laws
are different – there are things you mustn’t do here that you can do at home. This is
culture shock.

etc.).

e Complete rules 1–5 with the words in the box.

can can’t don’t have to have to must mustn’t ought to should 1 We use and to give
advice. 2 We use to say that something is not necessary. 3 We use and to say that
something is necessary. 4 We use and when we say that something is
forbidden/not allowed. 5 We use to talk about a choice to do something.

The good news is, you don’t have to spoil your experience of living abroad. Culture
shock doesn’t usually last very long.

h A foreign visitor is coming to live in your country for six months.

Prepare to give him/her some advice. Use the ideas in the box and your own ideas
to make a list of rules and tips. roads, pavements and cycle lanes public transport
eating and drinking talking to people who are older than you going out at night
clothes language parks and public spaces

Now go to Grammar Focus 6A on p.142 Empower B1+

You mustn’t drink when walking the street. Complete these rules about 3 Atg the
back of the coursebook, youtransport can ofteninfind a summary of eat the or
grammar, along withinsome extra You should always give your seat to an older your
country. Usegrammar the verbs in the box. information. Use the summary on the
next page to complete as much of this table aspassenger you can. on the bus.
must/have to don’t have to mustn’t Use should shouldn’t can can’t

Verb

must

Buses 1 You haveYou to

buy a ticket in advance. buy a ticket on the bus.

Walking and cycling use pedestrian crossings 2 You when you want to cross the
road. mustn’t wear a cycle helmet. 3 You cycle on the pavement. 4 You use cycle
lanes. You can’t Cars wear a seat belt. 5 Passengers couldn’t drive with your lights
on 6 You during the day.

don’t have to

ought to

70

Take turns to read out your rules. Discuss the questions.

Notes / Possible problems

1 Which rules are about safety? no orare future form – use have to instead 2 past
Which about being polite to people? questions withare must very rare 3 Which
rules theare most important?

when we make the rules

have got to

Taxis 7 You should 8 You 9 You

i
stop taxis in the street. book taxis in advance. give taxi drivers a tip.

SPEAKING

a Read the questions and make notes about your answers. 1 Which foreign
country/other area would you like to study/do your job in? 2 Why would youinlike
live there? [no information thetosummary]

Discuss the questions in 6a. Think of anything your partner

[no information in the summary] should/must/mustn’t do to prepare. What other

advice would you give them?

[no information in the summary] I’d like to work in France.

[no information in the summary]You should do

some French classes before you go.

Good idea!

© Cambridge University Press For reference purposes only 23

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at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms.
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2 – Language analysis and awareness

GRAMMAR Modals of obligation 6A5Modals of obligation

g Give students up to five minutes to think about rules associated with travel and
transport in their country

must Discuss and have tothe question as a class. and complete the sentences.
Monitor and help as 2.26 mustn’t, can’t and don’tto have to We use must when we
make the rules: We use mustn’t or can’t tonecessary. say that something is not
allowed. b Give students two minutes to read Culture shock and find I must get a
good night’s sleep tonight. We often use mustn’t when we make the rules and can’t
to talk We usefour have things to when we talk about otherfind people’s rules:
about living people might difficult in people’s rules:If your class is multi-national,
put students from about other You have to buy a culture. ticket before you
getanswers on the train. another Check as a class. different countries in groups to
compare their answers. I mustn’t forget to email my mum. There is no past or
future form of must. When we talk about We can’t cross the road yet – thefeedback
light’s still red. Take as a class. Answers rules in the past or future, we always use
the correct form of For things which were not allowed in the past, use couldn’t:
have to: Life feels too fast or too slow; the food tastes strange; you miss your h
because Give students to visa. 10 minutes to prepare some I couldn’t work in India
I only had a up tourist When youfavourite go to India, you’ll have to get a visa.laws
are different. television programmes; advice and rules. Monitor and help with
vocabulary as We use don’t have to when there is no obligation. It means it’s I had
to wear a uniform at school. necessary. not necessary to do something: c Tip Put
students into small groups to discuss University the students don’t have to wear a
uniform. i Put students into pairs or small groups to discuss question, then take
feedback by asking each group I didn’t to have to call a taxi. Robert drove me
home. Don’t use contractions with have to:

a2.25

I havesummarise to go. NOT I’vetheir to go.experiences

of culture shock.

their tips. They should listen to each other’s rules

should and ought to carefully and then discuss questions 1–3. Take feedback use
should or ought to to give advice and recommendations. d Tell students that
obligation refers to rules, lawsWeand as a but class andis much ask amore
student from each group to read out They have the same meaning, should to
Tipother pressures from outside, while advice refers one or two rules connected
with safety and one or two common: helpful Giveinstudents one minute We to
should read see as much asrules there issuggestions. not much difference
meaning between • Often possible. We shouldn’t waste time. about being polite to
people. Encourage a full class theortext underline any words must have again to.
Haveand to is much more common than or phrases We ought to see as much
discussion as possible. Weabout ought not to waste the mosttime. important
rules. must, especially in spoken English. or advice. You may wish to tell which
express obligation got to is also used in spoken English and means the • have
students that they also have to find an example of a lack same as have to. of
obligation (don’t have to spoil). They then compare • Questions with must are very
rare. 2.27

answers in pairs.

a Tell students to imagine they can work or study

anywhere they want to in the world. It could be in a different part of their own
country, or in a foreign country far away. Give students time to make notes on the
questions. Monitor and help students with any language they need.

Answers obligation: have to move, mustn’t do, can do, don’t have to spoil advice:
ought to be prepared

e Put students into pairs to complete the grammar rules.

6B

Check answers as and a class. Comparatives superlatives

Answers Adjectives 1 ought to, should rich ➔ richer, the richest 2 don’t have to
Ending in -y: have to, must from the This is 3an excerpt easy ➔ easier, the easiest 4
can’t, mustn’t friendly looked at in task➔B:friendlier, the 5 can friendliest Two or
more

SPEAKING

Adverbs

Empower B1+

Put students into pairs to tell each other about likeit with to go The oppositewhere
of more they is less.would We can use all and why, and to give each other advice.
Monitor and check that students are using adjectives and adverbs: The car’s
slightly less clean than it was. appropriately. Nominate a few modals of obligation I
drive less quickly he does. their conversations for the class. pairs than toto
perform corresponds the student’s book pages we

C Researching language using teacher’s books One syllable

syllables

Other:

careful ➔ more careful, the CAREFUL! most careful

fast ➔ faster, the fastest

All:

teacher’s book which often ➔ more often, the most often carefully ➔ more
carefully, the most carefully

Students are to make of➔errors well better, of theform best and goodlikely ➔
better, the besta number use with modals of obligation. badly ➔ worse, the worst
bad ➔ worse, the worst far ➔ further, the furthest

far ➔ further, the furthest

as + adjective/adverb + as shows that two things are equal; not as … as TIP means
less than: LOA MONITORING They’re as wealthy as the royal family. She doesn’t
listen as carefully as she should. Some common can change the degree of
Whenadverbs students are having a paired discussion like this, it the comparison:
can be easy for a more dominant student to do most of the You’re just as pretty as
your sister! (= exactly equal) talking. As you monitor, try to redress the balance if
possible My brother isn’t nearly as hard-working as me. by gesturing to the quieter
speaker to make a contribution or (= very different) bysleep asking e.g. What else
should your partner She doesn’t quitehim/her as well asdirectly, I do. (= slightly
think different) about? What sort of clothes should he/she take?

Problems with form include using the wrong verb form early ➔ earlier, the more /
the most bored / tired / form = I must go). after a modal, e.g. I must to go (Correct
earliest ill With haveclever to, students ➔ cleverermay / the also contract the
structure Extremes cleverest* inappropriately, e.g. I’ve to go to the doctor (Correct
form = I We use superlative adjectives and adverbs to talk have to go …). They also
make mistakes with word order, e.g. about extremes: *Some two-syllable
adjectives can follow the rules for one-syllable adjectives: ADDITIONAL MATERIAL
Wenarrow, have also to quiet, wearsimple. a uniform (Correct form = We also have
It’s the worst hotel in the world! clever, shallow, I got the lowest score possible. to
wear…). Workbook 6A 2.32 Comparison We often use the present perfect with ever
with We can use comparative adjectives and adverbs to compare two things, The
difference between mustn’t and don’t have to can also superlatives:
Photocopiable activities: Grammar p.162, Vocabulary p.168, situations, times,
actions, etc. usually with than. We can change the degree of This is the best meal
I’ve ever eaten. be difficult for students at this level, e.g. You don’t have to
Pronunciation p.177 comparison with words like a lot, much, far, even, slightly, a
bit, a little: It was the least interesting film I’ve ever seen. many sweets. Life’seat a
lottoo more interesting thanThey’re before. bad for you. (Correct form = You We can
use the expression by far to say an extreme eatthan …),she and I mustn’t
She’smustn’t a bit happier used to be. go to the shops. There’s enough is very
different from all others: He’smilk speaking much more slowly than usual today.
(Correct form = I don’t have to go …). That’s by far the highest mountain I’ve ever
climbed. Exceptions

2.25— 2.27 Students read the information in f © Cambridge University Press B1+
TB Play theEmpower recording For reference purposes only 142 Grammar Focus
6A on SB p.142. where indicated and ask students to listen and repeat. Students
then complete the exercises. Check answers as a class. Tell students to go back to
SB p.70.

24

Answers (Grammar Focus 6A SB p.143) a 2 had to 3 Does (Alex) have to 4 mustn’t 5

didn’t have to 6 must 7 have to 8 mustn’t b 2 don’t have to pay 3 mustn’t/shouldn’t
leave 4 mustn’t/can’t use 5 must/should only use

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5 Introduction to researching language Use the information in the excerpt to

answer the questions. 1 What is the correct verb form after a modal like must or
can? What is one problem which learners might have with the form? 2 What two
other problems with the form of modals of obligation might learners have? 3 What
problem with the meaning of mustn’t and don’t have to might learners have? Why?
You may wish to look back at B3 to help you.

D Researching language using reference books

A reputable grammar book aimed at teachers will generally focus on key areas
which it is useful for teachers to work on with learners, including potential
problems which learners might have. Your trainer will give you a relevant excerpt
from a grammar reference book. Speak to everybody in the group. Which of the
questions from task A does each excerpt answer?

E Putting it all together Work with a partner. 1 Look back at the questions in A. How
many of them can you now answer about modals of obligation? Which sources
have you used to gather this information? Which sources did you find to be more or
less useful in your research? 2 In this TP, do you feel like you would be prepared to:
• communicate the most important points connected to the grammar? • answer
learners’ questions about the grammar?

KEY WORDS FOR TEACHERS Check you know the meanings of these terms. •
meaning • form • pronunciation • context • model sentence • modal verb •
auxiliary verb • infinitive

REFLECTION To what extent do you agree with the following statements? • You
should research the language items you plan to teach before you plan how to
teach them. • You need to research quite different information when you’re
teaching vocabulary rather than grammar.

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2 – Language analysis and awareness • The best place to find out information
about grammar you’re teaching is in a grammar

book. • You should have a comprehensive knowledge of new language you’re

planning to teach before you enter the classroom. • It’s important to teach learners
everything you know about the new language item(s) you’re working on. • You
should be able to answer all of the learners’ questions about the language you are
teaching during the lesson. • Predicting possible problems learners might have
with the language will help you to feel more confident in the classroom. Compare
your answers with a partner.

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6 Vocabulary A Warm-up 1 Work in pairs or groups. Brainstorm as many words you

can think of that relate to the topic of gardening. You have one minute. 2 Compare
your words with those of another group. Identify how many you had that were the
same and how many were different. 3 Decide if it is possible to make connections
between any of your words. For example, if you had tree and leaf, you could say
that a leaf is a part of a tree; flower and pot can combine to make flowerpot.

B Lexical meaning Read the following text. Identify any words that you
brainstormed in A. Then answer the questions.

Operation Tree Salvage To know a good pruning job from a bad one it is necessary
to understand a few principles of tree growth. First of all, a tree, like all plants, is a
living organism. We know that it manufactures its own food in the leaves. Raw
materials, water and minerals, taken in by the roots, are transported up to the
leaves and there, in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll (green matter), are
converted to simple food. These in turn flow back through the tree, nourishing
growing cells throughout the plant. This intricate transportation system and a layer
of active growth cells lie just beneath the bark. There are a number of theories on
the forces that put this system into motion. However, for our purposes it is evident
that the foliage of the tree is essential to this process. It stands to reason then that
we can’t just lop off all the major branches of a large tree and expect it to survive.

Granted that in some cases pruning will have to be severe, but if it is done properly
the tree will have a chance to live. When a large branch is cut off and a stub is left,
the growth processes stop in the projected stub, but continue their natural course
of flow at its base in the parent branch. Each year as the tree grows it rebuilds a
new growth ring around the stub. This is noted as a swelling, and will continue to
grow in size each succeeding year. In the meantime, the dead stub is exposed to
the elements and begins to rot away. In time it will decay back to the stem or trunk
and be sloughed off and the original wound may close over with new growth rings.
Usually before this happens, the organisms causing decay of the stub enter the
main stem and begin their slow but deadly work there, so that in time the entire
tree may become decadent. Pat Gallavan, 1959

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2 – Language analysis and awareness 1 Match the sets of words (1–5; underlined in
the text) with the term that describes their relationship (a–e). words

relationship

1 to survive, to live; leaves, foliage; rot, decay

a antonyms (opposite meaning)

2 good, bad; living, dead

b word family (words that share the same root)

3 living organism; raw materials

c lexical set (words that are thematically related, or that form parts of a larger
unit)

4 grow, growing, growth; decay, decadent

d synonyms (same or similar meaning)

5 leaves, roots, branch, bark, trunk

e collocations (words the commonly occur together)

2 Find more examples of each category in the text.

C Word formation

In English, new words can be formed by combining old ones – a process called
‘compounding’, or by adding prefixes and suffixes (such as pre- or –less) – a
process called ‘affixation’. Some words in fact comprise more than one word: they
take the form of multi-word units (also called ‘chunks’). Phrasal verbs are a kind of
multi-word unit composed of a verb and a particle, e.g. down, in, over.

1 Match the modes of formation (1–4) with the examples from the text (a–d). 1
compounding (= putting two or more words together to make one)

a cut off, close over, rot away

2 affixation (= adding prefixes or suffixes)

b sunlight, meantime

3 multi-word unit (chunk) (= two or more words that have one complete meaning)

c organism; transportation; rebuilds

4 phrasal verb (= verb plus particle, having one complete meaning)

d first of all; in the meantime; in turn

2 Phrasal verbs, such as cut off, are a common feature of English. They cause
learners problems, both of meaning (they are often idiomatic) and form (there are
constraints on the way their components can be sequenced).

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6 Vocabulary

Below are some examples of phrasal verbs in context (taken from the Cambridge
Corpus1). The parts of the phrasal verbs are underlined. Use the examples to
complete the table. Phrasal verb

Idiomatic yes

Syntax no

parts are separable

parts are not separable

set off give back look after get on knock over make up In June 1990, 18 children and
48 volunteers set off for Trail’s Edge. And what time did you set off? ‘At half past ten
this morning.’ I set off at four o’clock: it took me half an hour to get through. He felt
he wanted to give something back to the Health Service. In 1969 John Lennon gave
back his MBE as a protest over Biafra and the Vietnam war. Then he signed my card
and gave it back to me. Because we lived in my mother’s flat, she could look after
my baby a lot of the time. And I also had a child, and I had to look after her at the
time. Of course you would have your aunty there to look after you. They didn’t get
on, she and Gwen, and they had nothing in common. How did you get on with the
local people? What happened was that Roger and I never got on really. He reached
for his glass and knocked it over. I managed to knock over the bucket with the mop.
One of the boys had knocked a table over on his way to the bathroom. They made
up a story about some tycoon making a big cash withdrawal. That’s not actually
true – I just made it up. Any historical novelist seeking authenticity does not make
the facts up.

1 A corpus

is a large database of authentic texts, both written and spoken, used for research
purposes. 29

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6A

Make up your mind

Grammar firs future time

2 – Language analysis and awareness

QUICK REVIEW Explaining what you need Write a list of four things in your house.
Work in pairs. Take turns to describe the things to your partner. Don’t say the thing:
It’s made of metal and you use it to mendthe clothes. Your 1 Study these three
coursebook activities. Identify aspect of lexical meaning or word formation that
partner guesses what the things are: A needle? each one targets.
D Vocabulary focus a

Vocabulary and Speaking make and do 1

a Work in pairs. Do we use make or do with these words/phrases? Then check in

VOCABULARY 6.1 p141. the cleaning a decision a course a mistake homework
money friends nothing exercise the washing-up a noise the shopping dinner some
work the washing a degree an excuse someone laugh/cry an exam up your mind
the housework progress a cake an appointment someone a favour a mess of
something

do the cleaning

Lily

make a decision

Speaking and Listening

b Work in pairs. Take turns to test each other. a decision

make a decision

a Work in pairs. Discuss these questions 1

a Fill in the gaps in these questions with the correct face2face Intermediate form of
make or do.

10A Adjectives with prefixes

d Complete rules:to Lily talking to her bro b CD2these 5 Listen

Work in pairs. Student A, answer these qu WeLily. useStudent im- instead of in-
before adjectives begin B, answer these questions a the1 letter . Does she/he have
a job at the moment? If We use il- instead she/he do? of in- before adjectives
beginn the2 letter . What decision does she/he have to make? We use ir- instead of
in- before adjectives beginn 3 What advice does she/he give to the othe the letter .
c Work with your partner. Compare answ you think Lily and Adam should do?

1 Are you going to do shopping class? a Read about William and some his change
of after lifestyle.

What part he change? 2 Did youof his life does someone a favour last weekend?

Are you good at people laugh? William was working as a legal adviser. He was an 4
Do you usually the washing-up? experienced and responsible employee with
regular 5 Have you any exercise this week? working hours. But he was bored. He
was not a 6 Do you ever have to excuses for being late? patient man either and
wanted to change his life 7 Are you another course at the moment? before it was
too late. So he handed in his notice, and 8 Have you any newmanner friends that
this year? explained in a formal and polite he was 9notDo you like nothing at the
weekend? satisfied with his situation. 10HeDo youstarted usually have tofor
himself asdinner for other then working a gardener people? and discovered that it
was even better than expected. He enjoyed working outdoors, he loved seeing all
the wildlife around him, and he felt like a very fortunate b Ask other students your
questions from 2a. Try to man. happywho that answers he had been with find He
onewas person yes honest to each question. himself and followed his heart. Ask
follow-up questions if possible. 3

Are you going to do some shopping after class?

e Use adjectives from the table to complete t

4sentences. a Work in the same pairs. Who said thes Lily orleft Adam? 1 Karen top-
secret documents in her car with window open. It was very 1 If I start teaching
again, I’ll be exhausted a 2 I 2inherited my grandmother’s whendegr she What will
you study if youjewellery do another I 3hadYou no might idea she wanted me to
have it, so it waa not get in this year if you don’t completely 4 But unless I do it
soon, I’ll be too old. 3 Be careful of Alex. He may try to cheat you! He 5 I’ll ask them
before they go on holiday. bit 6 As soon as I make up my mind, I’ll let you 4 My
sister always reads the last chapter first bec 7 I’ll make a decision after I talk to
him. she wants to find out what happens in the end 8 I won’t say anything until you
decide what so I’ll call when I know what I’m doing. 5 I 9stayed in you a hotel with
terrible service. My frien
Yes, I am.

What are you going to buy?

30 46

Do you find it easy to make decisions? Wh What was the last big decision you
made? Vocabul decide what to do?

recommended it to me, but and I wascheck. very b CD2 5 Listen again

Choose two of these questions and dis with a partner.

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1 Do you ever get impatient? When?

KING

3 syllables

opposite of the adjectives in the correct place in the table. Use a dictionary to help
you. un-

in-

im-

ir-

il-

dis-

e photostory. u say them in

t’s none of (your) business. … in any case, …

c Where is the stress in all the 3- and 4-sylla

words? What’s different about the 5-syllabl

d Choose three words with a different numbe

c Look again at the adjectives theEblog p.118. 10 inSPR A DIon NG TH E N E WS e

Empower B2

Add them to the correct places.

Now go back to p.118

© Cambridge University Press For reference purposes only

Expressions with way

ENCY

3.54 Listen again and mark the main stre each word. Which two words also have a
se stress?

syllables. Say the word in a sentence to you partner. Check that your partner’s
stress is

he news but the

Nicole’s house? eporter? d a video? by the video?

b Look at the adjectives in bold in the text. Add the

WordWise

Don’t you ever

1 Look at these sentences from the unit so far.

Complete them with the phrases from the list. the way | the same way | in my way
on my way | one way or another | way too 1 2 3 4 5 6

Twitter allows people who think to get together. Liam, you’re . I can’t see the
screen. I was to meet you when I saw a TV cameraman. This is difficult. I hate
guessing. How is Twitter changing we do things? I don’t know how but I’m going to
fix the situation .

2 Which phrase in Exercise 1 means: in a similar manner 2 very / really 3 coming 4

between me and 1

3 Choose the correct options.

something else 5 the manner or method 6 from one perspective Think B2

Can you move please? You’re in a way / in my way. 2 Decide He dances / inup a way
badly! in class. 2 Work in pairs. how the yousame wouldway follow eachhe of sings
these–activities 3 He phoned me and told me that he’s in his way / on e your hair
green? his way here. He’ll be ten minutes. 5, ? 31 4 I really like the way / in your way
you’ve done your where we’re hair! Downloaded from
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5 She can’t come, and in a way / in her way I’m happy,
https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms.
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009091602.007 g .

ise 1 to

5 syllab

6 Vocabulary

happens next in deas.

ow the story

4 syllables
1

2 – Language analysis and awareness

E Lexical difficulty 1 Work in pairs. Decide which of these words in the text in B
might cause learners difficulty in understanding. Give reasons.

bark chlorophyll lop off parent pruning stub

sunlight 2 Choose up to five words in the text that you would pre-teach before
giving it to a class of upperintermediate students to read. 3 Discuss what factors
determined your choice of words.

KEY WORDS FOR TEACHERS Check you know the meanings of these terms. •
synonym, antonym • collocation, lexical set • compounding, affixation, prefix,
suffix • phrasal verb, multi-word unit, chunk

REFLECTION Find a text, either authentic or in the coursebook you are using, and
choose an area of vocabulary in the text that you could focus on. For example, a
lexical set, collocation, multi-word units, etc. How would you use the text for this
purpose? Consider: a How would you check understanding of the items? b How
would you provide practice of the items?

Reference

Gallavan, P. (1959). Operation Tree Salvage. The Green Thumb, Colorado Forestry
and Horticulture Association, recovered from
https://www.gutenberg.org/files/59948/59948-0.txt

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7 Teaching vocabulary A Warm-up 1 Imagine you are going to travel to a country

where you do not speak the language. How are you more likely to prepare? a by
learning some words and phrases b by studying the grammar rules of the language
Explain your choice. 2 Look at the quote from David Wilkins. To what extent do you
agree with him?
The fact is that while without grammar very little can be conveyed, without
vocabulary nothing can be conveyed. David Wilkins, 1972

3 Compare your answers to 2 with the other members of your group.

B Meaning, form and use 1 Your trainer will teach you a word from another
language. What do you need to know about the word to be able to use it when
speaking? And what about when writing? 2 What information will learners need
about nearly every word or phrase they learn? What information will they
sometimes need? 3 What are the implications of the above for learning and
teaching?

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2 – Language analysis and awareness

C Presenting techniques 1 Look at the teaching techniques listed below. For each
one say whether it primarily focuses on form, meaning or use. Teaching technique
1

the teacher shows pictures, realia or uses mime

the teacher uses definitions

the teacher uses translation

the teacher uses word relationships (e.g. it means the opposite of . . . , it’s a type of
. . . , it’s a part of . . . )

learners repeat the word or phrase

6

the teacher writes the word or phrase on the board

the teacher indicates the stress pattern on a word after writing it on the board

the teacher provides additional information (e.g. this word is very informal)

the teacher highlights the use of new vocabulary in context (e.g. by showing an
authentic piece of communication, such as a video clip)

focus on form, meaning or use

2 Which techniques have you used in your own teaching? 3 Which techniques
would you use to teach these groups of words? Group 1 (elementary class): grape,
plum, strawberry, cherry Group 2 (pre-intermediate class): to dig, to paint, to saw,
to hammer Group 3 (intermediate class): a pet, to put down (a pet), to vaccinate, a
vet Group 4 (upper-intermediate class): alone, lonely, solitude, isolated

D Eliciting vocabulary 1 Eliciting new language can help teachers gauge and
respond to their learners’ knowledge in a studentcentred way. Look at a–e below.
Which pieces of advice do you consider to be helpful for a new teacher when
eliciting? Compare your ideas with a partner. a Try to trick the learners or they will
find it too easy. b Plan how you will elicit things before the lesson. c Ensure eliciting
is as simple and quick as possible. d Make sure you elicit everything – never give in
and just tell the learners. e If the learners don’t get the word quickly, try giving them
the first sound of the word. 2 How would you try to elicit the following words? a a
watch b a game show c a hurricane 34 Downloaded from
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7 Teaching vocabulary 3 Complete this summary about eliciting new language. The
first and last letters of the missing words have been given to you. It is good to
i______e learners when presenting new language. However, there is also nothing
wrong with teachers g____g learners information sometimes. If you e____t new
language, make sure it is done q_____y. Be p______d to tell learners what
something means, rather than create an elaborate g______g game!

E Checking understanding 1 Even after a focus on meaning, teachers sometimes

need to check that learners have understood. Look at the following techniques.
Talk to a partner about the strengths and weaknesses of each. a The teacher asks a
learner to translate the word (or phrase) into their own language. b The teacher
monitors how words are used in a subsequent activity. c The teacher asks, ‘Do you
understand?’. d The teacher asks the students to use the word in a sentence. e The
teacher asks short, easy-to-answer questions. For example: ‘If you are furious, are
you a little bit angry, or very angry?’. 2 A teacher has just taught the word shoplift,
and given the example sentence ‘The kids were caught shoplifting sweets.’. She
then asks: a Did the kids pay for the sweets? b Is this a crime?

Work with a partner and discuss the following questions. i Why does the teacher
ask these questions? ii Answer questions a and b. iii What do you notice about the
answers? 3 Imagine you are teaching the words and phrases in bold in the
following sentences. What questions would you ask to clarify understanding? 1
She picked up her briefcase and left. (The teacher is worried that the word will be
confused with ‘suitcase’.) 2 The car was a write-off after the accident. (The teacher
is concerned that learners will not understand the scale of the damage.) 3 Houses
are often more expensive near the coast. (The teacher is concerned that the word
will be confused with ‘border’.) 4 Work in a small group. Discuss when you think it
is useful to use questions such as those in 2 and 3 above, and when you think it is
not useful. Be ready to report your ideas back to the class.

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2 – Language analysis and awareness

F Practising techniques 1 A teacher has just presented a set of vocabulary relating

to transport. Here are some practice activities. Do you think they are all useful?
What are the differences between them? Share your ideas with your group. 1 The
learners discuss transport problems and developments in their own countries. 2
Learners work in small groups. The teacher gives each group a set of cards with
one of the target words written on each card. One learner must take a card and can
use mime, drawings, definitions, relationships with other words, or any other
means to elicit the word from the other members of her group. 3 The teacher
prepares a gap-fill exercise and the learners have to complete the gaps with one of
the target words. For example: ‘When the ______ _____ turns red, you have to stop!’
(Answer: traffic light). 4 The learners work in pairs to write a short dialogue, in
which they have to use a minimum of four of the new words and phrases. 5 At the
beginning of the following lesson, the teacher re-elicits the words and
phrases taught.

2 Look back at the groups of words in C3 (above). How would you practise them
with learners?

KEY WORDS FOR TEACHERS Check you know the meanings of these terms. •
eliciting • form, meaning, use • concept checking • collocation • recycling

REFLECTION You are teaching an intermediate class that shares the same L1 and
are at around B1 level of English. The learners tell you that they would like to learn
more vocabulary. They mention topics such as money, going out for dinner, and
environmental issues. Work in groups. Choose one of the topics the learners
requested and plan: • five or six items you would teach • what information the
learners will need about each item • how you could convey the meaning of the
words • how you could make both the spoken and written forms clear • how you
could check that the words have been understood • how you could provide
practice of the new items

Reference Wilkins, D. (1972). Linguistics in Language Teaching. London: Edward

Arnold.

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8 The sounds of English A Warm-up 1 Your trainer is going to give you a ‘new name’.
Memorize your name, but keep it secret. Your trainer will call the class register.
When you hear your name, say ‘Present’. 2 Think about these questions: a What
problems might learners of English have with this activity? Why? b What aspect of
language does the activity target?

B Sounds v letters 1 Write down the words your trainer dictates. Then check your
spelling with a partner. 2 Work in pairs. Discuss the meanings of these words and
see if you agree on them. 3 Count the letters in each word. For example: letter = six
letters (L-E-T-T-E-R) Count the sounds in each word. For example: letter = four
sounds (l - e - tt - er)

4 Work in pairs. Discuss what activity B3 demonstrates about the sound-spelling

relationship in English.

C Consonant sounds 1 Consonant sounds are formed when the airflow from the
lungs is obstructed by the moveable parts of the mouth, including the tongue and
lips. Try pronouncing these sounds, and decide where the obstruction is occurring.
You can refer to this diagram:

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2 – Language analysis and awareness For example, the sound /b/ (as in ban) is
articulated by obstructing the airflow at the lips. /m/ as in man /v/ as in van /n/ as in
nan /t/ as in tan /r/ as in ran /k/ as in can Because of the frequent mismatch
between spelling and sound, it helps to use a special script (called phonemic
script) to transcribe spoken language. Here are the 24 standard English consonant
sounds in phonemic script:

Cambridge International Dictionary of English

Many of the consonants consist of voiceless and voiced pairs, such as /p/ and /b/.
A voiced sound is one that is made by activating the vocal cords. (You can feel
them vibrate if you put your hand on your throat). To produce a voiceless sound, no
vocal cord activation is required.

2 Read these words, using the table above. a /met/ b /dek/ c /ðen/ d /hedZ/ e /breT/
f /fetS/ g /nekst/ h /jet/ i /Sred/ j /SrIÎk/

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https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009091602.009

8 The sounds of English 3 Write these words in phonemic script. a sent b edge c
thin d thing e think f this g fixed h jest i yelled j stretched

D Vowel sounds

Vowels are formed, not by obstructing the airflow, but by modifying its passage
through the mouth, principally through the use of the tongue and lips.

1 Say the vowel sounds in these words and notice any changes in the position of
your tongue and lips: Jean June Gin John Jen Shawn Jan Vowels are divided
between monophthongs (single vowels) and diphthongs (a glide from one vowel to
another). All vowels are voiced, that is, they involve activating the vocal cords. On
the left are listed the vowels of standard British English in phonemic script. On the
right are listed the vowels of standard North American English (also known as
General American). In each list, monophthongs are on the left; diphthongs on the
right. British English

North American English say

fit

eɪ ɔɪ

foot

oʊ

so

toy

u:

hoot

aɪ

die

əU
so

fed

aʊ

how

alone/father

eə

fair

ə/ɚ

alone/father

hurt

aI

die

ɝ:

hurt

ought

aU

how

ɔ:

ought hat
but

æʌ

but

spa, tar

ɑ:

Pa, pot

i: I

we

Iə

dear

fit

eI

look

u:

hoot

Uə OI

fed

ə Æ: O:

æö
hat

A: Á

pot

we

say

i: I

sure

toy

Note that one of the commonest vowels in English is the central, unstressed vowel
/ə/ – known as schwa. 39 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core.
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https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009091602.009

2 – Language analysis and awareness 2 Decipher these film titles, using the
consonant chart and the vowel chart. Choose one variety of English. British English

North American

a /bætmæn/ b /kɪŋ kɒŋ/ c /eəpleɪn/ d /ʤɔːz/ e /ðə bɜːdz/ f /saɪkəʊ/ g /pʌlp fɪkʃən/ h
/vɜːtɪgəʊ/ i /ðə ʃaɪnɪŋ/ j /ʤɔːz tuː/

a /bætmæn/ b /kɪŋ kɑ:ŋ/ c /erpleɪn/ d /ʤɔ:z/ e /ðə bɝ:dz/ f /saɪkoʊ/ g /pʌlp fɪkʃən/
h /vɝ:tɪgoʊ/ i /ðə ʃaɪnɪŋ/ j /ʤɔ:z tu:/

3 Write these film titles in phonemic script: a Shrek b Ben Hur c Snatch d Star Wars
e High Noon f Blade Runner g Memento h Mystic River 4 Work in pairs. Write two
more film titles in phonemic script for your partner to decipher.

E Contrasting languages 1 Compare these charts of the consonant sounds in

English and in Thai.
English Place of articulation MANNER OF ARTICULATION

Front of mouth ------------------------------------------ throat stop

pb

td

stop + vibration through nose vibration

kg ʧʤ

n fv

θð

sz

little obstruction

sideways obstruction

ŋ ʃʒ

hj

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8 The sounds of English

Thai Place of articulation

MANNER OF ARTICULATION

Front of mouth ------------------------------------------ throat p pʰ b

stop

t tʰ d

k kʰ

tɕ tɕʰ

stop + vibration through nose

vibration

trill

little obstruction

h 151

UNIT sideways 42 /θ/ thin obstruction

w

l Adapted from M.R. Kalaya Tingsabadh and A.S. Abramson, 1999

– What did you think of the new theatre?

Which of these English word pairs might a speaker of Thai have difficulty with?
Why? – I thought it would have been better. It cost a pat v bat to rebuild. But I
thought it was thousands b fan v van nothing special. What did you think? c – right
v light I thought it was really something! d mess v mesh Target sound /θ/ e1 moss v
moth f sin vD24 sing To make the target sound /θ/, put your tongue between your
teeth. Blow out g latter v ladder h back v bagair between your tongue and your top
teeth. Do not use your voice. Listen i sigh v thigh and repeat: /θ/. 2 Here is an
extract from a pronunciation course. Which of the above consonant distinctions
does it target?

2 Minimal pairs A

Sound 1 /s/ mouse What a sweet little mouse!

sum Is this sum OK?

sick It’s very sick.

sink He’s sinking.

pass There’s a mountain pass.

Sound 2 /θ/ mouth What a sweet little mouth!

thumb Is this thumb OK?

thick It’s very thick.

think He’s thinking.

path There’s a mountain path.

Minimal pair words

Ship or Sheep?

a Listen and repeat the words. D25b b You will hear five words from each minimal
pair. For each word, write 1 for /s/ (sound 1) or 2 for /θ/ (sound 2).

D25a

EXAMPLE Pair 1:

Minimal pair sentences

1, 2, 1, 2, 1

41

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on 11 Dec 2023 at 03:58:21, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available
at D26a c Listen to the minimal pair sentences.
https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms.
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009091602.009 D26b d Listen to five of the sentences
and write 1 for /s/ (sound 1) or 2 for /θ/

2 – Language analysis and awareness 3 How could you use it in class? For
example: a How would you model the two sounds? b How would you test students’
ability to hear the difference? c How would you provide practice at producing the
difference?

F Review Can you answer these questions? a How many letters are there in
English? b How many sounds are there? c How many sounds are there in thought?
In six? In coaching? d How many ways is the letter ‘a’ pronounced in English? Clue:
The tall cat ate the banana! e What’s the difference between a consonant sound
and a vowel sound? f What’s the difference between the sound /s/ and the sound
/z/? g What’s the name of the first and third vowel sounds in banana? h What’s the
difference between the sound /ɪ/ in pin, and the sound /aɪ/ in pine? i What sound
do these three words have in common? does, zoo, noise j What sound do these
three words have in common? first, surf, earns k True or false? /ʃeɪkspɪə rəʊt
məkbeθ/ l True or false? /njuː jɔːk ɪz ɪn teksəs/

KEY WORDS FOR TEACHERS Check you know the meanings of these terms. •
phoneme, vowel, consonant, monophthong, diphthong • voiced sound, unvoiced
sound • schwa • phonemic script • minimal pair • RP (Received Pronunciation) •
GA (General American)

REFLECTION 1 To what extent does your own variety of spoken English match the
descriptions of RP or General American (GA) outlined in this unit? Are there any
significant differences? Do these differences mean that some words that are
different in RP or GA are pronounced the same in your variety? For example, in
many varieties of New Zealand English, the words ear and air are pronounced the
same. And in some varieties of North American English, such as those spoken in
Canada or in and around Boston, the words cot and caught are pronounced the
same, which is not generally the case in many other regions. 2 How might the
variety of English that you speak affect your teaching?

References

Cambridge International Dictionary of English (1995). Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, p.1774. Tingsabadh, M.R. Kalaya and Abramson, A. S. (1999).
Thai. In Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, edited by the
International Phonetic Association. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
p.147. 42 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. University of
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terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms.
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009091602.009

9 Stress, rhythm and intonation A Warm-up 1 Work in pairs. Do the activity and
discuss what it demonstrates. Imagine you are in a bar or café, and you’ve both
just finished a drink, or a slice of chocolate cake. Have a conversation in which you
both use only the word Well. The conversation should convey these meanings: A:
That was nice! B: Shall we have another one? A: I shouldn’t really. B: I’m going to
have another one, even if you’re not. A: If you’re going to insist … B: You’re easily
persuaded – you surprise me! 2 Discuss whether learners would find this activity
easy or difficult. Give reasons for your opinion.

B Stress

Stress is the prominence that is given to particular syllables (in a word) or to

particular words (in an utterance).

1 Work in pairs. Read these invented words and try to predict which syllable is
stressed in each one. Decide what the results of this exercise suggest about the
way words are stressed in English. pawler veddle malmish pandiful loomitive
loomition imbelist imbelistic geon geonetics geonetology geonetological 2 Identify
six to eight vocabulary items relating to a particular theme (such as jobs, food and
drink, clothing, etc) in the coursebook you are currently using with your teaching
practice class. Then answer the questions. a Which is the stressed syllable in each
of these words? b What techniques could you use to highlight the stress?

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2 – Language analysis and awareness 3 a Work In pairs. Mark the main stressed
syllable in the second part (i.e. after the | ) of each of the following sayings and
catchphrases. Then answer the question. i Don’t worry | be happy. ii You win some |
and you lose some. iii You can run | but you can’t hide. iv It’s not what you know |
it’s who you know. v Don’t just stand there | do something. vi The bigger they are |
the harder they fall. vii Two steps forward | one step back. viii You scratch my back |
and I’ll scratch yours. b What determines which word is stressed? 4 Study this
coursebook activity. How does your answer to the last exercise apply to this one?
(Note that ‘the words in pink’ are: Susie owns a flat in Leeds.)

HELP WITH PRONUNCIATION Stress and rhythm (4): emphasis and meaning

tion using these 1

a CD3 24 Listen to these sentences. Notice how the extra stress on one word
affects the meaning. I THOUGHT Ann would come. (She’s here. My prediction was
right.) 2 I thought Ann would COME. (She’s not here. My prediction was wrong.) 1

b Listen again and practise. 2

a Read the sentence in pink. Then match responses 1–5 to meanings a–e. Susie
owns a flat in Leeds. I think she’s RENTING it. I THOUGHT she owned that flat. 3
JAMES owns that flat. 4 I thought she owned a HOUSE there. 5 I think the flat’s in
BRADFORD. 1 2

characters?

racters?
b

we need some

cde

ng the product. me attractive

CD3

25 Listen and check.

c Listen again. Take turns to say the sentence in pink in 2a and responses 1–5 and
a–e.

els. They always

-looking people. might actually

much fruit

Tom said she didn’t, but I knew I was right. I don’t think she owns it. You’re thinking
of the wrong person. I don’t think it’s in Leeds. I don’t think it’s a flat.

continue2learn face2face Upper Intermediate 44

Vocabulary, Grammar and Real World

Extra Practice 11 and Progress Portfolio 11 p125 again? Language Summary 11

p152 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. University of Western
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available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms.11A–D
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009091602.010 Workbook p55

9 Stress, rhythm and intonation

C Rhythm 1 Work in pairs. Take turns to read aloud the following sentences so that
each sentence takes the same number of beats as the first sentence (which you
should read fairly slowly and deliberately). Repeat each sentence before moving to
the next. It may help to beat the rhythm with your hand. Then answer
the questions.    Words take stress. Words should take stress. Words should
take the stress. Some words should take the stress. Some words should’ve taken
the stress. Some of the words should’ve taken the stress. 1 What happens to the
individual words as the sentence becomes longer? 2 Why might this create a
problem for students – in terms of both listening and speaking?

2 Work in pairs. Study this coursebook activity. 1 Decide what aspect of

pronunciation it targets. 2 Discuss how this aspect of pronunciation might be
connected with rhythm. HELP WITH PRONUNCIATION Strong and weak forms

n (1) how much their re very flat, they

aid twice. sounds rude.

CD2 44 Work in pairs. How do we say these strong and weak forms? Listen and
check. Listen again and practise.

weak

strong

was /wɒz/

was /wəz/

does /dʌz/ does /dəz/

were /wɜː/

were /wə/

do /duː/

strong

d twice. Which

bb
2

ctise sentences tonation.

weak

do /də/

a Work in pairs. Look at this conversation. Do we usually say the strong (S) or weak
(W) forms of the words in blue? A Sorry we’re late. We 1were (W) having lunch.
Right, 2do

) we need anything for the meeting? ). We need these reports. 4Does ( Lisa know
about the meeting? Yes, she 5does ( ). OK. 6Were ( ) you at the last meeting? Yes,
we 7were ( ). 8Was ( ) it a very long meeting? Yes, it 9was ( ). What 10was ( ) it
about? I don’t know. I 11was ( ) asleep!

B Yes, we 3do ( A B

you sorry

AB

help me? e problem?

AB

b CD2 45 Listen and check. When do we use the strong and weak forms of the
words in 1? c Work in pairs. Practise the conversation.
could

face2face Pre-intermediate continue2learn bit of .

ne to fi x it.

Vocabulary, Grammar and Real World Extra Practice 7 and Progress Portfolio 7
p121

45

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at Language Summary 7 p140 https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms.
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009091602.010

Discuss the questions. 1 Do you like taking photos? Why / Why not? 2 In your
opinion, what makes a good photo? 3 Do you think you are good at taking photos?
Why / Why not?

2 – Language analysis and awareness

b Look at photo a and answer the questions.

1 What is Becky doing? D Intonation 2 Why do you think she needs Tessa to help?
1.37 Watch or listen to Part 1. Check your answers. c Most learners of English as an
additional language […] are not taught intonation and do not

Yet true theyordo notWatch speak ontoacheck. monotone. […] How can this be?
1.37 intonation. d study Are the sentences false? or English listen again Becky be
asksbecause Tessa to help check the height of the tripod. in language are
sufficiently universal for us to It1 must theherprinciples of intonation 2 Becky is
happy with the shots she takes. be able to rely on them even in a foreign language.
3 Tessa wonders if it’s necessary to use a lot of equipment. 4 Tessa wants to take a
photo of a small animal.

J.C. Wells, 2014

1 Work in pairs. Say each ofSKILLS these sentences aloud in twoquestion different
ways, conveying two different meanings. 2 CONVERSATION Agreeing using tags 1
What is the difference in meaning, in each case? 1.37 Watch or listen again. How
does Tessa d Complete the rule. 2a How is this difference conveyed? respond to
Becky’s comment ‘It’s quite difficult’? If the sentence is positive, we use a tag. If
the For example: I like Chinese art and opera sentence is negative, we use a tag. b
Choose the correct word. 1 I like | Chinese art and opera| (= Chinese art and
Chinese opera) We can use statements with question tags to 2 I 1like | Chinese art|
and opera| (= Chinese art and any kind of opera) e Complete B’s replies. Use an
adjective from the box in the agree / disagree with someone. first gap and the
correct verb form in the second gap. 2 Using a different adjective in the answer is
more a the people who left suddenly started running interesting / friendly. b when
shall we eat grandma welcoming soaking breathtaking worried

the mouse whichwith atethe the cheese c cComplete B’s answers correct
verbescaped 1 dforms. he’s a nurse A I thinkisshe’s lovely person. 2 e1 Sigrid
notaSwedish is she B Yes, she’s very charming, she? f 2 I’ll have it with ham basil
olives pineapple A Their instructions weren’t very clear. 3 g hi B No, they weren’t
helpful, they? h thanks a million 4

ABABABAB

Your clothes are all wet. Yes, they’re , they? The scenery there is exceptional. Yes,
it’s , it? They weren’t a very friendly group of people. No, they weren’t at all, they?
He looks a bit anxious. Yes, he does look , he?

2 In the light of the above exercise, identify ways that intonation affects meaning. 3
Study this coursebook material and answer the questions. 3 PRONUNCIATION
Tone in question tags a

1.38 Listen to the examples. Does the tone go up ( ) or down ( ) on the question tag?
What’s the difference in meaning?

1 No, it isn’t very quick, is it? 2 No, they weren’t helpful, were they? 3 Yes, you need
to make things easy, don’t you?

26

Practise saying the exchanges in 2e. Try to use the correct tone in the reply.
c

Discuss people and things you and other students know – for example, a person, a
café, a film or a car. Use the adjectives below and question tags to agree. •
amusing – funny • cheerful – happy • interesting – fascinating

That photo is really striking.

© Cambridge University Press For reference purposes only

• frightening – terrifying • exhausting – tiring

Yes, it’s stunning, isn’t it?

Empower B2

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9 Stress, rhythm and intonation 1 What feature of intonation does the material
target? 2 Look at exercises a and c again. Which of the following activities would be
useful after a and before c? a A ‘read aloud’ task, where learners read a number of
sentences that include question tags, attempting to apply the appropriate
intonation. b A gap-fill exercise where learners write in the missing question tag. c
A dialogue activity, in which learners write dialogues that include question tags,
and then perform them.

KEY WORDS FOR TEACHERS Check you know the meanings of these terms. •
stress (word stress, sentence stress) • rhythm • strong and weak forms •
intonation

REFLECTION Discuss these questions in pairs or groups. 1 Which of the following

areas do you think is most critical in ensuring communicative effectiveness? Why?
a accurate production of individual sounds (i.e. vowels and consonants) b
accurate stress placement in words c accurate stress placement in utterances d
native-like rhythm e accurate use of intonation 2 Which of the above areas do you
think is the most easily learnable? Why?

Reference
J.C. Wells (2014) Sounds Interesting: Observations on English and general
phonetics. Cambridge University Press, p.133.

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2 – Language analysis and awareness

10 Teaching pronunciation A Warm-up 1 What impact might pronunciation have on

each of these areas of learners’ English? • Speaking • Listening • Reading • Writing
• Grammar • Vocabulary 2 Work in pairs. Discuss these statements and decide to
what extent you agree. a It is important for teachers to use only standard British or
American English in the classroom. b Intelligibility (i.e. being understood) is more
important than sounding like a native speaker. c When working on pronunciation,
the priority is for students to be able to say things correctly themselves. d
Problems with pronunciation are unlikely to cause communication breakdowns.

B Pronunciation exercises 1 Study the pronunciation activities (A–D) below and

answer the questions. • What aspect of pronunciation is each activity targeting? Is
it a ‘small’ feature (such as individual sounds) or a ‘big’ feature (such as sentence
stress or intonation)? • Is the objective of the activity reception or production (or
both)? • Is the feature used in context or is it decontextualized? • How
communicative is the activity? Could non-communicative activities be adapted to
make them more communicative? A The teacher demonstrates the difference in
pronunciation of the -ed ending on worked, lived and started. She then asks
learners to make three columns in their books, headed by /t/, /d/, and /ɪd/
respectively. She reads out a list of past tense words, e.g. opened, walked, moved,
lifted, missed, waited, etc.; the students write each one in the appropriate column.
B Learners have cards made up of pairs of rhyming words, e.g. steak, make; do,
true, etc. In groups, learners take turns to show the cards; if a card rhymes with the
preceding card, the player keeps the pair. The winner is the player with the most
pairs. C Learners prepare cards with different types of gift, e.g. a bunch of flowers;
a broken pencil; a house, etc. Learners hand each other cards, saying ‘Here’s a
present for you.’ . The receiver should respond by saying ‘Thank you’ in a way that is
proportionate to their gratitude for the gift. D The teacher sets up a speaking
activity, e.g. dialogue, role play, chat, etc, then rotates around the groups. When
students make a mistake in their pronunciation which the teacher hears, she/he
says, or indicates, ‘I’m sorry, I don’t understand.’. The student attempts to repair
the error. 2 Work in groups. Evaluate the activities in B1. For example, discuss
whether you would like to do them as a learner. Decide how they might help
learners with one of the areas you discussed in A1. Give reasons.

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10 Teaching pronunciation

C Techniques for teaching pronunciation 1 The table shows a variety of techniques

which a teacher can use in any lesson to draw learners’ attention to pronunciation
or to provide pronunciation practice. Work with a partner. Read the technique.
Suggest an aim or stages in a lesson when a teacher might use each of these
techniques. There may be multiple answers. Technique

Aim

Showing learners the shape of your mouth and position of your tongue when
producing a specific phoneme (sound).

For learners to notice the physical changes in the mouth necessary to produce
specific sounds.

Displaying a word in both the written form and phonemic script, e.g. comb /kəʊm/

When a teacher might use it

When introducing a new vocabulary item with an unusual sound-spelling

relationship, for example silent letters. As part of error correction after a speaking
or writing activity.

Writing out a word in normal script, putting dots between the syllables, and
underlining the stressed syllable, e.g. e·mer·gen·cy.

To show learners how many syllables a word has and which syllable carries the
stress.

After a speaking activity, as a way of helping learners to produce spoken language

more fluently.
Indicating on your fingers how many words there are in a sentence, then putting
your fingers together to show where there are contractions. Learners repeat the
sentence with the contracted form. Substitution drill, i.e. T: I’m going shopping. We
SS: We’re going shopping. T: not SS: We aren’t going shopping., etc. Writing out a
sentence from a listening transcript and highlighting features of connected speech
on it.

When modelling a sentence to introduce a new grammar pattern, e.g. present

perfect: She’s been to China. For learners to verbally manipulate the form of a
grammar structure they have just been introduced to, including features such as
contractions. Before a listening activity, to draw attention to potentially
problematic features. After a listening activity, particularly if learners have
misheard something in the audio – this can be used to focus on an individual
answer. 49

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2 – Language analysis and awareness 2 Have you observed teachers using any of
these techniques during your course so far? What other techniques or activities
have you observed for working on pronunciation?

D Anticipating problems 1 Work in pairs. Discuss the pronunciation problems

learners might have with these syllabus areas. a can/can’t (to talk about ability)
(Possible problem: failure to discriminate between weak and strong forms, so that
can sounds like can’t … ) b ordinal numbers, i.e. first, second, third, fourth, etc. c
used to (to talk about past habits) d present simple questions, e.g. Where does she
live? What do you do? e polite requests using Would you mind …-ing? f clothing
vocabulary, e.g. shirt, shorts, suit, shoes, jacket, overcoat, scarf, pullover, etc. 2
Your trainer will assign you one of the above areas. Think of classroom solutions to
the problems that learners might have. Consider both recognition and production
of the language. For example: a can/can’t Possible solution: the teacher repeats
one of the words several times and then changes to the other word. Learners have
to stop the teacher when they hear the change – can can can can can’t can’t can’t
can’t can, etc. (learners could then do this in pairs).

E Planning pronunciation work Here is a section from a coursebook. The learners

have completed some comprehension work based on a photostory, then moved on
to these activities to focus on the language. No explicit pronunciation work has
been included. Decide where you think it would be appropriate to include some
work on pronunciation in this lesson and what form this could take.

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4 TH I N K I N G O UTSI D E TH E BOX 10 Teaching pronunciation

next in the

WordWise

gets an idea.

Expressions with good

ory

1 Use the phrases in the list to complete these sentences from the unit so far.

for good | So far, so good | not very good at It’s no good | It’s a good thing | it’s all
good

ndings.

012345

The lights have stopped animals coming to the farm for good . I’m creative thinking.
That’s five words. . She gave me an A minus, best I’ve ever got! So . . I just can’t get
the keys out. Emma’s such a nice person.

2 Which phrase means: 1 2 3 4 5

for ever It’s not successful. Everything is all right. We have started but not finished,
but everything has been OK until now. not talented at I’m/We’re/You’re lucky that …

ry. Who says anguage?

Workbook page 38

FUNCTIONS Expressing frustration 1 Read the photostory again. Which of these

things

omplete your

does Emma not say? What do all the sentences have in common? I can’t (do that).
I’m hopeless (at …) 3 This is hopeless! 4 No chance.

I give up. I’ll never (come up with anything). 7 This is pointless.

2 Think about the woman who loses her keys. Write three things she might have
thought using the expressions in Exercise 1.

ve got

of how you ly here and

I’ ll never get the keys out.

WRITING A story Write a story. The story must end with the words:

Think 4

51

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https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009091602.011 Write 120–150 words.

2 – Language analysis and awareness

KEY WORDS FOR TEACHERS Check you know the meanings of these terms. •
phonemic script • intelligibility • connected speech • receptive skills • productive
skills • accent • standard (British/American/etc.) English • English as a Lingua
Franca (ELF), English as an International Language (EIL)

REFLECTION 1 List three reasons why it could be important or useful for you to
include pronunciation work in lessons. 2 List three problems learners in your
current TP group might have with pronunciation. Say what you could do to help
your learners improve. Compare your ideas with a partner.

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11 Phrases and sentences A Warm-up Game: work in teams. How many well-
formed sentences can you make out of these words? You don’t have to use all the
words in each sentence, but you can’t use any word twice in the same sentence.
after cat very dog chased by was the a frightened when running it probably You
have three minutes. You get one point for the first word of each sentence, two for
the second, three for the third, and so on. Discuss: What kind of knowledge did you
need to be able to play this game?

B Phrases Words group together to form meaningful units called phrases. Phrases
cluster around a head word, which may be one of five different parts of speech:
noun, verb, adjective, adverb or preposition.

1 Work in pairs. Each of these film titles forms a phrase. Identify the head word:
this should tell you what kind of phrase it is. 1 On the Waterfront = head word ‘on’:
prepositional phrase 2 The Silence of the Lambs 3 Get Out 4 Cheaper by the Dozen
5 Nowhere to Hide 6 Crazy Rich Asians 7 In the Heat of the Night 8 Counter
Clockwise 9 Absolutely Fabulous 10 Don’t Look Back 11 Too Hot to Handle 12 The
Spy who Came in from the Cold 13 Before Midnight 2 Look at the sentences you
generated in the warm-up game. Can you find examples of different types
of phrases?
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2 – Language analysis and awareness

C The noun phrase Noun phrases (NPs) in English have at least four elements, only
one of which – the head – is obligatory. The other elements are: determiners (such
as articles, numbers), premodification (such as adjectives), and postmodification,
i.e. all the items after the head. For example:

Determiner

Premodification

The Crazy Rich The

Head

Postmodification

Silence

of the Lambs

Asians Spy

who Came in from the Cold

1 Work in pairs. Can you complete the table, using these film titles? 1 The Spy Who
Loved Me 2 Murder on the Orient Express 3 My Beautiful Laundrette 4 Airplane 5
Rosemary’s Baby 6 A Streetcar Named Desire 7 The Bridges of Madison County 8
55 Days at Peking 9 Star Trek 10 Much Ado About Nothing Determiner

Premodification

Head

Postmodification
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11 Phrases and sentences 2 What kinds of words or phrases go into each column?
For example, articles (the, a) typically go into the determiner column. 3 Based on
this activity, what problems do you think learners might have with noun phrases in
English?

D Sentence elements Each phrase in a sentence forms an element that fulfils a

specific function. For example:

A funny thing

happened

on the way to the forum

SUBJECT

VERB

ADVERBIAL

(identifies the actor or agent)

(typically expresses a process or state)

(gives circumstantial information, such as time, place or manner)

married

a monster from outer space

SUBJECT

VERB
OBJECT (identifies the person or thing affected)

was

a teenage werewolf

SUBJECT

VERB

COMPLEMENT (gives additional information about the subject)

There are five sentence elements in all: SUBJECT, VERB, OBJECT, COMPLEMENT
and ADVERBIAL.

Work in pairs. Divide these film titles into their component phrases and assign a
function to each phrase slot. (Note that sometimes a phrase slot can contain only
one word). 1 It Happened One Night 2 Mr. Smith Goes to Washington 3 Gentlemen
Prefer Blondes 4 The Empire Strikes Back 5 That’s Entertainment 6 The Russians
are Coming 7 Meet Me in St Louis 8 Who Framed Roger Rabbit? 9 Batman Returns

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2 – Language analysis and awareness

E Contrastive analysis 1 Read the sentences with their translations and answer the
questions. 1 Are the elements in the sentence (e.g. subject, verb, object) in the
same order or a different one? 2 Are the elements in a phrase (e.g. article,
adjective, noun) in the same order or a different one? 3 Are there elements that
occur in English but not in the other language – and vice versa? A. Turkish ingilizce
kitapları odamda English books-the room-my-in (The English books are in my
room) Biz yine eski hayatımıza We again old life-our-to (We returned to our old life
again) B. Arabic buyūtu ar rajuli al-ghanı̄yi houses the man the rich (The rich man’s
houses are on a river)

döndük returned
‫ع‬alā nahrin

on

river

hādhā khitābun ba‘athathu sayyidatun shahīratun this letter sent-it lady famous
(This is a letter which a famous lady sent) C. Japanese ringo-o apple-[OBJECT
marker] (I ate an apple)

tabeta ate

zo-wa elephant-[TOPIC marker] (Elephants have long noses) watashi-wa I-[TOPIC

marker] (I go to the store)

hana-ga nagai nose-[SUBJECT marker] long

mise-e store-to

Hanako-ga Hanako-[SUBJECT marker] (Hanako gave Taro a computer)

ikimasu go

Taro-ni kompyūtā-o Taro-to computer-[OBJECT marker]

ageta gave

2 Work in pairs. Discuss what errors speakers of each language in activity E3 might
make in English.

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11 Phrases and sentences

KEY WORDS FOR TEACHERS Check you know the meanings of these terms. •
(adjective/adverb/prepositional) phrase • noun phrase, head word, pre-/post
modification, relative clause • subject, verb, object, adverbial, complement
REFLECTION Think of a language other than English that you are familiar with. (If
you don’t speak another language, you can search for information online about a
language you might be interested in learning, or whose speakers you might be
teaching in the future.) In what ways is this language similar to / different from
English, with regard to its syntax, e.g. parts of speech and word order? What
difficulties might this present to a speaker of that language who is learning
English?

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3 a completed action in the past? 4 a habit or repeated action in the present? 5 an

action in progress in the present? 6 analysis an actionand thatawareness started
sometime in the past and is still continuing? 2 – Language

Simple and continuous tenses simple present Every year I set myself a goal of
learning a new skill. 12 Tense and aspect present continuous I’m saving money to
open a small studio. simple past past continuous present perfect present perfect
continuous

A Warm-up

I faced my fear, went in there, and caught that spider. I was working in a summer
camp when it happened. I’ve done a lot of different things. This year I’ve been
learning computer animation.

Here is an activity from an intermediate-level coursebook. Do it individually and

then compare in B pairs. Now go to page 129. Look at the grammar chart and do
the grammar exercise for 1.1. C

Choose five time expressions from the box and write sentences that are true for
you. at the moment last year since I was a child

at 8 o’clock this morning for the last three months when I got home

never now yesterday

It was raining when I left the house this morning. Read your sentences to your
group. 1 How many of your sentences are the same or similar? How many of your
sentences are the same or similar? D

GROUP WORK

every day once a week

Evolve 4

2 Can you identify any of the verb forms you each used? For example: ‘At the
moment I’m training to be a 4 SPEAKING teacher.’ I am training = present
continuous PAIR WORK Read the sentences and discuss which ones are true for
you. If they are false, explain why. 1 I won a medal when I was in high school. been
studying English forCan more than 10 years. 1 Here is2 aI’ve table of English verb
forms. you complete it? 3 I once got more than 100 likes for a post on social media.
4 I’m saving money to go on vacation next year. simple continuous perfect 5 I have
never been afraid of anything. (aspect) (aspect)

B Tense review

GROUP WORK Report Bpresent (tense) they back work to the class on the five
things you learned about your partner.

past (tense)

perfect continuous (aspects)

they have worked

they were working

they had been working

Juan runs marathons, and he’s won five medals for running. He’s been studying
English for three years. He doesn’t like social media, so he’s never … © Cambridge
University Press For reference purposes only

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Look at the pictures and describe the three people. Then read the blog post, which
is a response to a social media challenge, “Five things about me.” Which person
wrote 12it?Tense Why do and aspect you think that?

PAIR WORK

2 Here is a text from an intermediate level coursebook.

FIVE THINGS ABOUT ME Here is my answer to the latest blog challenge!

(If I get 1,000 likes, my boss will donate $1,000 to charity. So please like my list!)

1 Every year I set myself a goal of learning a new skill. I’ve done a lot of

different things. Last year I learned to play chess. This year I’ve been learning
computer animation and design.

2 People tell me I have a great sense of humor, and I love to tell jokes! 3 A few years
ago, while I was working at a summer camp, a girl came

screaming out of her cabin because she saw a huge spider on her bed. I hate
spiders, but I faced my fear, went in there, and caught that spider. I felt so brave!

4 I’m saving money to open a small studio where I can teach art classes.

I’ve always wanted to run my own business. I love working with my hands, and I
want to do something I can really take pride in.

5 This year I’m going to run a marathon. I don’t want to win a medal or break a
record or anything. I just want to finish! I’m sure I can rise to the challenge!
2

Evolve 4

VOCABULARY: Describing accomplishments

Find examples in the text of at least six of the structures listed in B1. For
example: 1.03 Read the post again and find the right verb to complete the
expressions. A

1 2 3 present4(tense) B

simple continuous pride in something (aspect)

a goal for yourself a sense of humor get,with set, have your hands

perfect 5 (aspect)

6 7 have done 8

perfect to a continuous challenge (aspects)

a marathon a business a lot of likes

9 10 11 12

Now go to page 141. Do the vocabulary exercises for 1.1.

PAIR WORKlearned, C (tense) Complete the sentences as many times as possible

using the express past came

Then compare your sentences with a partner. How many things do you have in co 1
I have never … 2 I would/wouldn’t like to I have never told a joke in English.

Imagine you are going to do the blog challenge. What five pieces of 59 would you
choose to share? PAIR WORK

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© Cambridge University Press

2 – Language analysis and awareness 3 Here is a coursebook task that relates to

the text in the preceding activity. Work in pairs to complete it.

GRAMMAR: Tense review (simple and continuous)

Complete the descriptions of different tenses. Use the sentences in the grammar
box to help you. Which tense describes … present perfect 1 past experiences with
no specific past time given? 2 an action in progress in the past? 3 a completed
action in the past? 4 a habit or repeated action in the present? 5 an action in
progress in the present? 6 an action that started sometime in the past and is still
continuing?

Simple and continuous tenses simple present present continuous simple past
past continuous present perfect present perfect continuous B C

Every year I set myself a goal of learning a new skill. I’m saving money to open a
small studio. I faced my fear, went in there, and caught that spider. I was working in
a summer camp when it happened. I’ve done a lot of different things. This year I’ve
been learning computer animation.

Now go to page 129. Look at the grammar chart and do the grammar exercise for
1.1. Choose five time expressions from the box and write sentences that are true
for you.

Evolve 4

moment aspect C Tense atv the

at 8 o’clock this morning never every day last year for the last three months now
once a week Coursebooks (like the one in the previous task) use the term ‘tense’
broadly to describe the since I was a child when I got home yesterday
combinations above. Technically, though, verb forms like present continuous and
past perfect are not different but different of tense plus aspect. So: present
continuous It was rainingtenses, when I left the house thiscombinations morning.
= present tense + continuous aspect; past perfect = past tense + perfect aspect. D

GROUP WORK

Read your sentences to your group.

many of your sentences are the asame or similar? Look atHow these paired
examples (taken from corpus of naturally-occurring language). In each case, name
the underlined verb forms and decide what the aspect – either continuous or
perfect – adds to the meaning. SPEAKING a 4Swasey, who has two young children,
works from home two days a week. PAIR WORK A sentences which b DH is working
Read fromthe home todayand anddiscuss helped get the kids ready.

cdef

ones are true for you. If they are false, explain why. 1 the I wonnext a medal when I
Iwas in high school. Early morning drove to the cemetery. I’ve been studying
English to forwork more than 10 ATF years.agents stopped him. On 2Sept. 25, he
was driving when 3 I once got more than 100 likes for a post on social media. 4 I’m
money go onit.’ vacation next year. ‘Music is saving my life, andto I love I’m5reading
Gotham now, and I’m loving it! I have never beenDiaries afraid of anything.

GROUP WORK

Report back to the class on the five

g As athings child,you helearned learned to knit about yoursweaters partner. for

himself. h So far in his life, he has learned Bahasa Indonesia, Sudanese, Irish
Gaelic, Mandarin Chinese … Juan runs marathons, and he’s won five medals for
running. He’s been studying English for three years. i Bergman made lms about
apocalyptic He doesn’t likefisocial media, the so he’s never … nature of war.

j The 55-year-old Vendetti has made films and videos for 15 years. 60

© Cambridge University Press For reference purposes only

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12 Tense and aspect k Someone wrote ‘Californians Go Home’ in the dust on their
moving truck. l On the facade, someone has written ‘Proud to be Black’.

D Learner problems Here is a composition written by a Brazilian learner of English.

Her teacher has underlined some of the verb phrase errors. 1 Can you correct
them? 2 Can you explain your corrections?

cus 1

1 I was born in Osasco, the city located near the big São Paulo. I lived in Osasco
until my 10 years 2 old and I still had wonderful memories from this epoch. Then
my father’s job was transferred 3 and we’ve moved to Conchas, one very small city
located about two hours from Osasco. 4 When I completed 15 years old we all
moved to Itapetininga. This city is farther and bigger 5 than Conchas, so it doesn’t
looks like a country city. There I got my first job and I had my 6 first date too. Then in
2006, I quit my job and come back to Osasco. In the middle of 2006, I 7 started the
course of Law and during this time I’ve been living with my grandmother. She has
UNIT 8 moved to Osasco when my grandfather dead. Finally, with a lot of struggle,
in 2015 I bought 7 and 9 my apartment. It’s small but very warm confortable. I’ve
lived there alone. When you live Present perfect: affirmative and negative 10 alone
you’re having a lot of advantages and disadvantages, but in my opinion it’s really
worth!

s from the text on page 76.

he / she / it

E Materials

0 serious injuries.

orking on the farm.

He 1

broken fifteen different bones.

He 2

only had accidents with machines.

Study these teaching materials. 4 Write sentences with the correct form of the
present perfect and the words below. a What verb form does each one target? 1 I /
not go / to hospital b What exact/ visit meaning 2 My parents / 20 countriesis
targeted? London / have / the Olympic Games three times c Is3the focus on form
or meaning – or both? 4 Patrick / not read / many books

age 106

rds. en

5 Anna / live / in the USA 6 You / not meet / my cousin Sam

n’t swum / hasn’t swum in

sn’t broken an arm or a leg. n / has flown in a hot air

Your turn

n’t hurt / hasn’t hurt

re been and gone. e goes and returns: to the dentist. e hasn’t returned: one to the
hospital to

Write sentences about what you have and haven’t done in your life. Use the words
in the box or your own ideas. eat a snake swim in a cold lake be on TV go to another
country write a blog speak English outside class go scuba diving

I have never eaten a snake.

6

conversations with the f the verbs in brackets never. Then listen

Work with a partner. Compare your sentences from Exercise 5. Have you done the
same things? I have never eaten a snake. What about you?

No, I have never eaten a snake but I’ve swum in a cold lake. How about you?

(✗ sing) in a concert. concert and I 3

(✓ play)

have) a lot of accidents, eak) her arm or leg. brother 6 (✓ break) his

body famous, have you? y) football with Cristiano

Write five sentences about your partner.

Anna has never eaten a snake but she has …Open A2 Eyes Learn about how 71
people in the USA got E. coli 0157. ●● ●● ●●

What is E. coli O157? How do people get it? What did the 71 people with E. coli
O157 all eat?

61

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e in the present

y, but we don’t

s:
1 Julia

doesn’t drink

(not / drink) tea very often. (the banks / close) here? I have a car, but I (not / use) it
much. c 3 Complete the words in these sentences with 4 Where (Maria / come)
from? Is she Spanish? words from the article and 6b. 5 ‘What (you / do)?’ ‘I’m an
electrician.’ 2 – Language analysis and awareness Look at this sentence. (this word
/ mean)? 1 6 My country’s alwaysWhat had a c system. 7 David isn’t very fit. He (not
/ do) any sport. 2 My country’s e is quite strong at the 2 8 It (take) me an hour to get
to work in the morning. How long moment. (it / take) you? 3 My country imports
more p than 2.3 Complete the sentences using these verbs. Sometimes you need
the negative.

political a politician, politics 2 What ➞ time

continue in the

45

but have a result

ast and still

7 2.4 8

Then answer

it exports. believe eat flow go grow make rise tell translate I think buying a house is
a good i . 7 An interpreter goes argues 1 My Thefamily earth often round the sun. p
about and from one language into another. 2 Rice doesn’t grow in cold climates.
government policies. 8 Liars are people who 3 The sun in the east. worry about
global warminghoney. and e the truth. 4 I Bees 9 The River Amazon 5 issues.
Vegetarians meat. into the Atlantic Ocean. 6 I’ve An atheist in God. never lived in
an i city. You ask Lisa andcountry her family. Write the questions. There’s
farquestions less p about herself in my now 1 than You know that Lisa plays tennis.
You want to know how often. Ask her. English Grammar in Use 50 years ago. How
often
ere since 1993. ks.

do you play tennis

d 2 Work inLisa’s pairs. Compare answers. Then tell Ask Lisa. Perhaps sister plays
tennis too. You want to know. your sister your partner which sentences are true for
you.

3 You know that Lisa goes to the cinema a lot. You want to know how often. Ask
her.

hing has been

? 4 You know that Lisa’s brother works. You want to know what he does. Ask Lisa.

Get ready … Get it right!

en completed? or sentence 1

5 You’re not sure whether Lisa speaks Spanish. You want to know. Ask her.

Write sentences about how things have changed in know yourwhere country the
last filive. ve years. 6 You don’t Lisa’sin grandparents You want to know. Ask Lisa.
Use these ideas or your own.

??

2.5 ● Complete using the following: the economy ●

unemployment I agree transport I apologise ● I insist I recommend I suggest public

pollutionI promise ● 1 new buildings inflation I suggest you try calling him
tomorrow. Mr Evans is not in the office●today. I won’t . ● 2 the costtellofanybody
living what you ● said. traffic 3 (in a restaurant) You must let me pay for the meal. .
● property ● education 4 for what I said. I shouldn’t have said it. ● 5 industry ●
Street the price food The new restaurant in Baker is very of good. it. I think you’re
absolutely right. with you. ● 6 tourism ● petrol

erfect Simple

eet. (call) wers his phone.

ite) wo years. (write) e car in there

The economy has been getting stronger recently. The price of petrol has gone up a
lot this year. Unemployment’s been rising.

re! (clear out) ust be tired. (cut)

rrow it? (read) ing it. (read)

why you chose

a Work in groups. Tell each other your sentences. If you’re from the same country,
do you agree? If you’re from different countries, how many of your sentences are
the same? b Tell the class two interesting changes that your group discussed.

B p109. face2face Upper Intermediate 59

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12 Tense and aspect

F Classroom application Work in groups. Your trainer will assign your group one of
the grammar items (a–f). Devise a way of presenting this item. a present simple
with adverbs of frequency (such as always, often, sometimes, never) b present
continuous for activities in progress at the time of speaking c present continuous
for future arrangements d present perfect for recent events, using just e present
perfect for situations continuing to the present, using for/since … f present perfect
for changes that have present results (for example: They’ve painted the town hall)
Your presentation should include: • a situation which illustrates the meaning of the
item • at least three or four examples of the item • some kind of check of
understanding, such as concept questions or timelines Identify any visual aids
that would facilitate your presentation. Be prepared to demonstrate your
presentation idea to the rest of the class.

KEY WORDS FOR TEACHERS Check you know the meanings of these terms. •
tense, aspect • continuous (aspect), perfect (aspect) • auxiliary verb • present
simple, present continuous, present perfect • past simple, past continuous, past
perfect • stative verbs, dynamic verbs • corpus

REFLECTION Revisit the sentences you wrote for the warm-up activity. a Can you
now identify all the verb forms that you used? b What tense + aspect combinations
are commonly associated with the different time expressions in the exercise?
Note: Consult the Brief Guide to the English Verb in the appendix on page 212.

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2 – Language analysis and awareness

13 Language functions A Warm-up 1 Here are some well-known quotations or

catchphrases. Can you match them to their function – i.e. their communicative
purpose? 1 Round up the usual suspects.

a warning

2 I’ll have what she’s having.

b inviting

3 My name is Bond, James Bond.

c commanding

4 Houston, we have a problem.

d introducing

5 It’ll be all right on the night.

e checking

6 Doctor Livingstone, I presume?

f requesting

7 Come up and see me sometime.

g reassuring

2 Identify any grammar structures that you are already familiar with in any of the
quotes. For example, in (4) the present form of the verb have is used. Is there an
obvious connection between the grammar and the function? 3 Each quote
represents what was said in a specific location by one specific person to one or
more others. How good is your general knowledge? In each case: a what was the
context of the utterance? i.e. where were the speakers and what were they talking
about? b what was the relationship between the speaker and the person(s)
addressed? If you do not know the sources of these quotes, can you suggest a
context in which they might have been said. Who would say it to whom, for
example?

For learners, probably the most striking way in which the knowledge of language
developed through a grammatical syllabus fails to measure up to their
communicational needs is in its lack of situational relevance. They may […] have
considerable practical command of grammatical structures, but the language that
they rehearse in the classroom will be inadequately related to what is needed in
the situations in which they may actually want to use the language. David Wilkins,
1976

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13 Language functions

B Context and function 1 How many different ways could this sign be expressed in
words? Work in pairs.

2 What factors would determine the choice of the different expressions in B1?
What might determine the order you would teach them in? 3 Look at the situations
below where the same sentence is spoken in four different contexts. Decide on the
function of the sentence in each case. It’s ten past nine.

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2 – Language analysis and awareness 4 Think of at least two different possible

contexts and two corresponding functions for each of the following utterances: a
I’ll call the police. b It’s cold in here. c That’s your phone. d Can you drive?

C Function, style and language 1 The choice between one of several different ways
of performing a language function depends on a number of context factors. These
factors will include such things as whether the message is spoken or written.
Another key factor is the relationship between the people involved, such as how
well they know each other, or the social distance between them. The effect of
these different adjustments to context factors is known as register, which can be
formal or informal, for example. Decide on suitable utterances for the context
described in the table: Function

Context and utterance

1 inviting

a Send a text message inviting your new neighbours for a welcome drink at your
apartment. b You want to have a drink with your friend after work. You say: ‘. . .’

2 asking a favour

c You want to borrow your flatmate’s phone charger. You say: ‘. . .’ d You are
expecting a package to be delivered the next day but you won’t be at home. You
phone a neighbour whom you don’t know very well and leave a voicemail message,
asking them if they could take delivery of it. You say: ‘. . .’

3 making a suggestion

e Your local gym has no wi-fi connection. Write a short note on the subject for the
gym’s ‘suggestion box’. f A work colleague is suffering from back pain, which you
think is caused by the way their computer monitor is positioned. You say: ‘. . .’

There are particular ways of expressing many functions that have become
conventionalized. For example, Would you like [an X]? typically functions as an
offer. These formulaic expressions are often included in syllabuses, alongside
grammar items.

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13 Language functions 2 Put the formulaic expressions in their correct place in this
extract from an elementary syllabus. Functions

Formulaic expressions

1 asking permission 2 polite requests 3 apologizing, and making excuses 4 asking

and giving opinions a What was X like? b Could you … , please?

c I had to … d Can I … , please?

e I thought it was really … f I’m sorry I didn’t …

3 Work in pairs. Study the coursebook you are using with your teaching practice
class. Find the syllabus for the course, which is usually located at the front of the
book. Does it include ways of expressing different functions?

D Materials for teaching functional language

Here is an extract from a coursebook, focusing on the language of suggestions. 1

What use could you make of the picture? 2 How would you stage part B? LESSON
OBJECTIVE ■ suggest plans for 3 Why is some of the conversation in bold? evening
activities 4 How would you focus on these items in class? 5 How could you provide
practice using these items?

10.3

LET’S MEET AT THE HOTEL

FUNCTIONAL LANGUAGE

Jonathan is in Mexico City for a meeting with his coworker, Antonio. They’re making
plans to go out in the evening. What do you think they are saying?

2.34 Read and listen. Where are Antonio and Jonathan going to have dinner?
Where are they going to meet? What time are they going to meet? 2.34 Audio script

Antonio Jonathan Antonio Jonathan Antonio Jonathan Antonio Jonathan Antonio

Jonathan Antonio Jonathan C

So, Jonathan, why don’t we go out tonight? OK, sounds good. Do you like Mexican
food? I love it! Are there any good Mexican restaurants in town? Um, in Mexico
City? Yeah, I know one or two places! I’m sure you do! There’s a very good
restaurant near your hotel. Why don’t we go there? Good idea. So let’s meet at the
hotel. OK. What time? Eight o’clock? Um … I’m sorry, but I can’t. How about eight-
thirty? Yes, sure.

Complete the chart with expressions in bold from the conversation above.

Evolve 1

Making suggestions

Accepting suggestions Refusing suggestions Your trainer will show you how the
material is developed in the coursebook. Did you have the same or 1 OK, 3 I’m
sorry, 6 good. . similar ideas? go out tonight? . Good 4 Sorry, I’m busy. 67 2 meet at
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2 – Language analysis and awareness

E Teaching functions 1 Work in groups. Your trainer will assign each group a
language function (such as apologizing) and a level (such as beginners). With your
group, create a short lesson as follows: • Think of two situations in which the
function might typically occur, one more formal than the other. • Choose an
appropriate way of expressing this function for each of the two situations. • Write
two short dialogues (6–8 lines) which contextualize the functional expressions you
have chosen. • Work out how you would use these dialogues to present and
contrast the functional expressions to a class at the relevant level. Be prepared to
demonstrate your lesson to the rest of the class.

KEY WORDS FOR TEACHERS Check you know the meanings of these terms. •
(communicative) function • context, register • appropriacy • formulaic expression

REFLECTION A functional approach to language teaching emerged as a reaction to

a purely formal approach – that is, the teaching of grammar forms or structures,
irrespective of the way they are used.

a What sort of problems might a learner encounter who had been taught only
language forms, and not their associated functions? b On the other hand, what
might the drawbacks be of organizing a course solely around language functions? c
Can you think of specific instances in your own experience, either as a second
language user or as a teacher, where communication was impaired because of
inappropriate (rather than inaccurate) language use?

Reference

Wilkins, D. (1976). Notional Syllabuses. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p.12.

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14 Text and discourse A Warm-up 1 Your trainer will give you the first line of a text.
Listen to the instructions and do the activity. 2 Read the text that you started and
answer the questions. 1 Do you like the text? 2 Does it make sense? 3 Does it hold
together, i.e. is it cohesive? 3 Compare ideas with a partner.

B Connected text 1 Work in groups of three. Look at the first line of a story, then
read the sentences a–e, and put them in the right order to complete the text. Once
upon a time there was a farmer who dug up a big earthenware jar in his field. a So
the man sold the brushes, and the family managed to live quite comfortably. b No
matter how many were taken out, others kept on taking their place. c But while the
boy was brushing the inside of the jar, he dropped the brush inside and the jar
suddenly began to fill with brushes. d So he carried it home and asked his son to
clean it out. e ‘This will make a fine jar for storing rice,’ he said to himself. 2 Your
trainer will show you a copy of the text. Check that your version matches the
original. If not, account for any differences. 3 Work in pairs. Discuss what kinds of
knowledge you drew on to be able to order the sentences.

C Cohesion 1 Work in pairs. Look at the sentences in B2 again and identify the
ways that each sentence connected to the one before it. 2 Read this summary of
the main lexical and grammatical ways a text can be made cohesive. Then read the
rest of the folk tale and find at least one example of these cohesive devices.
Compare with a partner. Lexical: • repetition of words, or words from the same
word family (e.g. brushing – brush – brushes) • use of general words to refer to
something more specific that is mentioned elsewhere (e.g. a farmer – the man; his
son – the boy) • use of words from the same lexical set (farmer – field – rice) •
leaving a word out because it can be recovered from the previous text, as in No
matter how many [brushes] were taken out … (this is called ‘ellipsis’) • substitution
of previously mentioned words with pronouns: … others kept on taking their place.
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2 – Language analysis and awareness Grammatical: • reference using pronouns:

So he carried it home and asked his son to clean it out. • back reference using
different determiners, such as the definite article (the jar) or possessives (his son)
• linkers, such as So … But … Some time later, while they were shovelling out
brushes, a coin fell into the jar by mistake. At once the brushes disappeared and
the jar began to fill with money. So now the family became rich, for they could take
as much money out of the jar as ever they wished. Now, the man had an old
grandfather at home, who was weak and shaky. Since they needed as many hands
as possible, his grandson set the poor man to work shovelling money out of the jar.
One day, however, the old man’s strength gave out, and he toppled into the jar and
died. At once the money disappeared, and the whole jar began to fill itself with
dead grandfathers. The farmer had to pull them out one by one and have them
buried. For this purpose he had to spend all the money he had gained. So, in a rage,
he took a brick and smashed the jar, and he was now just as poor as he once had
been.

3 Work in pairs. Look at these exercises from two coursebooks. What aspects of
cohesion does each one focus on? a

Writing Making judgments In this lesson, you . . .

.plan an argument. .contrast ideas. .avoid errors with whereas.

Task

Write a script for an online debate.

Should employers judge applicants by their online profiles?

A Brainstorm Read the question above. Write three reasons to answer “yes” and
three reasons to answer “no.”

B Look at a model Read the debate script. Circle three more expressions that
contrast ideas. Many employers check the Internet for information about job
applicants. However, this is not a fair way to judge a person. On the one hand,
employers need people who will fit into the company. An online profile gives
information that employers will not see on a résumé – for example, if the person is
aggressive or has extreme views. On the other hand, an online profile is for friends,
whereas a résumé is for employers. A résumé provides the most relevant details
about qualifications and work experience. An online profile may contain
information that employers should not use to judge an applicant, such as age or
religion. In conclusion, while there are good reasons to check an applicant’s online
profile, it is not a professional document. For this reason, it is not fair, in my
opinion, to judge candidates by their personal online profiles. C Focus on language
Read the grammar chart. Then use your ideas from Exercise A to complete the
sentences below.

Viewpoint 1

Contrast ideas in writing

70

On the one hand, employers need workers who will fit into the company. On the
other hand, an online profile is for friends. A résumé is for employers. However, an
online profile is for friends.

A résuméUniversity is for employers, while/whereas/but an online leCambridge is

for friends. Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. of Western
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Writing vs. Conversation

multicultural workforce. In fact, a multinational, multicultural workforce is

becoming more the norm these days. this 14 Text and discourse Choose your
words carefully. Make sure your words are easy to understand and used
commonly.

they With a partner, use reference words from the box to replace the underlined
words.

This 1

They

He

She

Them

It

These

We need to make an effort to understand how things work in other cultures. The
effort is the first step to effective communication across cultures.

Many presenters like to use gestures. Gestures help the audience to follow the flow
of a presentation.

Using idioms in a presentation can cause trouble. Idioms can sometimes have two
meanings.

I had a conversation with a Malaysian woman. The Malaysian woman told me a

story about a presentation that went wrong.

Business Explorer 2

D Coherence 4

Useful language

Exploring

1 Read the text below and decide what is wrong with it. shouldn’t use idioms. Many
Workupon in pairs. Thinkthere of advice fortwo someone who iswho goinglived to
in the same You Once a time were brothers, house. The house known as people
won’t understand give a presentation in your culture. Discuss and note down your
ideas. ‘Inde Steenrotse’, situated on the Dwars Quay at Middelburg, dated 1590, is
noteworthy for its them. You should speak slowly large panels in high relief. For this
relief, much thanks. Our thanks are also due to Jill Florent and clearly because
many Here are some things to think about. and Penny Hands for their editorial
expertise. I recognized the facespeople of the two last-named, but have trouble
listening • directness • gestures I had not, until Morton informed me, known who
they were. Andtosince that time no one English. You shouldn’t talk ever • being on
time • idioms heard from Old Dschang again. about religion. • politeness

• taboos

2 How does this text support the argument that a text may be cohesive but not
coherent? • speed • language

E Putting it into practice

51 Read Writing this example of learner writing and answer the questions. With a
new partner, write a report for someone coming to give a presentation in your
culture. What should

Dear Sir or Madam,

they do? What shouldn’t they do? Use the paragraph in 1 Reading as a model.
Underline any reference words

used. Then read what students wrote. Iyou would like to express you other what is
my opinion about the programmes you are showing through our local TV Channel. I
supose you are not psicologist, you are ‘only’ a manager, but I think any person
should know that TV is a mass-media you should use to release information,
entertainment, culture, or anything like this. But you did not get it, and you use TV
as a gun, as a weapon, trying to scare everyone who lays in his comfortable sofa,
waiting for an only acceptable TV programme just to spend the last few day hours
relaxed.

Unit 14 Presenting information 69

In the other hand we can choose between another kind of clever and interesting
programmes such as a Miss World Award or the terrific Scotch Whisky
manufacturing story. Please sir, I would be very grateful if you take out this horrible
productions from our little image cages we have in front of the sofa. Your’s
faithfully

a How cohesive is it? (= Does it hang together?) b How coherent is it? (= Does it
make sense?)

2 Work in pairs. Decide how you could help the learner improve the cohesion and
coherence of the text in activity E1. 71 Downloaded from
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2 – Language analysis and awareness

KEY WORDS FOR TEACHERS Check you know the meanings of these terms. •
cohesion, coherence • reference • ellipsis, substitution • linkers • genre

REFLECTION Read the text that you started (and which your classmates continued)
in task A and answer these questions. a According to the principles you have been
looking at in this session, in what ways is the text cohesive? b In what ways is it
coherent? c What kind of text (or genre) does it belong to (if any)?

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15 Presenting the meaning and form of new grammar items A Warm-up 1 Imagine
you are trying to learn to use new computer software. Do you prefer: • to be told
how to do it? • to be shown how to do it? • to read how to do it? • to try using it and
find out for yourself? • a combination of these? 2 How is your knowledge of how to
use the computer software likely to change over time? 3 Would you learn the
grammar of another language following the same principles as you would to learn
a new computer program? Why / Why not?

B Presenting grammar from texts 1 Look at this text-based presentation – Sections

A–C. Answer the questions (a–d) that follow.

Section A Read the text and answer the questions. – What is the relationship
between the two people? – What are they trying to do? – Why can’t Sam meet
during the week?

Hello Alex Thanks for your email. I hope you and your family are well. It would be
great to meet up but I think this week will be difficult. I am starting the new job and
I’m really busy! I have to be at the school every day, even though term hasn’t
started, because I have to write a scheme of work for the entire year. I have to do
some training as well. The good news is that I don’t have to work weekends! How
about one Saturday? 14th perhaps? Let me know. All the best, Sam

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2 – Language analysis and awareness

Section B Look at this sentence from the text: I have to be at the school every day.
Underline other examples of have to in the text. Complete the rules: Have to is
followed by a verb in the i________e form. I have to get up early. We use have to +
infinitive to show o__________n. Don’t have to + infinitive is used to show that there
is a c_____e – there is no o__________n.

Section C Write four sentences using (don’t) have to about yourself. a b c d

What are the advantages of using a text to contextualize new language items?
What happens before the focus on the grammar item? How is this grammar item
presented in this example? What happens after the focus on the grammar item?

2 When using texts to present language items, which of the following statements
offer good advice? Cross out any that offer poor advice. a The text should have
several examples of the target form. b The text should provide enough data from
which ‘rules’ can be worked out. c The text should be long and complicated. d The
context should be recognisable and easily comprehensible. e The text should
provide clues to the meaning of the new item. f Only written texts should be used. g
The text should sound reasonably natural.

C Three more presentation techniques 1 Complete the table after each

presentation. Study the first one in the box below.

Presentation technique 1 – Using the learners’ first language [After the students
have read a text] Teacher: Spójrz na dwa zdania z tekstu. [Teacher writes two
sentences on the board.] She has worked in Barcelona for three years. She worked
in the UK before that. Teacher: Gdzie ona jest teraz? [Students answer.] Teacher:
Jaka jest różnica między dwiema formami czasownika? [Students answer.]
Teacher: Używaj have i past participle do opisywania sytuacji, które się nie
skończyły. Jak to się mówi po polsku? [Students answer.] Czym różni się gramatyka
(polska) od gramatyki angielskiej? [Students answer. / Teacher explains.] Teacher:
Teraz zajrzyj do książki. Uzupełnij zdania odpowiednią formą czasownika.
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15 Presenting the meaning and form of new grammar items Which structure or
structures are presented? How is the new language item (or items) contextualized?
What are the advantages of using the learners’ first language at this stage? What
are the disadvantages?

Presentation 2 Your trainer will demonstrate a technique for presenting new

language.

Which structure or structures are presented? Choose one: – the teacher

principally explains the item – the teacher creates a situation from which to
highlight the item – the teacher uses a text to highlight the item What are the
advantages of this technique? What are the disadvantages?

Presentation 3 Your trainer will demonstrate another technique for presenting new
language.

Which structure or structures are presented? Choose one: – the teacher

principally explains the item – the teacher creates a situation from which to
highlight the item – the teacher uses a text to highlight the item What are the
advantages of this technique? What are the disadvantages? 2 Look back at tasks B
and C. Answer the questions. i Which two presentation techniques does the
teacher have most control over? ii Which presentation technique is most learner-
centred? iii Which presentation technique is least learner-centred? iv Which
technique(s) would you most enjoy as a learner? 75 Downloaded from
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2 – Language analysis and awareness

D Presenting new language items and highlighting form 1 Here is one simple
sequence for presenting new language items. 1 The teacher provides and/or
elicits some meaningful model sentences which use the target form. 2 Where
necessary, the teacher focuses on the pronunciation of the new item. 3 The
teacher writes some examples of the intended item on the board. 4 The teacher
highlights the key features of the new language from the examples on the board. 5
The teacher writes the form on the board, matching it to the examples. 6 The
teacher checks that the learners understand the meaning of the form. Match the
stages (1–6, above) with what the teacher says or writes on the board (a–f, below).
1
 2

a On the board: Monika has run a marathon. Chico has been on television. We
have all studied languages! b On the board: Monika has run a marathon. Chico has
been on television. We have all studied languages!

has/have + past participle c On the board: Monika has run a marathon. Chico has
been on television. We have all studied languages! d The teacher says: Look at the
sentence: Monika has run a marathon. Is she running a marathon now? Did she run
a marathon in the past? Do we know exactly when she ran a marathon? [Students
answer the questions.] e The teacher says: Listen to this sentence: Monika has run
a marathon. Where’s the stress in the sentence? How does it sound? Listen again
…

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15 Presenting the meaning and form of new grammar items f The teacher and the
students have a conversation: Teacher: Today we are going to talk about
interesting things we have done in our lives – something unusual. For example,
what do you think I have done? [Shows picture of bungee jump.] Student 1: You do
crazy jump. Teacher: That’s right – we call it a bungee jump. How do you think I
felt? Student 2: Frightened. Teacher: No, not frightened … . Very frightened. Now
think about the grammar. What verb do we use for my experience? I have …
Student 1: Did – no, done. Did. Teacher: Which one? Student 1: Done. Teacher:
Good. I have done a bungee jump. Now tell me about you. Student 3: I have
ranned a marathon. Teacher: Wow – really? That’s amazing. Where was that?
Student 3: In my country – in Gdansk and Gdynia. Teacher: Well done! Amazing.
But not ranned, – run. Can you say it? I have run a marathon. Student 3: I have run
a marathon.
2 This is one way of presenting language. In a lesson, what would come after the
presentation phase? 3 In (f), the teacher elicits example sentences from the
students by creating a situation in which they talk about experiences. How else
could a teacher contextualize the language?

E Putting it into practice 1 Your trainer will give you a new item of language to teach.
Talk to your partners and discuss how you could do it in two different ways.
Remember, you need to: • use examples • make the meaning clear • highlight the
spoken form • highlight the written form 2 Present the language item to the class,
using one of the techniques you talked about.

KEY WORDS FOR TEACHERS Check you know the meanings of these terms. •
contextualization • form • meaning • highlighting (form) • model sentence • target
form • structure • presentation 77 Downloaded from
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2 – Language analysis and awareness

REFLECTION Look back at what you have done in this unit. Look at the following
statements and complete the table by putting each in either the DOs or DON’Ts
columns. When you are ready, compare your answers with a partner. Can you add
any other statements to the table? • Check that learners have understood the
meaning. • Give a lecture about grammar. • Involve learners in the process as
much as possible. • Where possible, draw comparisons and contrasts between
English and the learners’ own language(s). • Always use the same presentation
technique. • Contextualize new language items (e.g. by using a reading or listening
text). • Use clear examples. • Highlight the form. • Make explanations clear and
concise. • After presenting new language items, give plenty of opportunities for
learners to use the language. Presenting new language items DOs

DON’Ts

Translation for Presentation 1 Task C [After the students have read a text] T: Look at
these two sentences from the text. She has worked in Barcelona for three years.
She worked in the UK before that. T: Where is she now? [Students answer.] T:
What’s the difference in the verb form? [Students answer.] T: So, use have and a
past participle for something that hasn’t finished. How do we say that in Polish?
[Students answer.] How is the grammar different to English? [Students answer. /
Teacher explains.] T: Now, look in your books. Complete the sentences with the
correct verb form.

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16 Checking the meaning of grammar items A Warm-up 1 Match the first part of the
sentence (1–6) with an appropriate ending (a–f). 1 If I were you, I would try to

a when you explain new language items.

2 My advice would be to give the learners

b both the spoken and written form of new language items.

3 Why don’t you start with the speaking

c keep explanations of new language quite brief.

4 In your position, I would try to involve

d as much time as possible to use the new language.

5 You should use examples

e the learners as much as possible.

6 Make sure that the learners know

f activity to see what learners already know?

2 Answer the questions. a Which language function do all the examples fulfil? b
Which phrases could be used in a formal situation? c Are there any phrases that
would usually only be used to give advice in an informal situation? d Do you agree
with the advice given on teaching new language items? Is there any of the advice
that you would like to clarify with your trainer? e Could you use this type of
matching activity in your teaching? If so, for what purpose(s) could it be used?

B Checking understanding
A teacher is teaching used to + infinitive, using She used to live in Athens as an
example sentence.

1 What is the key concept conveyed by used to + infinitive? 2 Which of the

questions a–d is a useful check of the learners’ understanding of the concept? a
Do you understand? Checking understanding of b Did she use to live in Athens?
vocabulary, using similar techniques, c How do you say that in your language? is
dealt with in unit 7 Task E. d Did she live in Athens in the past? Does she live there
now? Compare your ideas with a partner. 3 Work in pairs. Write questions to check
the understanding of the structures in bold. Start by identifying the key concept
you wish to check. (Assume that the learners understand the individual words.) a
They are flying to New York tomorrow (the present continuous used for a future
plan/arrangement). b When I arrived at the cafe, Alex had left. c If I were Prime
Minister, I would give everyone more holidays. 79 Downloaded from
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2 – Language analysis and awareness

C Timelines

Timelines are simple diagrams that can help learners to see relationships between
verb forms and their time reference. This diagram illustrates the sentence I’m
reading a book at the moment. Notice that the line starts ‘before now’ and
continues ‘beyond now’. Here, the wavy line is used to indicate the temporariness
implied in the sentence. I’m reading a book at the moment.

past

now

future

There is no one correct way to draw timelines, but learners need to know the
conventions you are using.

1 Match the sentences with the timelines. a She used to ride a motorbike. b She
used to live in Athens. c I’m living in Australia at the moment. d I get up at 6.30
every morning.

past

now

future

ii

past

now

future

iii

past

now

future

iv

past

now

future

2 Draw timelines for the following sentences. a The business will have closed down
by the end of the year. b I’ve been working there for ages. c When I arrived at the
cafe, Alex had left. When you are ready, show your drawings to a partner and see if
they can match them to the sentences.

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16 Checking the meaning of grammar items

D Analysing material

© Cambridge University Press

For reference purposes only 1 Look at the material below and answer the
questions that follow.

GRAMMAR be going to for intentions 1 Complete the sentences from the blogs on
page 93 with the correct form of the verb be. Use contractions when you can. Then
circle the correct words to complete the rule. I 'm going to do some acting there for
sure. going to work for a diamond company. He going to be in Dubai too long. 2 We
going to study at the High School. 3 My sister and I not going to stop writing my
blog. 4 I 0

RULE: Use be going to to talk about our

intentions for the 1future / present. Use the present tense of be + going to + 2base
form / -ing form of the verb.

2 Complete the table. Positive

Negative

Questions

I’m (am) going to play

I’m not (am not) going to play

Am I going to play?

Yes, 5

you/we/they’re (are) going to play

you/we/they 1 going to play

he/she/it’s (is) going to play

he/she/it 2 to play

you/we/ they going to play?

Yes, you/we/they 6 No, you/we/they aren’t.

(is not) going

4 he/she/it going to play?

Yes, he/she/it is. No, he/she/it 7

correct form of the verbs in the list.

2345

tonight

this week

this year

do homework

play sport

write a blog

watch TV tidy your room

Some family plans – to make us happier! I 'm not going to watch so much TV. out
more often. My parents all more exercise. We with me anymore. My brother the dog
for a walk every day. I my clothes without My sisters asking any more.

4 Look at the table. Tick (✓) the things you are going to do.

not watch | take | not fight | not borrow | do | eat

. No, I’m not.

(are not)

3 Complete the future intentions with the

Short answers

visit relatives

have a holiday

play a computer game

learn something new

SPEAKING Work in pairs. Ask and answer questions about the activities in Exercise
4.

Are you going to watch TV tonight? What are you going to watch?

Yes, I am. Workbook page 90

Think 1 VOCABULARY 1 The sentences in section 1 come from texts that the
learners have just read, so the learners Places in a town

have already seen these examples. Why is this desirable? 1 Match the places in the
town with 2 How have the the people. Write 1–8materials in the boxes. writers
ensured that the sentence completion in exercise 1 will be A B C 1 concert hall |
simple 2 car park to complete for most learners? Why is it beneficial for example
sentences quick and 3 shopping mall | 4 bus station to5 police be easy stationto | 6
complete? post office 7 football stadium | 8 sports centre 3 How are the rules
about form and use conveyed to the learners? SPEAKING Work in pairs. Describe 4
2 What is the purpose of exercise 2? D E F a place from Exercise 1 for your 5 What
the purpose of exercise 3? partner is to guess. go hereexercise to buy clothes. 4
relate to exercise 5? 6 HowYoudoes 7 How is the practice in92section 5 different to
the practice in exercise 3? Workbook page G H 8 How can exercise 5 be made as
communicative as possible? 9 What would you expect the teacher to do during
and after exercise 5? 94 10 Do you like the sequence of the material? Would it be
appropriate for a class you are currently teaching?

2 Read these comments from teachers about using the material above. Suggest a
rationale for why each teacher made the changes they did. 1 I missed out exercise
1 and instead told my students what they needed to know, and then they
completed exercise 2 and the rest of the sequence. 81 Downloaded from
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2 – Language analysis and awareness 2 I added an activity after exercise 2: I gave

the students three sentences in English to translate into Spanish and then three in
Spanish to translate into English. 3 I typed out exercise 2 in much bigger font and
with more spacing for two of the students in the class. 4 I added some options to
exercise 4, things like ‘cook a meal’ and ‘help my mum’ – things I know some of my
students have to do. I gave them time to ask me for any vocabulary they needed. 5 I
always put some of the specialized words that books use – contraction, infinitive
and so on – on the walls of the classroom, so that the learners know what I am
talking about!

KEY WORDS FOR TEACHERS Check you know the meanings of these terms. • form
• meaning • concept-checking question • timeline • personalization •
differentiation

REFLECTION Answer the questions. One-star questions a Describe, as if to an

elementary learner, the verb form in this sentence: They didn’t leave until nearly
midnight. b Look at this sentence: If I found a wallet in a taxi, I would give it to the
police. Which of the following questions is not useful for checking understanding? i
Does this refer to the past? ii Is it likely I will find a wallet in a taxi? iii If you found a
wallet, would you give it to the police? c Think of two reasons why a teacher might
decide to use the learners’ first language when teaching grammar. Three-star
questions a Look back at the material in task D. i How could you make the
presentation of the language easier for learners? ii Think of at least one way in
which you could make the material more challenging for the learners. b Imagine
you have taught the present perfect simple using the example sentence
They’ve lived in the same house for as long as I can remember. i Underline the
present perfect simple elements of the sentence. ii Think of a question you could
use to check learner understanding. iii Draw a timeline that would be appropriate
for this sentence.

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16 Checking the meaning of grammar items Five-star question Look ahead to a

lesson you will teach in the future where there is a focus on vocabulary, language
functions or grammar. i How will you convey the meaning of the new items? ii How
will you convey the form of the new items? iii How will you check understanding? iv
Do the learners have opportunities to practise the new items? Are the practice
opportunities sufficient? v Is there anything you need, or want, to change about the
material?

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2 – Language analysis and awareness

17 Practising new language items A Warm-up Read the following texts and answer
the question. Share your ideas with a partner. 1 Do you think that either of these
experiences compares to the experience of learning a language? For example,
what is the role of practice? I remember having tennis lessons. We would spend
ages just practising one shot – hitting backhands over and over again, or volleying
at the net, or whatever. My coach was trying to make that one piece of my game
perfect. The lessons would always finish with a short match, though, where I had
to use all the shots I could play – that was probably the bit I liked best.
For me, being a chef is just my dream job – I love cooking so much. I would always
go into the kitchen when my mum was cooking and I watched everything she did.
She then let me start to help – chopping stuff up, that sort of thing. And then one
day I just said, ‘I’ll cook this’ – and she watched me do it all. If I got something
wrong, she’d gently tell me, but it was really just all me. When I started, nothing
was quite as good as she would have done, but I just kept cooking things and
learning as I went along.

2 Read the quote below. In your own experience of learning a second language,
was practice useful? If so, what kinds of practice were helpful?

Practice gets a raw deal in the field of applied linguistics … For some, the word
conjures up images of mind-numbing drills in the sweatshops of foreign language
learning, while for others it means fun and games to appease students on Friday
afternoon. Practice is by no means a dirty word in other domains of human
endeavour, however. Parents make their kids practise their piano skills at home,
and the world’s most famous performers of classical music often practise for
many hours a day, even if it makes their fingers hurt. If even idolised, spoiled, and
highly paid celebrities are willing to put up with practice, why not language
learners, teachers, or researchers? Robert DeKeyser, 2007

B Controlled oral practice 1 Look at the lesson transcript below and answer the
questions that follow. Teacher: Listen. She’s been to Spain. She’s been to Spain.
Now you. Repeat. Class: She’s been to Spain. Teacher: Good. Again. Class: She’s
been to Spain. Teacher: Good. Cinzia, can you say it? Cinzia: She has been to
Spain.

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17 Practising new language items Teacher: OK – but put ‘she’ and ‘has’ together –
‘she’s’. Cinzia: She’s been to Spain. Teacher: Excellent. Roberto ... a b c d e

What are the advantages of this type of repetition exercise? What are the
drawbacks? Why might the teacher choose to start with choral repetition (the
whole class responding)? Do all new language items need to be drilled? Do all
learners in the class need to say the new item individually?

2 Look at an alternative drilling technique below – known as ‘backchaining’. What is

the purpose of backchaining? Teacher: Listen. She’s been to Spain. Repeat after
me – to Spain. Class: to Spain. Teacher: been to Spain. Class: been to Spain.
Teacher: She’s been to Spain. Class: She’s been to Spain. 3 Work with a partner to
practise backchaining. Trainee A should use model sentence A, with trainee B
responding, and trainee B should use sentence B. A: I’m going to paint the house in
the summer. B: We’ll call you when we arrive.

C Controlled written practice 1 Read exercises a–c and explain how they differ. a
Complete the sentences with the words in the box. applied bought
finished invited messaged went 1 I ............. to the supermarket
yesterday and ............. some bread, coffee and pizzas. 2 Paula ............. me
yesterday and ............. me out to dinner.

3 She ............. the course and ............. for a job in LA. b Complete the sentences
with the correct form of the words in the box. apply buy finish go
invite message 1 I ............. to the supermarket yesterday and ............. some
bread, coffee and pizzas. 2 Paula ............. me yesterday and ............. me out to
dinner.

3 She ............. the course and ............. for a job in LA.

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2 – Language analysis and awareness c Complete the sentences by putting one

word in each gap. 1 I ............. to the supermarket yesterday and ............. some
bread, coffee and pizzas. 2 Paula ............. me yesterday and ............. me out to
dinner. 3 She ............. the course and ............. for a job in LA.
2 Explain how these practice exercises are different from drills. What advantages
do you think they have? What can you conclude about providing practice?

D Interactive and communicative practice 1 Read the activities and complete the
chart that follows by ticking the appropriate boxes.

A. Dialogue practice (to practise the past simple) 1 In pairs the learners practise
the following dialogue: A: Hello Pat, did you have a nice weekend? B. Yes. I went
skiing. A: That sounds like fun. What was the weather like? B: It was fantastic.
What about you? What did you do? A: I stayed at home. We had a barbecue. B: Was
that fun? A: It was until I burned myself!

2 They change the elements in italics to make a new dialogue, and practise that.

B. Circle drill (to practise the present perfect)

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17 Practising new language items The learners sit in a circle. The teacher shows
the first picture (the Eiffel Tower) to a learner and asks, Have you ever been to
France?. The learner answers; the teacher gives the picture to the learner who
turns to the next learner and asks the same question and then passes the picture
on. The teacher then continues with the other pictures, so that all the pictures are
travelling around the circle with the learners asking and answering questions.

C. Find someone who … (to practise can) Learners stand up and mingle, asking
questions so as to find people who can do the different activities. They then report
back to the class. FIND SOMEONE WHO … can swim can speak more than three
languages can juggle can play the piano can sing can drive a car

D. Write five sentences (to practise the present simple) The learners must write
three true sentences about themselves, using the new item of language (in this
case the present simple) and two which are not true. They read their sentences to
a partner, who must guess which are true.

Dialogue practice

Circle drill
Find someone who ...

Write five sentences

There is built-in repetition: the activity gives learners opportunities to use the new
language item on several occasions. The language is contextualized. Learners
interact and/or take turns. Learners communicate – they must both speak and
listen to what is said. The language is personalized. The activity is fun and
playful. 2 Choose two of the criteria from the left-hand column and say why these
things are useful in a practice activity. 3 Work in pairs. Write two exercises to
practise used to + base form, as in He used to do magic tricks. Which sequence
would you recommend the activities be used in? Why? 87 Downloaded from
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2 – Language analysis and awareness

E Putting it together Think back to what you know about presenting new language
items, as well as how to provide practice. Work in pairs. Complete the lesson plan,
using the boxes a–j below. 1 Below is part of a lesson plan on using used to + base
form to express past habits. Try to complete the plan, matching the boxes a–j
below with boxes 1–10 in the plan. Lesson aim: Expressing past habits with used to
+ base form. Stage

Activity

Building context

Teacher says, David used to play football.

Highlight meaning

3
4

Teacher asks, Did he play football in the past? (Yes) ‘Does he play football
now?’ (No)

Highlight spoken form

The teacher writes the model sentence on the board. Draws a box round used to
and writes base form over play.

Summarize ‘rule’

Learners choose an activity they enjoyed as children and then walk round the class
asking if other people used to do the same thing.

Report back

10

The learners discuss their memories of their first school in small groups.

Report back

The teacher asks some individuals what they talked about. Afterwards, she
highlights good uses of language and writes some errors she heard on the board
and asks learners to correct them.

a The teacher draws a timeline on the board, showing a period in the past with
several crosses within it. b The teacher repeats the model sentence with natural
linking, stress and intonation. The class repeats. c Highlight written form d The
teacher asks some individuals how many people shared their interest and corrects
errors if they are made, as well as praising good examples of language use. e The
class talks about what things they enjoyed doing when they were children. f
Teacher says, used to + infinitive can be used to talk about things we regularly did
in the past, but don’t do now. g Practice 2 h Model sentence i Practice 1 j Checking
understanding

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17 Practising new language items

KEY WORDS FOR TEACHERS Check you know the meanings of these terms. •
controlled (restricted) practice • choral repetition • individual repetition • drill •
interaction • communication

REFLECTION Think about the following questions. When you are ready, work in
groups and discuss your answers. 1 Why do learners need to practise language if
they already know the ‘rules’? 2 How would you respond if learners made errors in
the sort of activities you have seen in this unit? 3 As well as the sort of practice
activities you have seen in this unit, what other types of practice activity would you
need for a balanced lesson? 4 Is there a correct order for sequencing practice
activities? What factors might influence a teacher’s decision as to which practice
activities to use, and when?

Reference

DeKeyser, R. (2007) Practice in a Second Language: Perspectives From Applied

Linguistics and Cognitive Psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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2 – Language analysis and awareness

18 Providing feedback on learner production A Warm-up 1 Decide which of these

teachers’ views you agree with. Then work in groups and compare your ideas. Olga:
Errors need to be avoided at all costs. I don’t want my learners to pick up bad
habits.

Mariagrazia: Errors are a natural part of the learning process – and as teaching
material they’re really useful.

Paula: I feel bad correcting my students’ errors – it’s judgemental and

demotivating.

Tomas: I think it is really important that teachers highlight good examples of

language use, because it builds the confidence of the student who said it and
other students can learn by copying it.

Carol: I think it is really important to praise learners’ effort and perseverance, as

well as when they get something ‘right’.

Marco: I try to involve my students in correction. Sometimes they can correct

themselves, or another student can correct them.

2 Think back to your own language learning experience. Did you like it when the
teacher corrected your errors? Why / Why not? Did your teacher highlight good
examples of language use? Compare your experiences with a partner. Many
language teachers and students believe the provision of negative feedback by the
teacher in speaking and writing is a staple of good classroom instruction. Lourdes
Ortega, 2009

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18 Providing feedback on learner production

B Types of error 1 Find the errors in the sentences (1–6) and match them with the
classifications (a–f). Then compare your answers with a partner. Errors

Classification

1 She likes her job. She works for the same company for years.

a problem with word stress

2 (In a restaurant) Bring me the menu!

b problem with intonation

3 My brother fell off his bike but he wasn’t badly damaged.

c problem with word order

4 It’s a lovely day, isn’t it?

d problem with choice of word(s) (vocabulary)

5 She’s a MATure student.

e problem with register

6 Where is standing the teacher?

f problem with the choice of verb form

2 Think about some of the errors your learners have made in teaching practice. Do
the errors fit one of the types above, or are they different?

C When to intervene

Work with a partner. Look at some options teachers have for giving feedback. Read
the situations below and discuss which you would use in each situation. Be ready
to justify your choices. correct immediately delay correction until the end of
the activity ignore the error praise immediately praise after the activity

1 You are monitoring group work and you hear learners in different groups say
these things: a ‘Technology is such important for all of us these days.’ b ‘For sure, I
am agree with Anja.’ c ‘Salma makes a brilliant point.’ d ‘The battery is terrible – I
have to redo it every hour!’ 2 The following exchanges occur on different occasions
in open class: a You: We have a new student today. Welcome Vera! Vera, can you
introduce yourself? Vera: I am coming from Moscow. I am absolutely happy to join
this class. b You: Monika, can you tell us what your group talked about? Monika:
We think that endangered species need safe habitats. c You: Freddie, tell us about
your job. Freddie: I work in hotel. My job is to make the guests.

3 The following exchanges happen in open class as learners report back their
answers to a listening exercise: a You: What instrument does he play? Student: He
is play saxophone. b You: What did she say about her favourite movie? Student:
She doesn’t like black and white movies. 91 Downloaded from
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2 – Language analysis and awareness

D Correction strategies 1 Work in pairs. Compare the ways that different teachers
responded to the same error. Explain the strengths of each strategy and identify
any potential disadvantages. Complete the table below. Teacher 4:

Learner:

Sorry, do you mean you go every day?

‘We go to the beach yesterday.’ Teacher 1:

Teacher 5:

Yesterday – so, grammar?

You went to the beach – that’s nice. Who did you go with?

Teacher 2: Yesterday you …

Teacher 6:

Teacher 3: Not quite; look: We go to the beach yesterday. [Holds up their hand and
indicates the second finger from the left from the learners’ point of view]

[makes no comment and the activity continues until, at the end, the teacher says] I
heard someone say We go to the beach yesterday. Can anyone correct that?

Strategy

Advantages

Disadvantages
Teacher prompts using terminology – e.g. ‘grammar, tense, pronunciation,’ etc.

Easy to use and prompts the learner to self-correct.

Learners need to be familiar with the terminology used.

Indicates the type of error that the learner should be looking for.

Teacher repeats the utterance to the point of the error. e.g. Yesterday you ... Finger
correction (teacher uses fingers to indicate the position of the error) Teacher asks a
question to establish the meaning, e.g. Do you mean you go every day?
Reformulation (recast), e.g. You went to the beach. Delayed correction 2 Think
about lessons you have observed. Did the teacher use any of the strategies shown
here? If so, were they effective? 92 Downloaded from
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18 Providing feedback on learner production

E Putting it into practice 1 Read out the error on the card you are given and respond
to what your trainer does or says. Pay attention to how the trainer corrects the
error. 2 Look at the list of errors and complete the table. Error

How was it corrected?

Can you borrow me some money? Do you can juggle? Bring me the menu! Where is
going Felipe? Her mother is a PROfessor. My brother fell off his bike but he wasn’t
badly damaged. 3 Can you think of any alternatives that could have been used to
correct these errors? 4 Work in a group of three. Your trainer will give you a set of
cards. Each card has an error on it. Trainee A: Play the role of the learner. Take a
card and read out the error. Trainee B: Play the role of the teacher. Correct A’s error.
Trainee C: Play the role of an observer. Give feedback on the success of the
correction strategy. Take turns playing each role.

KEY WORDS FOR TEACHERS Check you know the meanings of these terms. •
feedback • immediate correction • delayed correction • reformulation • peer
correction
REFLECTION 1 Use the prompts below to write sentences about giving feedback.
The first one has been done as an example. 1. there are/types There are different
types of error. 2. learners/expect 3. correction/quickly 4. correction/clearly 5.
immediately / interfere with meaning

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2 – Language analysis and awareness 6. sometimes/delayed/because 7. no fixed

rules / when or how 8. praise/sincere 9. praise/effort 10. feedback/supportive 2 Do
you agree with all the advice given in the sentences above? 3 Read the quote
below. Explain how errors ‘invite opportunities’. Feedback is most effective when
students do not have proficiency or mastery – and thus it thrives when there is
error or incomplete knowing and understanding … Errors invite opportunities. They
should not be seen as embarrassments, signs of failure, or something to be
avoided. They are exciting, because they indicate a tension between what we now
know and what we could know. John Hattie, 2012

References

Hattie, J. (2012). Visible Learning for Teachers. London: Routledge, p.139. Ortega,
L. (2009). Understanding Second Language Acquisition. London: Hodder
Education, p.72.

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19 Teaching language items reactively

19 Teaching language items reactively A Warm-up 1 Look at this definition of

reactively. reactively (adverb): in a way that reacts to events or situations, rather
than acting first to change or prevent something. Cambridge Dictionary

What do you think that teaching reactively means? How do you think it might differ
from teaching pre-selected items? 2 Read the sentences below. Put a tick next to
any you definitely agree with. Put a cross next to those you definitely disagree with.
Put a question mark against any that you are unsure about. • Teaching reactively
means putting learners first. • Teaching reactively means never using a
coursebook. • Teaching reactively means never planning lessons. • Teaching
reactively starts with a focus on meaning. • Teaching reactively is only for
experienced teachers. • Teaching reactively involves setting up an activity,
monitoring and giving feedback. Work with a partner and explain your choices. I
harness the communication, because I can’t control it, and base my method on it.
Sylvia Ashton-Warner, 1963

B Planning a reactive lesson 1 a Number the lesson stages below so that they form
a logical sequence. The learners work in small groups to complete the activity. The
learners report back what they discussed. The teacher monitors the groups
carefully – listening and writing down examples of good language use and also
areas of possible improvement. The teacher shows an interest in what the learners
say, praises and highlights good uses of language and elicits, or shows, how the
learners’ use of language could be improved. The teacher sets up a group speaking
activity. b What happens between the learners finishing the group activity and the
teacher providing feedback on the language they used to communicate?

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2 – Language analysis and awareness 2 Put the phrases below into the correct box
to summarize this approach to teaching.

monitor and support learners give feedback set up and encourage communication

3 How might a teacher scaffold (or support) the learners’ output during
monitoring? 4 After completing the stages in 2, above, a teacher decides to set the
same, or a very similar, activity to the one they used in activity 1. Think of
advantages of doing this.

C Selecting what to teach 1 One of the challenges of teaching reactively is to

select appropriate language items on which to focus from the learners’ output.
Teachers need to monitor activities carefully to be able to do this. Look at the notes
below, made by a teacher during group work. The learners were sharing
information in order to solve a murder mystery puzzle. Good points

Things to correct/improve
They must’ve got in through the window. (Good pronunciation, good grammar)

X There are four suspect (/su:spekt/). X

How many suspects are there? (Good vocabulary)

Sorry, I interrupted. After you. (Very polite!)

There is a fingerprint. (Good vocabulary)

X They must had know each other. X

X The window broke and the glasses is all over the floor. X X Does the police
interview the business partner? X X The victim he goes to the police now. X

– Where is the document that has the information about who will have money of
the dead one? – There were three persons in the house, I think. Work in small
groups. Take turns to select one of the notes from either column and explain to
your partners how you would use it in the feedback stage of the lesson. For
example: • Would you write anything on the board? • What questions would you
ask? • What information would you give?

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19 Teaching language items reactively 2 Here is an extract from the discussion of

one group in the same lesson. Work in small groups. Pick out some things that you
would highlight as good examples of language use. Pick out some things to
correct/improve. Ateeqa: I think the reason is for the money. Jonas: Yeah, right. I
am agree with you. Kah Yee, what do you think? Kah Yee: I think the cooker might
be the guilty. He has argued with the victim. Ateeqa: Oh yeah, I forgot that. But the
cook isn’t working that night. Jonas: I think the cook is not the person we need. Kah
Yee: Let’s repeat what we know for sure. Jonas: Good idea. Ateeqa, what you said?
Ateeqa: Before? Jonas: Yes. Ateeqa: OK. I think the reason is the money. They all
need money! Kah Yee: The business partner wanted to sell the business. I think
that is importance. 3 Work with another group. Take turns to choose an item from
your list in activity 2 and use it to ‘teach’ the other group.

D Concerns of teachers
Look at the comments on teaching reactively from teachers. Can you give advice to
help any of these teachers?

Teacher 2:

Teacher 1: I can’t always hear what the students are saying, and I feel I have let the
students down if I don’t comment on anything they said.

I would like to teach by responding to what students say, but I am worried that I
won’t be able to explain their mistakes if I don’t prepare before the lesson.

Teacher 4:

Teacher 3: I tried this with a class of 20 students and it was a bit chaotic. Most of
the students chatted in their own language.

I have seen this type of teaching work really well. But at my school there’s a fixed
syllabus and we are expected to work from that.

Teacher 6:

Teacher 5: I think my students expect a fairly traditional grammar lesson. I’m

worried that they will think that they are not learning anything.

What about practice? How can I give the students any practice when I teach them
something new?

Teacher 7: I worry that the cycle of communication followed by correction can

become repetitive.

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2 – Language analysis and awareness

KEY WORDS FOR TEACHERS Check you know the meanings of these terms. •
teaching reactively • preselection • (giving) feedback • monitoring • scaffolding
REFLECTION Think about answers to these questions. When you are ready,
compare your ideas with a partner. 1 Does every lesson need to have a pre-
selected grammar point? 2 What would you say to someone who said: ‘I don’t like
reactive teaching. Students need to learn grammar.’? 3 Can you summarize how
teaching reactively is different to other ways of presenting new language? 4 Can
you think of any circumstances where teaching reactively might be particularly
appropriate? 5 Have you tried teaching reactively? Would you like to?

Reference

Ashton-Warner, S. (1963). Teacher. London: Virago.

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20 Focus on listening skills

20 Focus on listening skills A Warm-up 1 Write a list of all the things you listened to
in the last 24 hours. For example: • listening to a podcast while at the gym •
ordering a takeaway coffee at a café Compare your list with a partner. 2 Decide
which of your ‘listening experiences’: a involved you speaking as well as listening,
i.e. which were interactive, as opposed to those which were ‘one-way’, i.e. non-
interactive b was supported by visual information, either verbal (e.g. written text) or
non-verbal (e.g. pictures) c involved listening to a speaker who was physically
present d involved listening for specific information e required you to listen closely
and attentively f allowed a less attentive style of listening 3 What difficulties might
learners have with each of these listening events? • watching a live lecture •
watching a recorded version of the lecture • listening to a podcast of the lecture on
headphones • listening to a recording of the lecture in a classroom • discussing
the lecture with a colleague, face-to-face • talking about the lecture with
colleagues in a live-streamed conference call

B Comprehension 1 Listen to your trainer reading two (unrelated) texts. After you
have listened, answer these questions. 1 Did you understand all the words in the
text? 2 Did you understand the overall meaning of the text? 2 Now listen again, and
answer these questions. 1 What was different about each text, the second time
you heard it? Were the texts easier to understand? 2 What factors make
comprehension easier or more difficult? 3 What are the implications of this activity
on listening and reading in the classroom?
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3 – Language skills: listening, reading, speaking and writing

C Listening texts and tasks 1 Match each listening text type (1–9) with appropriate
tasks (a–l). There may be several tasks that are suitable for each text type.
Listening text types

Listening tasks

1 a news broadcast

a answering wh-questions (where, who, what, why? etc.)

2 an exercise routine

b putting a series of pictures in order

3 the directions to a local landmark

c ticking off items on a list of names of people and places

4 the description of a missing person

d drawing on a map

5 an embarrassing personal anecdote

e filling in a grid or table

6 a shopping dialogue (sales assistant and customer)

f choosing one of several pictures

7 a pop song

g taking notes
8 recorded timetable information

h choosing one of several adjectives

9 a weather forecast

i writing the exact words j drawing a picture k filling in gaps in a transcript l

performing actions

2 Compare ideas with a partner. Explain your criteria for choosing tasks.

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20 Focus on listening skills

D A listening lesson 1 Read the coursebook extract and identify the purpose of
each of the activities marked with an arrow (→).

10B

Changing trends

QUICK REVIEW Think of five famous buildings, paintings or books from your
country. Work in pairs. Tell your partner when these things were
built/painted/written and who by.

Vocabulary anything, someone, no one, everywhere, etc. Grammar used to Help

with Listening used to Review Past Simple

Listening and Grammar 1 Work in pairs. Discuss these questions. What type of
things do you like (and hate) shopping for? 2 Who goes shopping more often in your
country, men or women? What do they buy? 3 Is it a good idea for men and women
to go shopping together? Why?/Why not? 4 What was the last thing you bought (not
food or drink)? 1

2 a)
R10.3 Listen to an interview with Sam Bennett about his radio programme, Real
Men Shop!. Put the things he talks about in order. a) b) c) d)

skincare products for men a department store a men’s clothes shop food shopping
in the 1970s

b) Listen again. Fill in the gaps in these sentences. Selfridges opened in . Selfridges
used to have a special room only for . 3 In the 1970s most married men never used
to do the shopping. 4 ‘Shopping girlfriends’ used to help men choose . 5 years ago
you didn’t use to see skincare products for men. 1 2

c) Work in pairs. How have shopping trends changed in your country?

Help with Grammar used to 3 a) Look at sentences 2–4 in 2b). Then choose the
correct words in the rules. ● ● ●

We use used to to talk about present/past habits and repeated actions. We

can/can’t use used to with state verbs (be, like, have, want, etc.). After used to we
use the infinitive/verb+ing.

b) Look at sentence 1 in 2b). Why can’t we use used to in this sentence, do you
think? c) Look at sentence 5 in 2b). How do we make the negative of used to? d)
Make questions with these words. What are the positive and negative short
answers for question 2? 1 2

single men / do / did / What / use to ? men / buy / use to / skincare products / Did ?

e) Check in G10.2 p140. 78

face2face Pre-intermediate

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3 – Language skills: listening, reading, speaking and writing 2 How could you adapt
this sequence: 1 to make it easier for students with less developed listening skills?
2 for an online class? 3 Put these stages of a listening task into a logical order. a
The teacher focuses on features of grammar or vocabulary that occur in the
recording, e.g. by asking students to complete the gaps in a transcript. b The
teacher sets a task that requires listening for specific details. She plays the
complete recording, checks the task, and replays sections if necessary,
addressing issues (such as barely audible words) that may be causing problems in
understanding. c Learners read the transcript of the recording and listen at the
same time. d The teacher generates interest in the topic by, for example, asking the
class about their experience of, feelings about, or knowledge of, the topic. e The
teacher presents some key vocabulary in the listening text, e.g. by giving, or
eliciting, a definition or an example. f Learners are invited to respond to the text,
e.g. based on their own experience of the topic. g The teacher sets a gist listening
task, e.g. Who is talking to whom, about what, and why? She then plays a short
section of the recorded extract, and checks the answers. 4 Explain the principles
underlying your choice of order. For example: • Learners will listen with more
attention if their interest has been aroused (d).

E Classroom application 1 Put the stages in activity D3 in the correct column. Pre-
listening tasks

While-listening tasks

Post-listening tasks

2 Work in groups. Design a sequence of tasks for the following recorded text (in
which people are talking about their jobs) that you could use with a group of pre-
intermediate students. Include at least one prelistening task, one or more while-
listening tasks, and one post-listening task. NIGEL: I became a pilot about 20
years ago. I had to do 72 weeks’ basic training, but I didn’t have to pay for it – the
company did. I was lucky, I suppose, and now I have a job that I love. But these
days most pilots have to pay a lot of money to do their training. GARY: You don’t
have to go to university, but you probably learn more facts than a university student
– at least that’s what people say! A London taxi driver has to know 25,000 streets
and all the important places in the city. MELISSA: It’s not easy to become a vet.
You have to have a degree and the training takes five years. And you don’t have
much free time when you’re a student vet – you have to work very hard. face2face
Pre-intermediate

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20 Focus on listening skills

KEY WORDS FOR TEACHERS Check you know the meanings of these terms. •
interactive/non-interactive listening • (listening for) gist • intensive listening • pre-
/while-/post-listening tasks

REFLECTION Read the questions and suggest some answers. Questions about
listening, posted by teachers on an online discussion forum. Q1:

How important IS listening? My students just want to speak.

Q2: My students hate listening to recordings. Is there an acceptable alternative,

such as reading the transcripts to them aloud? Q3: When I do a listening activity
in class, the students get frustrated if they can’t understand every word. How can
I discourage them from trying to do this? Q4: My students say that they like
listening to songs, but I’m not sure that this is a good idea. Should I let them, and, if
so, is there an effective way of using songs? Q5: Many coursebook listening texts
sound a bit stilted and unnatural. Is there a good reason for this, and is there a
viable alternative? Q6: My students complain that they can understand
recordings in the classroom, but that they have problems understanding real
people when they talk to them. How can I help them with this?

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3 – Language skills: listening, reading, speaking and writing

21 Focus on reading skills A Warm-up Here are some statements about reading. To
what extent do you agree? Discuss these statements in pairs or groups. a Reading
means knowing how to sound out the letters in words. b Comprehension means
understanding all the words in a text. c Reading, in the classroom, means reading
aloud. d For teaching purposes, texts should be simplified. e Reading is a good way
of improving vocabulary. f If you can read well in your first language, you should be
able to read well in a second one.

B Reading purposes and strategies 1 Identify the reasons for reading, and the ways
of reading, for these different text types: Text type

instructions for playing a board game

Reason for reading

Way of reading

primarily primarily for for pleasure information

close (intensive) skimming reading for gist

scanning for specific information

a memo from your boss a weather forecast the news report of a sports event a
short story a research paper published in a scholarly journal

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21 Focus on reading skills

C Reading in a second language 1 a Look at this text (in Esperanto) and answer the
questions. 1 What kind of text do you think it is? 2 What is it about? 3 How are
these names connected: Tonto, Andreo, Betty? 4 How does the story end – happily
or unhappily?

KATO RETROVIS SIAN FAMILION POST 4.000 KILOMETRA VOJAĜO

Kato, kiu vojaĝis 4.000 kilometrojn, revenis al siaj posedantoj, kiuj kredis, ke ĝi estis
mortinta. La kato, Tonto, malaperis kiam ĝiaj posedantoj, kiuj loĝas en Hamilton,
Ontario, feriis en Vankuvero. La tagon, kiam ili devis reveni hejmen, ili ne sukcesis
trovi la katon. Andreo kaj Betty Overden ne havis alian elekton ol lasi Tonton al lia
sorto. Mirakle Tonto ekkomencis la 4.000-kilometran vojaĝon trans Kanado. Li
bezonis nur 3 semajnojn por alveni hejmen. ‘Mi ne povis kredi miajn okulojn’, diris
Betty kiam la kato aperis unu matenon en ŝia ĝardeno en Hamilton. ‘Tonto sidis tie,
malsata kaj malpura, sed vere feliĉa revidi nin!’ Alert Ellesmere Island QUEEN
ELIZABETH ISLANDS

Banks Island
Kaujuitoq (Resolute)

Victoria Island Inuvik Dawson

YUKON TERRITORY

Watson Lake

Baffin Island

Cambridge Bay

Whitehorse

Echo Bay

NORTHWEST TERRITORIES

Iqaluit (Frobisher Bay)

NUNAVUT TERRITORIES

Yellowknife

BRITISH Fort Nelson COLUMBIA

Hay River

Kangiqcliniq (Rankin Inlet)

Fort Smith

Ivujivik

Prince Rupert Prince George

ALBERTA

Churchill

NEWFOUNDLAND Schefferville
Edmonton

Victoria

Flin Flon

Vancouver Calgary Lethbridge

MANITOBA

Happy ValleyGoose Bay

QUEBEC

Gander Saint John’s

Chisasibi (Fort George)

SASKATCHEWAN

Sept-Iles

Saskatoon Moosonee

Regina Winnipeg

Chibougamau

ONTARIO Thunder Bay

Quebec Sudbury

Toronto Hamilton London

Island of Newfoundland

Sherbrooke Montreal

OTTAWA
St. Pierre and Miquelon (France)

PRINCE EDWARD Sydney ISLAND NEW Charlottetown BRUNSWICK

Fredericton Salnt John

Halifax

NOVA SCOTIA

b Read the text again and try to answer the questions (also in Esperanto). 1 Kiel
nomi as la kato? 2 Kiom da kilometroj voja is la kato? 3 Kiom da semajnoj li
bezonis? 4 Kie Betty trovis sian katon? 2 Compare ideas with a partner. 1 How
many questions (in parts 1a and 1b) could you answer? What clues were you using
in order to answer them? 2 Rate your comprehension of the text on a scale from 0
to 10. 3 What does this tell you about reading in a second language? 4 What can
the teacher do to help learners understand a text like the one above? 105
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3 – Language skills: listening, reading, speaking and writing

D Coursebook reading texts and tasks 1a b

Identify the purpose of the tasks 1, 2a, 2b, 3a and 3b in this coursebook extract.
Decide if they are prereading, while-reading or post-reading tasks. Why do you
think some sections of the text are in bold type?

9A

QUICK REVIEW Warnings and advice Imagine a friend from the UK is coming to live
and work in your town/city. Think of five warnings or pieces of advice to give your
friend. Work in pairs. Compare sentences. What’s the most important warning or
piece of advice?

Reading and Listening 1

Work in groups. Discuss these questions. Do you think you have a healthy diet?
Why?/Why not? 2 How often do you eat things that you know are bad for you? 3
Has your diet changed since you were a child? If so, how? 1

a Before you read, check these words with your teacher or in a dictionary. a fast

go on a retreat

toxins

digest

b Read the article. Did the journalist feel healthier after doing the retreat?
Why?/Why not? 3

a Read the article again. Tick the true sentences. Correct the false ones. 1 2 3 4 5 6
7

Vocabulary health Grammar relative clauses with who, that, which, whose, where
and when

Get healthy!

You only drink vegetable juice on the retreat. Joanne wasn’t looking forward to
the experience. Louise worked at the retreat centre. Fasting helps your body get rid
of toxins. Joanne felt fine on day two of the retreat. The fifth day was easier than the
third day. Joanne has changed her diet since the retreat.

Just Juice Can giving up food really improve your health? Joanne Fullerton spent a
week at a retreat centre to find out.

hen I arrived at the Just Juice Retreat Centre, I was feeling a bit nervous. I was going
to do a seven-day fast, drinking only fresh organic fruit and vegetable juices. I’m
the type of person 1that eats three meals a day and can’t wake up without a
cappuccino, so the idea of living on juice for a week was rather terrifying. After
checking in, I was taken to the guest house 2where everyone was staying. Louise,
the woman 3who I was sharing a room with, had been on the retreat four times and
she looked healthier than anyone I’d ever met. According to Rachel Carr-Hill, the
woman 4whose fasting programme we were following, going without food is one of
the best things we can do for our health. The food 5that we usually eat contains
toxins 6which stay in our bodies and stop our digestive system working properly.
When we fast, our body doesn’t have to digest food, so it has time to get rid of
these toxins. The first day started with yoga at seven o’clock and then we had
‘breakfast’ – a big glass of carrot juice. We spent the day listening to talks about
health, having massages and relaxing, with a different juice meal every three
hours. On the second day I had an awful headache and felt as if I was getting a
cold. Apparently this was a normal reaction because my body was starting to get
rid of the toxins. On day three my headache was much worse and this was also 7
when I started getting really hungry. I began daydreaming about cheeseburgers,
pasta, chocolate – anything but more juice. However, by day five the hunger had
gone and I felt more relaxed than I’d been for years. At the end of the retreat I’d lost
three kilos and felt like a new woman. Now I’m much more careful about what I eat
– but I still can’t live without my morning cappuccinos!

b Work in pairs. Discuss these questions. Would you like to go on a retreat like the
one in the article? Why?/Why not? 2 Do you know anyone who has been on a
retreat like this? If so, did they enjoy it? Why?/Why not? 1

70

face2face Intermediate

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21 Focus on reading skills 2 Work in groups. Imagine that you are going to use the
following text with a group of intermediate learners. a Decide which features might
help understanding and which might make it difficult to understand. b Design at
least one pre-reading, one while-reading, and one post-reading task to use with
this text Then compare ideas with another group.

Pok-a-tok:

TH E MEXI CAN BALL GAME

From ancient times a ritual ball game was played by all the peoples of Mexico and
Central America. The ruins of almost every ancient city include a walled court that
was used for this sacred game. In Mexico alone, well over 600 stone ball courts
have been found. The game (called pok-a-tok by the Aztecs) is no longer played
and the rules were never written down. What we know about it is based on
drawings and on descriptions by the first European visitors. Apparently, the players
were divided into two teams. Each team fought for possession of the ball. On either
side of the rectangular court were two long sloping walls. The object of the game
was to drive the ball through rings that were positioned on these walls. The ball
was solid rubber, probably a little larger than a modern basketball, and would have
weighed several kilos. The rings

were almost identical in diameter to the balls, which must have made it extremely
difficult to score. It seems that the first team to score won. The players were not
allowed to hit the ball with their hands or feet. They could use only their knees, hips
and elbows. The ball could not touch the ground. Ballplayers used cotton pads and
thick leather clothing to protect themselves from the ball. Evidently, players were
often injured, despite these protective measures. The game seems to have had a
religious significance. It may have been a re-enactment of an ancient creation
myth. Perhaps the ball symbolized the sun as it moved from the east to the west
across the sky. If played correctly, the game would cause the sun to shine, the rain
to come at the right time, and the crops to grow.

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3 – Language skills: listening, reading, speaking and writing

E A reading lesson 1 Put these stages of a reading lesson in a logical order. (There
may be more than one order). a Check detailed understanding by asking true/false
questions. b Focus on vocabulary in the text by asking learners to find words that
mean X, Y, Z. c Use a picture or some discussion questions to generate interest in
the topic. d Ask learners to read the text quickly in order to answer gist questions,
e.g. What’s it about? Who wrote it? Why? and then check their answers. e Ask
learners to talk about their personal response to the text and its topic. f Teach
essential vocabulary that learners may be unfamiliar with. g Focus on a grammar
structure in the text by, for example, asking learners to underline each instance of
it. h Use the title of the text to encourage students to predict the content of the
text. 2 Choose a reading text in a coursebook that you are using. Identify any pre-,
while- and post-reading tasks. Using ideas from the previous activity, could you
add anything to the sequence of tasks?
KEY WORDS FOR TEACHERS Check you know the meanings of these terms. •
skimming • scanning • comprehension • bottom-up/top-down knowledge •
reading for gist • intensive reading • extensive reading • reading strategies

REFLECTION Discuss these questions. a What is the advantage of choosing

reading texts that are accompanied by illustrations, diagrams or maps? b What are
the pros and cons of using real (i.e. authentic) texts, rather than texts that have
been specially written or adapted for classroom purposes? c Why is setting a task
in advance of reading a good idea? d What does ‘matching the task to the text’
mean? (If in doubt, refer to Task B above). Why is it a good idea? e Why is it often a
good idea to let students compare their answers to reading comprehension
questions? f Should learners be allowed to consult dictionaries and/or translation
apps while reading? What is the alternative? g Should learners answer
comprehension questions from memory, or should they be allowed to consult the
text? Why / Why not?

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22 Focus on speaking skills

22 Focus on speaking skills A Warm-up 1 Look at the questions below and think
about how you would answer them. When you are ready, discuss them in small
groups. 1 What languages (other than your own) can you speak? 2 In your
experiences as a language learner, how much did you speak in lessons? Did you
enjoy lessons that focused on speaking? 3 What skills and knowledge does
someone need to be able to speak a language? 4 What makes speaking a language
other than your own difficult? 2 Report back your discussions to the class.
‘Speaking’ is so much part of daily life that we take it for granted. However, learning
speaking, whether in a first or other language, involves developing subtle and
detailed knowledge about why, how and when to communicate … Burns and
Seidlhofer, 2020

B Speaking activities 1 Like writing, speaking is both an important skill in its own
right, and also a vehicle for practising new language items. Look at the four
activities below. For each, say whether the emphasis is on speaking for
communication, or language practice. 1 The teacher shows pictures of famous
places around the world. The learners respond with I have(n’t) been to Rome, etc. 2
The teacher asks the learners about the places that they would most like to visit
and why. The learners respond. 3 The learners work in small groups to compare
their ideal jobs. 4 The learners work in small groups to compare their answers to a
grammar exercise. 2 The following activities focus on speaking for communication.
Which of the following five activity types have you experienced as a learner? Which
did you enjoy?

Discussion activity The activity in A above is an example of a discussion activity. Of

course, for learners of English the questions could be changed so that there is a
focus on a topic of interest to the learners.

Role play Look at the scenario on the next page. Your teacher will allocate you one
of the roles. Take a few minutes to think about your role and plan the arguments
you wish to put forward. There will be a meeting between the headteacher at a
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3 – Language skills: listening, reading, speaking and writing Role: Headteacher You
are new to the school and want to show that you listen to students’ views. On the
other hand, you do not want to upset your staff. You will chair the meeting.

Role: Teacher You believe that mobile phones are being used excessively in
lessons. They stop students focusing on the lesson and it is clear that many
students are using social media rather than studying. You think mobile phones
should be banned in the classroom. Put your arguments forward at the meeting.

Role: Student representative You represent your class. You know that one or two
students use their phones for social media in lessons but most of them are using
phones to check facts and find additional information relevant to the lesson. Put
the case for using mobile phones in lessons at the meeting.

Conversation The teacher begins by asking the learners their views on a topical
issue of interest. The teacher encourages the learners to ask, as well as answer,
questions. They may address these to the teacher or other learners. As the
conversation develops, so other topics might be introduced.

Information gap An activity type where the information required to complete the
task is distributed across two or more learners, meaning that they must
communicate in order to complete the task successfully. See the Unit 34 task on
pages 181 and 183 for an example.

Survey and presentation 1 In groups of four, prepare a survey on the topic: Are you
a good language learner? Prepare six questions that you will ask the other students
in the class. For example: Do you do the homework that the teacher gives us? a
always b sometimes c never 2 Form new groups, so that each student in the new
group comes from one of the original groups. Ask the other students your
questions, and make a note of their answers. 3 Return to your original group. Share
the results of your survey. Prepare a presentation of your findings. Use expressions
like Five out of ten students always do their homework. Draw some conclusions
from your survey. For example, It would be good if we could listen to more songs in
English. This would improve our listening skills … 4 Present your findings and
conclusions to the class.

3 Look at the five different activity types above again. For each activity type, answer
the following questions. a Could it be used with classes at a range of levels? b
Could it be used with a range of class types and sizes? c Is there a purpose to the
activity? Is there an outcome? d Could it be used in both online and face-to-face
lessons?

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22 Focus on speaking skills 4 Look again at the activities and answer the following
questions. a Which activities encourage learners to share personal information
and opinions? b Which activities could be set up so that the grammar and
vocabulary required by the learners can be predicted by the teacher, and even pre-
taught if necessary? c What would the teacher’s role be before, during and after
these activities?

C Giving advice: concerns of learners Look at these comments from learners on

speaking lessons. What advice could you give to them and/or their teachers? 1 ‘We
do some speaking in class, but it is dominated by a few students and some of us
don’t say anything.’ 2 ‘I get very anxious that when I try to use English no one will
understand me.’ 3 ‘I’m in a B2 class and I can speak OK, so speaking in class is a bit
of a waste of time.’ 4 ‘Speaking is so important for me and I want to practise
outside class, but don’t know how.’

D Giving advice: concerns of teachers Look at these comments from teachers on

speaking lessons. What advice could you give to them? 1 ‘I know I should correct
mistakes, but I sometimes have trouble hearing the students when they work in
pairs and so I don’t know what to correct.’ 2 ‘When I use breakout rooms I worry. I
can’t be in every room and so I don’t know what learners are doing.’ 3 ‘I am afraid of
using too much pair and group work because the students sometimes use their
own language.’ 4 ‘The book I am using has some interesting speaking activities, but
I cannot find a grammar point to link to them.’

KEY WORDS FOR TEACHERS Check you know the meanings of these terms. •
information gap • role play • monitoring • outcome • speaking for communication

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3 – Language skills: listening, reading, speaking and writing

REFLECTION Work with a partner from another TP group. Look at the books that
you are using with your respective groups and choose one speaking activity from
each. For the purposes of this activity, ensure that it focuses on speaking for
communication, as opposed to solely practising a particular language point.
Consider the following questions. 1 Do you like the material? Would you be happy
to use it with the appropriate group? 2 Choose one of the pieces of material. How
could you make it maximally productive? For example, how could you ensure that
as many learners as possible are speaking as much of the time as possible? 3
Write the stages you would go through in order to exploit the material. Would you
adapt the material in any way? 4 As the teacher, what would you need to do before,
during and after the activities?

Reference Burns, A. and Seidlhofer, B. (2020). Speaking and Pronunciation. In N.

Schmitt and M. Rodgers (eds.), An Introduction to Applied Linguistics (3rd edition).
Abingdon: Routledge.

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23 Focus on writing skills

23 Focus on writing skills A Warm-up Look at the following comments made by
practising teachers. Which views do you agree with? Discuss your ideas in small
groups. Tracy: I sometimes think that writing in class is a bit of a waste of time. The
learners can do it at home and we have so many other things to fit into lessons
anyway.

Chris: Korali: I use writing in class to give learners the chance to produce
grammatically accurate sentences.

I like to teach writing by showing the students an example of the sort of text they
should write. We talk about the structure of the text, and then they write a similar
text.

Laura: I make sure my learners know how to use spell checks and grammar
checking software, as well as where they can find online dictionaries. I am in two
minds about how much I should encourage the use of machine translation – I think
it is inevitable that people will use it.

David: I don’t think you should correct every mistake when learners write
something. I only pick out what I think are the main points, and I always write
comments saying what I liked about what was said, or what I thought was
surprising, and so on.

Quyen: I like to get my students to comment on each other’s written work, because
I think they can learn a lot from that.

B Writing activities 1 Look at the activities below and complete the table. a Multiple
choice gap-fill The learners choose the best way to complete sentences. For
example: We had a nice holiday, _______ the weather was bad.

a) despite b) despite of c) because d) although

b Reproducing a model Learners study a model text and then write their own text of
a similar nature. For example, they read an email of complaint and answer
questions about the layout of the email and the content of each paragraph;
afterwards they write their own email of complaint. c Interactive writing Learners
interact in writing. For example, they write text messages to each other and
respond.

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3 – Language skills: listening, reading, speaking and writing d e

Writing an essay Learners write an essay. For example, they discuss the
achievements of a famous person. Dialogue writing + items Learners write a
dialogue that includes preselected language items. For example, they must
include five words that are given by the teacher.

Analysis of activity types Activity type

Do the Is there a communicative learners produce purpose? texts?

Is the activity similar to what learners might do outside the language classroom?

What level Does the writer know could it be used for? who the reader will be?

a Multiple choice gap-fill b Reproducing a model c Interactive writing d Writing an

essay e Dialogue writing + items 2 Work in small groups. Look at the following
writing task and answer the questions.

Write six sentences describing your favourite film. a How could you make this
exercise more communicative? b How could you redesign it so that learners
produced a single, unified text, rather than a list of sentences? c How could you
make it more authentic? d How could you provide a readership?

C Stages in writing 1 Imagine writing a blog post about a particular teaching

context with which you are familiar. Put the stages below in the order in which you
would do them. Are there any things here that you wouldn’t do? a Write a final
copy. b Read and make changes and corrections. c Write a rough draft. d Organize
ideas. e Consult books and/or talk to colleagues to get ideas. 2 We can see from
C1 above, that writing involves a number of different processes. In small groups,
discuss the implications this has for teaching.

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23 Focus on writing skills

D Providing feedback on written work Work in pairs. Discuss the three ways in
which the errors in this learner writing have been indicated and answer the
questions. 1 Which of the three ways do you think is most effective? 2 The writer of
the text was at intermediate level (B1). Do you think the approach to correction
would be the same for all levels? 3 What do the symbols mean? Complete the key.

Response to student writing, or ‘feedback’, is one of the most important – and

time-consuming – activities undertaken by any writing instructor. Dana Ferris, 2018

As you know, this product is on sale for four years and we want increase sale. We
have some ideas for advertise the product. Healthy products are fashinable now
and we should to focus on this. Our product is make from herbs and we can to tell
people this. One of the idea is to changed the name because now it is difficult to
pronunciate. Also we belief that we need update the wraps. G T sp ww + Also, we
are deciding the price should cheaper than competitors becuase we can do more
market share P

un

this way. In addition we should to be an official sponsor at the next Olympic

Games. But ww

television publicity is also very important. ww = wrong word sp = spelling

wo = G =

T= P =

un = + =

E Analysing material Look at the material aimed at A2 level learners. It is taken

from a section in the coursebook called ‘Skills for Writing’. In the previous section,
the learners listened to a recording of a student discussing which homestay family
he should choose when he goes to study in Australia. Answer the questions. 1
What is the overall purpose of 2a and 2b? 2 What is the overall purpose of 3a, b and
c? 3 What is the overall purpose of 4a, b and c? 4 What is the purpose of exercise
4d? 5 What is the purpose of exercise 4e? 6 Could you use this material with the
learners you are currently teaching? Would you want to adapt it in any way? 7 How
could you make the task at 4d more challenging for stronger learners? 8 How could
you make the task at 4d less challenging for weaker learners?
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3 – Language skills: listening, reading, speaking and writing UNIT 7

ut yourself

READING

when and while

WRITING SKILLS

Linking ideas with after, when and while

a Ahmed decided to stay with the Conways.

Read his email to them. Tick (✓) the main reason he writes to them.

1234

a Underline the word in each sentence that’s different from Ahmed’s email.

to ask about their house to tell them about all the sports he likes to tell them about
himself to explain how much he wants to study

b Read the email again. Number the

information in the order you find it. his future plans his family’s jobs

1234

b Look at the sentences in 3a and complete the rules with the words in the box.
his hobbies his hometown

after

beginning

while

to join two activities that happen at 1 We use when and the same time. 2 We use
when and to join two activities that happen at different times. 3 If the linking word
is at the of the sentence, we use a comma ( , ) between the two parts.

Dubai Dear Mr and Mrs Conway My name is Ahmed Al Mansouri and I come from
Dubai in the United Arab Emirates. Thank you for offering to be my homestay family
when I’m in Sydney. I am 23 years old and study biology at university. I live with my
family in Dubai. My father is a businessman and my mother is a doctor. I’ve got one
brother and one sister. They’re university students too. In my free time, I like playing
football (I think you say ‘soccer’ in Australia!) and meeting my friends. I like
watching different kinds of sports with them. While I’m in Sydney, I really want to
study hard and improve my English because I want to become a marine biologist
after I finish university. I’d really like to work in a country like Australia. I’m looking
forward to meeting you when I arrive. Best wishes Ahmed

Thank you for offering to be my homestay family while I’m in Sydney. I want to
become a marine biologist when I finish university. I’m looking forward to meeting
you after I arrive. When I’m in Sydney, I really want to study hard.

c Underline the correct words. There is more than one possible answer.

1 After / When / While I finish my English course, I’d like to go to Canada for a
holiday. 2 I’d like to go skiing in the mountains after / when / while I’m on holiday. 3
I often play basketball with my colleagues after / when / while I finish work. 4 After /
When / While I watch a game of football, I usually want to play a game myself. 5 My
English improved after / when / while I was in Sydney.

SPEAKING AND WRITING

a Make a list of English-speaking countries you know. b

Which country in 4a would you like to visit? Why? I’d like to go to …

I like warm places.

They say the people are friendly.

c Plan an email about yourself to a homestay family in that country. Make notes
about:

• your age • free-time interests • study / job • family • what you’d like to do in that
country

d Write your email. Tick (✓) each box. Start the letter with Dear Say thank you Say
who you are Talk about study / work / free time Talk about your family Say what you
want to do in the country Include I’m looking forward … Finish the letter with Best
wishes Use after, when and while to link your ideas

Dubai

Swap emails with another student and check the ideas in 4d.

77

Empower A2

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23 Focus on writing skills

KEY WORDS FOR TEACHERS Check you know the meanings of these terms. •
process • readership • purpose • corrective feedback • authentic task

REFLECTION Complete the following sentence in as many different ways as you

can. Try to use one of the words in the box below in each sentence you write.
collaborative communicate grammar model texts process writing
readership
Reference Ferris, D. (2018). Writing instruction and Assessment. In J. Newton, D.
Ferris, C. Goh, W, Grabe, F, Stoller and L. Vandergrift (eds.), Teaching English to
Second Language Learners in Academic Contexts. New York: Routledge.

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3 – Language skills: listening, reading, speaking and writing

24 Teaching basic literacy A Warm-up Read the definition of literacy and answer
the questions. Literacy is the ability to read and write in a language – usually one’s
own – and is contrasted with illiteracy, or the state of being illiterate. […] However,
increasingly for learners of a second language – especially those living in an
English as a second language (ESL) context – the term ‘literacy’ is used to mean
more than simply reading and writing as an end in itself, but reading and writing as
a means to assimilate into the target language community and its culture. Scott
Thornbury, 2017 1 What typical reading and writing tasks face a new arrival to an
English-speaking country? For example, understanding and filling in a form to
register with a doctor. 2 Why might doing reading and writing in a typical general
English class be unlikely to meet the special needs of such learners?

B L1 and L2 literacy Read the learner profiles and answer the questions. Aasmah
moved to Australia from Afghanistan nearly three years ago. She has picked up a
fair amount of spoken language but has never had formal lessons. She cannot read
or write any English but has a good command of writing in Farsi, her first language.
Halima moved to Canada from Somalia. She works in Canada and listens and
speaks well. However, she cannot read or write any English, and she never had the
opportunity to learn to read or write in her own language either. Huseyin is an
electronics engineer and a recent arrival in the UK from Iraq. He is literate in both
Kurdish and Arabic, and speaks English fluently. He can read and write English
sentences but cannot handle the kinds of documents that he needs in order to
apply for a job, rent a flat, or get a driving licence, for example.

1 To what extent is each learner literate or illiterate in: a) their first language(s); b)
English? 2 Why would it be difficult to comment on the overall level of English
possessed by each learner? 3 Consider the ways in which most learners are taught
new vocabulary and grammar. Why might Aasmah and Halima find learning these
things harder than some classmates? 4 What skills, if any, do you think Aasmah
and Huseyin may be able to transfer from reading and writing in their first
language(s) to reading and writing in English? 5 Why do you think the ability to read
and write sentences is insufficient for Huseyin’s needs? 6 What else does Huseyin
need to know about reading and writing in English to be able to confidently do the
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24 Teaching basic literacy

C Lessons from learners 1 Read what these learners say about learning to read
and/or write in English. In each case write what you should remember when you
teach basic literacy. Then compare your answers with a partner. Learner Karim

Soula

Li Na

Shireen Vashti

Ali

Samia

Daryan

Mei Yan

Shan

Comment I should remember . . . I always get very anxious before reading things in
class. It’s quite intimidating. It helps if there is not too much on the page and if the
writing is quite big. I was very lucky with my teacher. She gave me lots of time to
find the letters on the keyboard. She never got frustrated with me and always
encouraged me. It was a bit frustrating. The teacher kept practising letters and
sounds. Eventually we went on to words. And then sentences. It was months
before I read a little story. I wanted to move on. It’s very frustrating if you are trying
to learn to read but you don’t actually understand the words anyway – they are all
new. I know the alphabet, but the teacher keeps using different fonts or asking us
to read other learners’ handwriting. Outside class it’s often hard for me to read
signs because they’re all in capital letters and the shape of the words are all the
same. The worst thing is that it is just so tiring. I concentrate so much I get tired and
then my writing gets worse. My teacher always said ‘copy this from the board’ –
new words, grammar, those things – but I never had time. I felt I missed out and fell
behind the other students, but I was worried about seeming stupid if I asked the
teacher to wait for me. My handwriting was very bad – the teacher couldn’t read
what I was writing. I found it so difficult. But then a teacher helped me and showed
me how to hold the pen and now I’m improving a little. Some people in my class
can read and write quite well. They write quickly but for me, if I copy things, I can’t
remember more than one or two letters at a time. It’s very difficult. I never write by
hand. It’s much easier to type. I use predictive text, a spell checker or a translator if
I can, but I don’t always know if it’s correct. I can also ask my phone to read texts to
me, so I don’t have to read them myself.

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3 – Language skills: listening, reading, speaking and writing 2 All of the learners
described so far are neurotypical adults. The areas you discussed in C1 may also
be important to consider if you teach pre-literate young learners or learners with
Special Educational Needs (SEN), such as dyslexia, dysgraphia or deafness. Write
YL and/or SEN next to each point in the table which you think is relevant to these
learners too. Then compare your answers with a partner.

D Reading activities Work in pairs. Put these reading activities into the correct
column. Activities focusing on reading at word level

Activities focusing on reading at sentence level

Activities focusing on reading at text level

a Reading bingo The teacher gives out bingo cards with known vocabulary on them.
She reads out items of vocabulary. The winner is the first person to tick off all the
words. b Find and underline The teacher gives out a short text about eating habits.
The learners must underline all the types of food mentioned. c Odd one out The
learners see a set of words. They have to say which word is the odd one out. For
example, March, April, Tuesday, June. d Matching The teacher creates flashcards
or an online game with pictures of known vocabulary and the corresponding
words. The learners must match the pictures to the appropriate word. e Ordering
The teacher gives out a short text but the sentences are in the wrong order. The
learners must put the text into the correct order. f Describing pictures Learners
read a series of sentences and choose the correct picture in each case. For
example, there are two pictures, one of a set of keys on a table, and one with keys
on a chair. The learners read ‘My keys are on the table’ and must select the correct
picture. g Next word The teacher gives out a short text. The teacher begins to read
the text to the class, but every now and then stops and asks, What is the next
word?. h Sentence halves Learners see the first half of a sentence. They must
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24 Teaching basic literacy

E Writing activities Three writing sub-skills important in basic literacy are spelling,
the mechanical formation of letters (i.e. how to move a pen to create a letter on a
page), and writing simple sentences. Find two activities that practise each of these
sub-skills from the following list: a The teacher gives out a handout on which there
are pictures of known vocabulary. Scattered around each picture are the letters to
make the written form and a space underneath for the form to be written. b The
letters of the alphabet are printed on a piece of paper in the form of a series of
dots. The learners must join the dots to form the letters. c The learners are given a
model sentence. The learners must write a similar sentence of their own. The first
word is given.

Ania is from Poland. I d The teacher displays a sentence where all of the words run
together and there is no punctuation. Learners must rewrite the sentence with the
correct spaces and add relevant punctuation. For example, imfrombaghdadiniraq.
e The teacher writes simple words on pieces of paper in thick pen. She gives one to
each learner. The learners place another piece of paper over this and then trace
the word onto their own piece of paper. f The teacher selects eight items of
vocabulary each week and teaches the written form. Every day the learners must
read the words, and then cover them and try to write them out correctly.

KEY WORDS FOR TEACHERS Check you know the meanings of these terms. •
literacy • special educational needs (SEN)

REFLECTION Work in groups. Complete the diagram below. Our tips for teaching
literacy Reading
Writing

Reference Thornbury, S. (2017). A New A–Z of ELT, Macmillan, p.160. 121

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3 – Language skills: listening, reading, speaking and writing

25 Integrating skills A Warm-up 1 Your trainer will give you an activity to do. Work
with a partner to complete the activity. 2 Answer the questions. a What skills
(speaking, listening, reading and writing) did … we should be looking for you
personally practise in this activity? opportunities to knit skills b What skills did your
partner practise? together, because this is what c Did you enjoy the activity?
happens in real life. d Would you be able to use this type of activity with a class
Donn Byrne, 1976 you are teaching? e Could the activity be used in both virtual
classrooms and physical classrooms? f According to the text, why is it a good idea
to combine skills in the classroom?

B Combining skills 1 Look at the following activities. Work in groups. Tick the skills
that you think would be involved in each one. Listening Speaking Reading

Writing

a Learners do a 15-minute role play in pairs. Half the class are journalists, who
interview the other half of the class, who are environmental campaigners. b
Learners work briefly in small groups to discuss ideas to put into a piece of writing
on animal rights. They then do a piece of writing in the style of a blog post
on the subject. c Learners read a text about language teaching methodologies and
answer multiple-choice questions. They discuss their answers in small groups
before reporting back to the teacher. d Learners read a short description of a
podcast. They then listen to the podcast and answer some true/false questions. e
Learners work in pairs to write a review of a restaurant they like. f Learners make
notes as they listen to a short, pre-recorded lecture. 2 In the above table, choose
one of the four skills and look at the activities (a–f) it occurs in. Is it equally central
to the activity in each case? What implications might this have for teaching? 122
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25 Integrating skills 3 Choose a combination of two skills that you feel learners in
your TP group would benefit from practising more. Look at the coursebook you are
using in teaching practice. Choose some activities that you think would include the
two skills you have chosen, and consider the balance of the skills in the activities.
Are the skills equally prominent in all cases?

C How teachers combine skills 1 Look at the comments made by teachers on how
they combine skills in lessons. Complete each one with a word or phrase from the
box. communicative read a text

give feedback speaking and listening

model text the transcript

nodding and asking to discuss

a A lot of my writing lessons include reading, because the learners study a

____________ before they write. b Most of my reading lessons contain some
speaking and listening because I ask learners ____________ their reactions to the
text. c Speaking lessons must include listening or they cannot really be called
____________ . d As learners often talk to each other in lessons, I try to teach active
listening skills near the start of the course, such as ____________ questions. e In so-
called speaking lessons, I also sometimes ____________ on how well the learners
have used active listening techniques. f In some of my listening lessons, we study
____________ to highlight features of spoken language. This means that the learners
also do some reading, and also their speaking may improve. g I sometimes
____________ aloud to my learners and they follow it. This helps them read more
quickly and, of course, includes listening practice. h My writing lessons often
contain ____________, because I ask learners to share ideas before they write.

2 Respond to the prompts below. a Choose one thing from the exercise above that
you already do. b Is there anything from the exercise above that you think you could
incorporate into your own teaching? c Share your ideas with your partner.

D Putting it into practice Here is a text about an approach to teaching called

Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL). Think of different ways the text
could be exploited so that all four language skills are practised. You can use
different activities to practise different combinations of skills. One way in which
skills are very naturally integrated in language teaching is in content and language
integrated learning (CLIL). This is when the teacher teaches a school subject –
such as mathematics or science – through the target language (such as English).
The aim is to develop both subject knowledge and language skills at the same
time. This may result in a teacher deliberately teaching particular items of
vocabulary or grammar in order to support learners in understanding and
producing the texts that are relevant to the subject area.

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3 – Language skills: listening, reading, speaking and writing

KEY WORDS FOR TEACHERS Key words for teachers Check you know the
meanings of these terms. • integrated skills • CLIL • productive skills active
listening receptive skills • •

REFLECTION Play in groups of three or four. Each player needs a counter and
should place it on the start line. Players flip a coin. If the coin lands on ‘heads’ they
move one square, and if it lands on ‘tails’ they move two squares. When a player
lands on a square s/he should answer the question to the satisfaction of the other
player(s). If s/he does not answer to the satisfaction of the other player(s), s/he
must go back to the square s/he moved from.

Skills quiz

START

FINISH

1 What do you understand by ‘receptive’ skills?

Congratulations

10 Give some criteria that you might use in selecting an authentic text.

2 What do you understand by ‘productive’ skills? 3 What is an ‘authentic’ text?

4 Is it usually necessary for learners to understand every word of a reading or

listening text? 5 How might you differentiate a reading activity to suit different
members of a group?

6 Can you explain what steps you would go through to make a writing activity into a
process?

9 Learners read a text about a holiday where everything went wrong. They answer
questions based on the text. How could you also develop productive skills in this
lesson? 8 Explain how you would incorporate at least one other skill into a writing
lesson. 7 What other skill would you usually expect to find in a speaking lesson?

Reference Byrne, D. (1976). Teaching Oral English. London: Longman. 124

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26 Lesson planning: defining aims

26 Lesson planning: defining aims A Warm-up 1 Choose the statement(s) you

agree with. Discuss your choices with a partner and agree on an order
of importance. Lesson aims are important because . . . a trainers (and directors of
studies) require them. b they make planning easier. c they make lesson plans look
more professional. d they frame the criteria by which the lesson will be judged. e
learners need to know the focus of the lesson. f they set a goal that can be used to
test the learners’ achievement. 2 Look at the quote from Amy Tsui. What sort of
knowledge about students do you think that expert teachers might use when
planning? Discuss your ideas with a partner. Expert teachers always start their
lesson planning with their knowledge of the students. Novice teachers, however,
tend to focus on what they want to do as a teacher and give relatively little
attention to how students will respond to their teaching. Amy Tsui, 2009

B Types of aim 1 Look at the following five lesson aims. Four of them relate to the
same lesson. Which one do you think is the odd one out? a To present and practise
the form and use of the present perfect with ever and never. b By the end of the
lesson, the learners will have talked about and compared past experiences. c By
the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to express future plans and
arrangements. d The learners will take part in informal conversation. e To develop
my grammar presentation skills. 2 Match the lesson aims (a–e) in activity B1 with
the types of aim in the box below. communicative aim (× 2) linguistic aim

professional developmental aim skills aim

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4 – Planning and resources for different teaching contexts 3 Choose the most
appropriate aim (a–f) for the lesson described by the teacher below. What is
unsatisfactory about the other aims? a to do some speaking b to present and
practise the past tense c to practise writing d the learners will tell each other
stories about disastrous holidays e to develop oral fluency when narrating past
events f by the end of the lesson, the learners will have learned some new words
I’m going to start by telling the students about a recent holiday I had which was a
bit of a disaster, and this will involve some past tense examples. Then I’m going to
get them to work in pairs to reconstruct my story in writing, and I’ll check that
they’ve used the same verbs correctly. Then I’ll ask them to think of their own
stories, about trips or holidays where things went wrong, and to prepare to tell
these stories to each other. To do this they’ll first need to plan their stories, and
they can use translating apps to look up any words they need. Then I’ll put them in
pairs to tell their stories. After that, I’ll change the pairs so they can tell their stories
again, to someone different. This way they can get more fluent, hopefully.

4 Read the lesson descriptions A and B, below. a Identify each teacher’s main aim
and at least one subsidiary aim. b Formulate each teacher’s aims (both main and
subsidiary), using the rubric: By the end of the lesson … c State whether the main
aim is linguistic, communicative, or skills-focused. A.

B.

I’ve got a short text about a driving instructor. So the students are going to read that
and answer a couple of comprehension questions. I’ve chosen the text because
there are lots of examples of the present perfect simple and continuous. So the
text is a way of contextualizing the language so that we can contrast the verb forms
and then do a bit of practice. We are going to start by talking about money and
what students spend their money on. I’m then going to teach verbs that combine
with money, like earn money, save, lend, borrow, invest money and so on. I’ll then
share a profile of a person with financial trouble and the students will write a plan
for them of how to improve their financial situation, using some of the verbs I’ve
taught them.

C Material and aims 1 For each of the two following pieces of coursebook material,
identify and formulate: a a main aim b a possible subsidiary aim 2 Classify the
aims that you have formulated according to whether they are linguistic,
communicative, or skills-focused. 3 Imagine you are teaching a group using the
material shown, American Think Level 2. One of the goals of the class is
vocabulary development. Write a subsidiary aim that reflects this. How could you
achieve the aim?

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26 Lesson planning: defining aims

SOCIAL

NETWORKING

READING

SPEAKING

questions.

Work in pairs. Answer the

Which of these social networks do you know about? 2 What do you think of them?
3 Do you know about any other social networks? 1

Read these statements about using social networks. Which of them are true for
you? Discuss them with a partner. SPEAKING

12345

I’ve got a Facebook account but hardly ever use it. I don’t post many comments,
but I like to read other people’s posts. I constantly check for updates on social
media. I sometimes post comments that I regret later. I know of a post that created
a problem.

OBJECTIVES giving advice indefinite pronouns (everyone, no one, someone, etc.)

all / some / none / any of them; should(n’t), had better, ought to VOCABULARY: IT
terms; language for giving advice FUNCTIONS: GRAMMAR:

1.28 Read and listen to the article about online behaviour to decide if each
sentence is correct or incorrect. If it’s correct, mark it A. If it’s incorrect, mark it B.

12345678

James Miller did not think before he wrote a post and so he lost his job. His boss
apologised for giving James work that wasn’t very interesting. Cathy’s birthday
party ended in disaster because her parents went out that evening. A study from
last year shows a lot of teens had problems because of their behaviour on the web.
The writer of the article thinks that you can’t make everybody happy with your
posts. He says that before writing a post you should think of reactions you might
get. He thinks that we need to be as friendly online as we are in real life. He says
that posting things when you’re unhappy is a good way to feel better.

4 Work in pairs. Correct the statements marked B.

38

127

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4 – Planning and resources for different teaching contexts 4 SO CI A L N E T WO R K

I N G Here are some important tips. None of them can guarantee 100% Internet
security, but all of them will help you to be safer online.

RULE 1: Share with care!

Think before you act online

ometimes what we post on our favourite social networks can have consequences
we didn’t expect. One weekend, 20-year-old James Miller posted on his Facebook
page that his job was ‘soooo boring’. When he got to work on Monday his boss told
him to clear his desk and get out. He gave him a letter, too. It said: ‘After reading
your comments on Facebook about our company, we understand you are not
happy with your work. We think it is better for you to look for something that you
will find more interesting.’ A few years ago, a girl’s birthday party turned into a
nightmare. Fifteen-year-old Cathy posted an invitation to her birthday party online.
She posted her address, too. When her parents got back from the cinema that
evening, they couldn’t believe their eyes. There were 500 people at the party, and
some of them were smashing windows, breaking potted plants and making a total
mess of the house. Most teens think they know everything about social media, and
that things like this could never happen to them. A study shows that last year
alone, more than three million young people worldwide got into trouble because of
their online activities.

Not everyone will like what you write on Facebook or Twitter. Think before you post
something. You can never completely control who sees your profile, your texts,
your pictures, or your videos. Before clicking ‘post’, everyone should ask
themselves two questions: ‘How will I feel if my family or teachers see this?’ and
‘How might this post be bad for me in three, five or ten years from now?’

RULE 2: Be polite when you write! Imagine someone is unfriendly in real life. You
don’t like it, right? Well, the same is true of online communication. Politeness
matters, and anyone can be polite. No one likes it when you ‘shout’ in your
messages. DON’T USE ALL CAPITALS!!!!!!!! If you feel angry or frustrated while
you’re writing a message, wait a bit. Read it again later and then send it.

RULE 3: Protect and respect! Don’t share your passwords with anyone. Don’t post
your home or email address online. Beware of ‘cyberbullying’ – don’t forward
rumours about other people, and don’t say negative things about them. If you get
messages like that or see them online, talk to an adult you know.

VALUES

Responsible online behaviour 1 Read the statements. Write them in two lists under
Do and Don’t. ● ● ● ● ● ●
2

say bad things about other people online. talk to your teacher or another adult if
you get bullied on social media. think carefully before you write a post about
yourself or other people. write a post about someone when you are angry with
them. write posts containing personal information about your family. think before
you post a photo of yourself or someone else.

SPEAKING Work in pairs. Compare your lists with your partner. Think of at least two
more statements for each list.

39 American Think Level 2

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Hi, I’m Mario and this is …

6 a Work in pairs. You’re at a party where you don’t know anyone else. Decide your
relationship. Are you colleagues, friends or family?

b Introduce yourself and your partner to other pairs. c Can you remember the
names of everyone at the party? Can you remember their

That’s Mario and that’s Lucia. She’s Mario’s boss.

26 Lesson planning: defining aims

relationships?

Is she your sister? GRAMMAR be present: am, is, are

Complete the positive and negative aren’t, isn’t. 1.10 Listen to check. P

sentences with ’m, ’re, ’s, ’m not,

1 Hi, I ’m Sally. Krishnan. 2 You 3 This is James. He my husband. Rob’s parents. 4
We 5 They Rob’s friends. ’m = am ’s = is ’re = are

Complete the questions

with Are and Is.

Junko

Akio

Kenji

me Rumi

123

Simona

I his sister. I’m his girlfriend. Rob’s colleague. Sally Rob and Krishnan brothers.

isn’t = is not 1.11

aren’t = are not

Listen to check.

Yes, I am. Yes, he is. Yes, they are.

No, I’m not. No, he isn’t. No, they aren’t.

3 a Write your name and the names of five people you know. Put a line between the
people who know each other.

b Work in pairs. Look at your partner’s names and write five questions about the
people with is and are.
Grammar reference and practice, p132

SPEAKING

you Rob’s father? Krishnan your colleague? they your parents?

678

Is Junko your sister? Are you Simona’s friend? Are Akio and Rumi colleagues?

Ask and answer questions.

Is Junko your sister? No, she isn’t. She’s my ...

English Unlimited Elementary 11

KEY WORDS FOR TEACHERS Check you know the meanings of these terms. • main
aim • subsidiary aim • linguistic aim • communicative aim • skills-focused aim

REFLECTION Look at these questions written by trainee teachers for their trainers
after they have been teaching. a Can you answer any of the trainees’ questions? b
If not, what further information would help you to give advice? Andrzej:

My lesson was meant to be about reading but the learners seemed to be enjoying
the lead-in, the speaking activity, so much and they were all using English so I
didn’t want to stop them. But that meant that I didn’t have much time for the
reading. Do you think I should have finished the speaking activity sooner? 129
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4 – Planning and resources for different teaching contexts Sophie:

I started teaching and I thought the atmosphere was awful. The students seemed
so bored. They had just already done a long reading lesson before my lesson and
there was no energy. I missed out some of the controlled practice of the new
language because I just wanted to get to the game, which was more lively. I thought
the lesson got better after that. Should I have done all the controlled practice? I
know they were still making mistakes at the end. Samira:

I don’t find this elementary class very easy and wasn’t very happy with that lesson.
I wanted to teach language for talking about plans – but by the time I had explained
‘going to’ and the present continuous, and gone through how to make the
sentences negative and how to make questions, the lesson was just about over
and there was no time for any practice. Jane:

There was a listening exercise in the book with a few comprehension questions. I
know this class really loves learning new expressions so I used the transcript to
teach things like ‘not bad’, ‘quite nice’ and ‘pretty good’ – ways of expressing
evaluation. Do you think I should have just stuck to the book?

Reference Tsui, A. (2009). Teaching Expertise: Approaches, Perspectives and

Characteristics. In A. Burns and J. C. Richards (eds.), The Cambridge Guide to
Second Language Teacher Education. New York: Cambridge University Press.

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27 Lesson planning: lesson design and staging

27 Lesson planning: lesson design and staging A Warm-up 1 Choose one of the
following sentences and complete it. A good lesson is like a film, because … A
good lesson is like a football, match because … A good lesson is like a meal,
because … A good lesson is like a symphony, because … 2 Find somebody who
chose the same sentence stem as you. Did you complete the sentence in a similar
way?

B A common lesson format: PPP PPP stands for the broad stages of a popular
lesson format – Presentation, Practice, Production.

1 Work in pairs. Put these stages of a lesson in a logical order. How long would you
expect to spend on each stage in a 45-minute lesson? Level: Intermediate Aim: To
focus on the differences in form and use between the past simple and past
continuous Stage Time Interaction Activity

1
0–5

Ss-Ss

The teacher divides the class into three groups. Each group makes up a story.

T-Ss Ss-T

The teacher asks questions to check understanding. Learners respond.

T-Ss Ss-T Ss-Ss

The teacher asks learners about their favourite stories when they were
young. Learners volunteer stories and/or work in pairs to tell their favourite stories.

T-Ss Ss-T

The teacher confirms and/or clarifies the form with examples, as necessary, and
then gives out a series of rules of use of the verb forms. Learners decide which
rules go with which verb form and pick out examples from the text.

Individual

Learners complete sentences, deciding whether the past simple or continuous is

more appropriate.

Ss-text

The teacher gives out a short story and asks learners to underline examples of the
past simple in blue and underline examples of the past continuous in red.

Ss-Ss

The teacher forms new groups, comprising one person from each of the other
groups. The learners tell each other their stories.

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4 – Planning and resources for different teaching contexts 2 Compare your solution
with that of another pair of trainees. Explain why your order is logical. 3 Identify
three stages of the lesson after which the teacher could usefully check that the
learners have correct answers. 4 Answer the questions. Presentation

1 Which stages in B1 constitute the presentation of the new language, including its
contextualization? 2 How is the new language item contextualized?

Practice

3 Which stage in B1 gives ‘controlled’ practice? 4 In what sense is this ‘controlled’?

Production

5 Which stages in B1 constitute the production stage of the lesson? 6 What would
you expect a teacher to do after the learners have had the chance to use the
language?

C A common lesson format: Task-based learning 1 Read this teacher’s description

of a lesson, based on task-based learning, and then answer the questions below. I
told the learners about a game I like to play, where you think of who you would
invite to your dream dinner party and I told them who I would most like to invite to
my dinner party – Nelson Mandela, Frida Kahlo and Charlie Chaplin – and why I
would like them to be at my party. The students then planned who they would like
to invite, before working in groups to come up with an agreed list of six people for
their co-hosted party. I listened while they discussed and helped when they
needed vocabulary. Each group then reported back and afterwards we each said
whose party we would most like to be at. We then went over some of the language
they had used and how they could improve it. As well as correcting some errors, I
highlighted some useful words and phrases – things like that.

[A task is] a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending,

manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention
is principally focused on meaning rather than on form. David Nunan, 1989 a What
was the main task? b What happened before the main task? c What happened
after the main task?

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27 Lesson planning: lesson design and staging 2 a The teacher also said: ‘I played
the learners a recording of some expert users of English playing the same game.’
Where would you put the recording in the lesson sequence? b The teacher also
said: ‘I often get my learners to repeat the task after they have done it once, or to
do a very similar task.’ What advantages do you think repeating the task might
have? 3 Work in groups. Design a lesson around the task below. Think of pre-task,
task and post-task stages. Allocate approximate timings that you would expect to
spend on each stage, assuming a 45-minute lesson. Include the interaction
patterns that would be likely to occur. Assume that the learners are at B2 level and
are studying a general English class.

Work in small groups. You have £1,000,000 to donate to charities and good causes.
Decide together how you will distribute the money.

D Giving advice Look at the comments made by teachers below. Can you think of
any advice that would help them? 1 I have to use a coursebook and it uses a PPP
format. There’s always a text, the book takes some sentences from the text, we
analyse them and practise them. It’s ok, but it gets repetitive. I’d like to have more
communication at the start of the lesson. 2 We use PPP in my school a lot, but it
can be frustrating because we often run short of time and the production phase
has to be cut short. 3 My students definitely expect some traditional grammar
teaching but I think they need more communication activities, so I am not sure of
the best way forward. 4 I like the idea of TBL, but I am not sure it will work. My
learners are only elementary level and they need more support before they speak.
5 I have used TBL and the learners enjoyed it, but because I didn’t know what new
language items I would be teaching I couldn’t provide any practice, and I felt bad
about that.

KEY WORDS FOR TEACHERS Check you know the meanings of these terms. • task-
based learning (TBL) • task • pre-task • language focus • PPP (presentation,
practice, production)

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4 – Planning and resources for different teaching contexts

REFLECTION 1 Are there any similarities between PPP and TBL lessons? What are
the principal differences? 2 Complete the sentences. Then compare your ideas
with a partner. 1 Learners’ needs and interests should be considered when
.......................................................
............................................................................................................................
....................... 2 A good lesson usually includes a variety of
…...........................................................................
............................................................................................................................
....................... 3 There is more than one way that teachers can
….....................................................................
............................................................................................................................
....................... 4 Communication phases of lessons can be placed
…..................................................................
............................................................................................................................
....................... 5 The language focus of a lesson can be placed
…........................................................................
............................................................................................................................
....................... 6 Most lessons should include both communication and
…........................................................
............................................................................................................................
.......................

Reference Nunan, D. (1989). Designing Tasks for a Communicative Classroom.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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28 Lesson planning: planning beyond the single lesson

28 Lesson planning: planning beyond the single lesson A Warm-up 1 Work in

groups. Suggest how these complaints from learners could have been avoided.
Eriko:

Emiliano: I used to like the lessons when I started but all we ever do is the
coursebook. It’s really boring now.

The teacher does new things with us every day, but I can’t remember everything
about what we have done before.

Thomas:

Sophie: I don’t think all the things we do are useful. I wish the teacher would give
us more chance to say what we want to do in lessons.

We have two teachers every morning. Before the break we did a long reading text,
and then after the break the next teacher did a reading lesson too. It was so boring.

Suriya: I can’t prepare for lessons because I never know what the teacher is going
to do next. I find the class quite difficult, and it would be better for me to do some
work before the lesson.

2 Look at the quote below. What things can a teacher do to create coherence
between lessons? [Expert teachers] are able to relate their lessons to the entire
curriculum and to other curricula and to establish coherence between lessons.
Novice teachers, by contrast, see individual lessons as discrete units rather than
as units in an organized curriculum.

Amy Tsui (2009) [original emphasis]

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4 – Planning and resources for different teaching contexts

B Schemes of work

A scheme of work (also sometimes called a timetable) is a teacher’s plan for a

sequence of lessons. Depending on the context in which they are working,
teachers may be expected to produce a scheme of work for a week, a term, or even
the entire year.

1 Work in pairs. Think back to all the lessons for learners of English that you have
seen on your course. List the different types of lesson, according to the main
focus. For example: the main focus was a grammar presentation. 2 Work with
someone from your teaching practice group. a What different types of lesson has
your group taught? b Has there been a good balance of content? c Has there been
a variety of interaction patterns in lessons? What impact has that had on the
energy levels in the room and the pace of the lesson? d If you have taught at
different levels, have you found the classes to be different in terms of the balance
of content, interaction patterns and pace? 3 Consider the following teaching
contexts. In what ways might a scheme of work differ in each context? Think about:
• the balance of grammar v skills lessons • the balance of receptive v productive
skills • the inclusion of functional English lessons (often with a focus on language
use in social situations), of review lessons, and of practice tests • the balance
between teacher-fronted and learner-centred activities • the balance between
intensive activities and more relaxed activities A A group of 12 elementary adult
learners, studying two evenings a week for nine months in their home country. B A
group of 20 intermediate teenage learners, studying three hours a day for a month
in a private language school in Australia. C A group of 15 upper-intermediate
learners preparing in their own country for the IELTS exam, a good result in which
will give them access to university study; they have two months of classes,
studying 20 hours a week. D A one-to-one class for an advanced student of
business English, that takes place three hours a day for two weeks at their place of
work. E A group of migrant workers and refugees studying in the UK; they have two
three-hour lessons a week for thirty weeks. None of the class is above CEFR level
A1, and some have additional literacy needs.

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28 Lesson planning: planning beyond the single lesson

C Sequencing lessons Look at the scheme of work and answer the questions
below. Level: B1 Intermediate Number of lessons: Three lessons per day, three
days per week Course: General English, including a focus on both language skills
and language systems Monday

Wednesday

Friday

Grammar – uses of should and must

Speaking – role play: job interviews

Functional language – asking for advice

10–10.50 Listening – working in a call centre

Speaking and writing – preparing a news story

Speaking – jobs

11–11.50

Reading – how to do well in a job interview

Vocabulary – collocations with make

9–9.50

Grammar revision – present perfect simple

1 In terms of quantity in the week, do you think that there is a reasonable balance
between vocabulary, grammar and skills work? 2 Is there a reasonable balance of
lesson types on each day? 3 Are there obvious links between the lessons that
might be better exploited?

D A lesson sequencing puzzle Work in groups. Use the cards your trainer gives you
to plan the lessons for the week. Then compare ideas with another group. Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

9–9.50 10–10.50 11–11.50 12–12.50

KEY WORDS FOR TEACHERS Check you know the meanings of these terms. •
scheme of work • recycling • needs analysis
REFLECTION Work as a group. Look at the coursebook that you are using in
Teaching Practice and use it as the basis for planning a sequence of lessons. Your
trainer will tell you how many lessons you should plan. • ensure that there is a
variety of types of lesson • you can use additional material to that provided in your
coursebook if you wish

Reference Tsui, A. (2009). Teaching expertise: Approaches, Perspectives and

Characteristics. In A. Burns and J. C. Richards (eds.), The Cambridge Guide to
Second Language Teacher Education. New York: Cambridge University Press. 137
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on 11 Dec 2023 at 03:58:22, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available
at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms.
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009091602.029

4 – Planning and resources for different teaching contexts

29 The online classroom v the face-to-face classroom A Warm-up 1 Imagine it is

two years after your CELTA course. You are now a professional teacher. Close your
eyes and picture the lesson you are teaching. • Where are you, the teacher? What
are you doing? • What is around you while you are teaching? • Where are the
learners? What are they doing? Draw a picture of what you imagined. 2 Work with a
partner. Compare your pictures. What is similar? What is different? 3 If you drew a
face-to-face classroom, now imagine an online classroom. If you drew an online
classroom, now imagine a face-to-face classroom. What would your answers to
activity 1 be now? Tell your partner.

B Different classroom, different activities? 1 With a partner, decide whether the

activities below would work best in an online classroom, a face-to-face classroom,
or equally well in both. Say why. Check with your trainer if there are any activities
which you are not familiar with. One example for each category has been given to
help you. a collaborative writing b learners write short written responses to a
question for everybody to see c error correction through the use of gestures d
running dictation e class surveys f pronunciation drills g scavenger hunt, e.g. find
something old/red/useful h interviewing guests from outside the class i board race
Online

switch your camera off, change something around you, switch it on and ask
learners to spot the difference(s)

Face-to-face
gallery activities, e.g. reading excerpts from a text around the room

Both

pair and group work

2 Work with another pair to compare your ideas. Can you think of any other ideas
not already listed?

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29 The online classroom v the face-to-face classroom

C Possible opportunities and challenges 1 Your trainer will divide you into two
groups. Group A: think about online classrooms; Group B: think about face-to-face
classrooms. Answer the following questions: i What are at least three possible
advantages for teachers and learners working in this type of classroom? How do
learners benefit from these? How can teachers exploit them? For example: In an
online classroom, using breakout rooms allows learners to work together without
the background noise of the group. Teachers can exploit breakout rooms by giving
different groups secret challenges or personalized tasks to complete, which can
then be shared with the whole class. ii What are at least three possible challenges
for teachers and learners working in this type of classroom? How can you work
around these challenges? For example: It can take longer to work through the
same amount of content in an online classroom than a face-to-face classroom.
One solution would be to ask learners to prepare for some parts of the lesson
before meeting, perhaps by doing a grammar activity or listening to a recording that
would otherwise be used in the lesson.

2 Work with somebody from the opposite group. Compare your ideas. Can you
suggest other ways to exploit opportunities or work around challenges?

D Adapting a lesson Think back to a previous TP. Imagine you are teaching it again,
but in a different type of classroom. For example, if you taught an online lesson,
you are going to teach it in a face-toface classroom. With a partner, answer the
following questions: • (If your partner did not observe the TP you are describing)
What activities did you include in the lesson? What teaching techniques did you
use? • Can you use the same activities in your alternative classroom? If yes, how
would you need to adapt them? If not, what activities could you use to achieve the
same aim? • Can you use the same teaching techniques? Do you need to adapt
them for your new classroom? If not, which techniques could you use instead but
with a similar outcome? • What challenges might teachers and learners have with
this lesson in the alternative classroom? How can you solve them? • What
opportunities might there be in the new classroom? How can you exploit them?

KEY WORDS FOR TEACHERS Check you know the meanings of these terms. •
synchronous (learning/teaching) • asynchronous (learning/teaching) • educational
technology (EdTech)

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4 – Planning and resources for different teaching contexts

REFLECTION Complete at least three of the following sentences: I will be able to

teach in an online classroom, because I already know how to … To be a better
online teacher, it would be useful for me to learn … I will be able to teach in a face-
to-face classroom, because I already know how to … To be a better face-to-face
teacher, it would be useful for me to learn … One thing I learned today about
online/face-to-face teaching is … One thing I would like to learn more about
connected to online/face-to-face teaching is … I feel … about teaching
online/face-to-face classes, because …

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30 Choosing and using teaching resources

30 Choosing and using teaching resources A Warm-up Think about materials you
have used as a language teacher (for example, the coursebook you are using
during the CELTA course) or a language learner (for example, a self-study language
learning app). Complete the table with your ideas. Here are some areas you might
want to consider: • engagement and motivation • design and ease of use language
explanations and practice • • sense of progress • skills testing and teaching • other
What you liked about the materials

What you didn’t like about the materials

As a teacher As a student Compare your table to a partner. Do you have similar

opinions about what you liked and didn’t like?

B Criteria for evaluating materials 1 Your trainer will divide you into four groups.
Look at the criteria for choosing material below. Add to the possible list of
questions. 1 Suitability for learners Are the materials appropriate to the learners’
age group? What do the learners need English for? To what extent do the materials
meet these needs? ... 2 Suitability for teachers Do the materials require more
planning time than the teacher might normally have? Do the materials support
teacher development, for example through teacher’s notes? ... 3 Suitability for the
context Are the materials affordable? Is there sufficient preparation for any formal
assessments learners have to take? ... 4 Suitability of language and skills focus Do
the materials reflect the version of English (e.g. British English) needed and used
by the learners? Do the reading and listening texts reflect authentic language use?
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4 – Planning and resources for different teaching contexts 2 Work in pairs. Select
six to eight questions from B1 which are particularly relevant to your current
TP group.

C Sources of materials and resources 1 Which of these materials and resources

have been used during your CELTA course so far? Which of them would you like to
use?

coursebooks

pictures

recipes

videos

workbooks
a grammar reference book

podcasts

graded readers

photocopiable worksheets

a learner’s dictionary

songs

a phonemic chart

online flashcards

news articles

poems

a voice recorder

2 What other materials and resources can you add to the list? 3 Work in pairs. Your
trainer will give you some materials. Use your shortlist of questions from B2.
Decide how likely you are to use the materials with your current TP group.

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30 Choosing and using teaching resources A conscientious teacher whose

teaching is by necessity or choice based on a coursebook will want to do
something to compensate for the lack of match between such considerations as
teaching context, course aims and learner needs on the one hand and what the
coursebook assumes and provides on the other. In short, a coursebook should be
seen as a resource for teaching and learning, rather than a body of material to
be taught. Ian McGrath, 2016

D Adapting materials 1 Once you have identified suitable materials for your
learners, you need to decide how to use them in your lesson(s). The table shows
some of the ways in which you could adapt materials during the lesson planning
process or in the lesson itself. Match the key words (1–4) to the explanations (a–d).

1 Keep

a Switch out one activity or method for another, e.g. a different controlled practice
activity.

2 Supplement

b Take out whole stages of an activity or a lesson, e.g. not using a reading text. OR
Take out questions from an existing activity.

3 Remove

c Use the materials or activities unchanged.

4 Replace

d Add new materials, e.g. an activity from the teacher’s book. OR Add extra
questions to an existing activity.

2 Look at as many different examples of materials and resources as you can within
the time limit your trainer gives you. Decide: • whether you would use them with
your current TP group • specific ways you could adapt materials or make use of
resources to suit your TP group (including the level of challenge/support provided),
your teaching style and your context Aim to come up with ideas under as many
different headings from D1 as possible. 3 Work with another pair. Summarize what
you discussed in D2, and decide how useful the questions you selected in B2 were
when evaluating the materials.

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4 – Planning and resources for different teaching contexts

KEY WORDS FOR TEACHERS Check you know the meanings of these terms. •
authentic materials • engagement • materials evaluation • materials adaptation •
differentiation • coursebook, workbook, teacher’s book • flashcard • graded
reader • learner’s dictionary • phonemic chart • realia

REFLECTION Choose one of the following questions to answer. 1 How might your
choice of questions in B2 have been different if you were considering the following
types of learner? a young learners b university students c a company executive
who you teach one-to-one 2 Have you enjoyed using a coursebook? How has it
helped you? How have you adapted the book for your group? What problems have
you found with it? 3 Have you used any materials that were not originally created
for teaching (e.g. a song or a video clip)? If so, what were the challenges? What
worked well?

Reference McGrath, I (2016). Materials Evaluation and Design for Language

Teaching (2nd edition). Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

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31 Teaching with limited resources

31 Teaching with limited resources It is as well to remember that language is life

itself, and that life is very largely language … Language is not a sterile subject to be
confined to the classroom. One of two things must be done: either life must be
brought to the classroom or the class must be taken to life. Peter Strevens, 1956

A Warm-up Imagine you’re going to teach in a place where there are no available
resources, nor any digital technology. Make a list of six things you might take with
you, and put them in the order of importance. Here are some ideas: • a grammar of
English • a grammar of the local language • a bilingual dictionary • a coursebook •
a picture dictionary of English • a student grammar of English plus exercises • the
collected short stories of a contemporary writer • a selection of popular magazines
• a teacher’s resource book of language practice games • your photo album • a
book of jokes for children • a traditional English songbook • blank notebooks and
pencils Make your own choice and then, in groups, try to agree on a common list.

B Teaching in difficult circumstances 1 Your trainer will read a short text. As soon
as they have finished, try to write down as much as you can remember. Then
compare in groups. The trainer will then read it again, and you can make any
changes. 2 In the same groups, try to predict what the young teacher did, in the
circumstances. Your trainer will then tell you what actually happened. 3 The
activity you have just done is a version of what is known as ‘dictogloss’. Work in
pairs and answer these questions. 1 What were its different stages? 2 How could
you adapt it to teach an item of grammar? 3 Could you use it in your own teaching
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4 – Planning and resources for different teaching contexts

C Low resource activities 1 Your trainer will demonstrate three activities using few
or zero resources. After each one, work in pairs to complete this table. 1

Give the activity a name that describes it memorably. What language skills did it
involve? Was there any obvious grammatical or lexical content? How would you
rate it in terms of: 1 language productivity? 2 learner interaction? 3 learner
engagement? Could you do this activity: 1 online and face-to-face? 2 with a one-
to-one student? 3 with young learners? 4 with a range of levels?

D Learner-generated material Learners bring not only material objects to the

lesson but also a wealth of experience, knowledge, opinion, preferences, abilities
and needs.

1 Work in pairs. Read these descriptions of classroom activities. Which of the

above domains – experience, knowledge, opinion, preferences, abilities, needs –
does each one tap into? 1 ‘One of us’: Learners work in groups of four, asking each
other questions, so as to generate as many true sentences, as possible using this
rubric: One of us

can

Two of us Three of us All of us None of us Each group reports to the class. 146
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31 Teaching with limited resources 2 ‘Five finger exercise’: Draw the outline of a
hand on the board. Students do the same on a sheet of paper. At the tip of each
finger and the thumb write these prompts: a name, a place, a number, a date, and
a symbol (e.g. emoji, logo). Instruct students to use the prompts to write
something that is significant for them (and that they are prepared to share).
Demonstrate by using examples from your own life. In pairs (or mingling), students
ask and answer questions about each other’s ‘hands’ (which can then be
displayed around the classroom walls). Ask individuals to report on anything
interesting they discovered. 3 ‘Class poll’: Establish a topic (it may be the topic of
the current coursebook unit, e.g. travel, health, homes). Ask learners to create a
survey or questionnaire on the topic in order to find out what the majority thinks
about the topic. They first prepare questions in groups, and then are redistributed
into new groups to ask and answer their survey questions. They then re-join their
original group in order to collate the answers, using a rubric such as ‘X out of Y
students think that … ’. A spokesperson from each group then reports their findings
to the class.

2 Work in pairs or small groups. Choose one of the above activities. 1 How could it
be adapted so as to address another of the learner domains? For example, what
effect would there be if you changed the verb in the ‘One of Us’ activity? 2 How can
the report stage be developed so as to focus on a specific grammar item or
function?

KEY WORDS FOR TEACHERS Check you know the meanings of these terms. •
resources v resourcefulness • learner-centredness • dictogloss

REFLECTION 1 Choose one of these resources that were listed in the warm-up
activity. • the collected short stories of a contemporary writer • a selection of
popular magazines • a teacher’s resource book of language practice games • your
photo album • a book of jokes for children • a traditional English songbook • blank
notebooks and pencils In groups, discuss how you might plan an activity or even a
whole lesson around this resource, with the aim of generating authentic language
use. Report your ideas to the class. 2 Read the quotation by Peter Strevens at the
beginning of this unit. How can you ‘bring life to the classroom’? How can you ‘take
the classroom to life’?

Reference Strevens, P. (1956). Spoken Language. London: Longmans, Green & Co.,
p.69. 147 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. University of
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4 – Planning and resources for different teaching contexts

32 Using educational technology A Warm-up Think of three examples of when

different technology tools (e.g. apps, websites, or hardware such as projectors)
were used during your CELTA course so far. These examples could be from your
own lessons, other trainees’ lessons, input sessions or observations of
experienced teachers. For each example, answer the following questions: • What
was the tool used for during the activity? • Who was in control of the tool? The
teacher/trainer? Or the learners/trainees? • Was the activity a one-off or
something which could be repeated later, for example at home after the lesson? •
Do you think the use of the tool benefitted the learners’/trainees’ learning or
distracted them? Why? Based on your observations, what do you think a teacher
needs to remember when using technology tools in their lessons?

B Factors influencing the use of educational technology There are many different
factors you might consider when deciding whether to use a specific tool with your
learners. Choose five factors from this list which you think are particularly
important. • Learning benefits: for example, supporting recycling of new language,
or allowing realtime communication outside the classroom • Ease of use: the
amount of time it might take to set up an activity using the tool, and the amount of
technology knowledge and/or English knowledge needed to understand how to use
it • Synchronous or asynchronous: whether the tool must be used by everyone at
the same time, or whether each person can choose to access it at times that suit
them • Learner autonomy: whether the tool can only be used with a teacher or
independently by learners as well • Functionality: the range of possible functions
the tool has • Content availability: the ability to create your own content or adapt
existing content and the ease with which you can do this, and/or the range and
quality of ready-made content available • Target audience: the demographic that
the tool is targeted at, for example children or businesspeople • Security: including
privacy settings, for example whether the tool collects data from users •
Accessibility: for example, whether the colour scheme or font size can be changed
to help learners with visual impairments • Compatibility: how compatible the tool
is with different operating systems, for example on mobile phones, computers or
tablets • Cost: whether the tool is free, or what the payment model is if paid
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32 Using educational technology

C Opinions about technology and education Here are some statements about
educational technology. Rate each one out of 5: 1 = completely disagree, 5 =
completely agree.

1.

2. The older the learner, the less comfortable they are with using technology during
lessons.

3.

Technology is a part of our everyday lives. It should be part of our lessons.

4. I only want to use websites in lessons if they don’t require students to create an
account or log in.

5.

As English teachers, it’s not our job to teach learners how to evaluate facts on
websites.

6. Using online games in lessons is just a gimmick. Learners might enjoy them, but
they don’t really learn anything.

You should match the choice of tool with the learner’s preferences and goals.

Compare your opinions with a partner. Say why you think this.

So what comes first? Technology or learning objectives? The answer is, neither. The
learners come first, and this is why one of the best ways of knowing if, and how
much, technology should play a part in your class is by finding out from your
learners their attitudes to using technology for language learning. Graham Stanley,
2013

D Putting it into practice 1 With a partner, choose a technology tool (an app,
website or piece of hardware) which you think might be beneficial for your learners.
Make a list of what a teacher might need to know or consider before using the tool
with their learners. Use your priorities in task B and opinions from task C, and any
other factors you consider important. 2 Think of three possible activities you could
use the tool for in your lessons. 3 Present your tool and activities to another pair.
Listen to their presentation. Do you think that their tool and activities would be
beneficial to your students? In what way?

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4 – Planning and resources for different teaching contexts

KEY WORDS FOR TEACHERS Check you know the meanings of these terms. •
educational technology • synchronous learning/teaching • asynchronous
learning/teaching • learner autonomy

REFLECTION Complete these sentences in as many ways as you can: When using
educational technology, it’s important to … A tool I have used in my teaching is … A
tool I have used in my learning is … A tool I’d like to experiment with using is …
because …

Compare your endings with other trainees.

Reference Stanley, G. (2013). Language Learning with Technology. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, p.9.

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33 Organizing and managing a class

33 Organizing and managing a class A Warm-up Your classroom management is

the way that you manage students’ learning by organising and controlling what
happens in your classroom . . . • Or the way that you consciously decide not to
organise and control. • Or the way that you delegate or relinquish such control to
the learners. It is also what happens (or doesn’t happen) when you avoid or remain
ignorant about these choices. Jim Scrivener, 2012
1 Work in pairs. What do teachers of any subject do to organize and control (what
is happening in) the classroom? List at least five things. For example, give
instructions or put learners into pairs or groups. Don’t include ‘teaching content
related to the subject’ in your list. 2 Compare your list with another pair. Are any of
the ideas on your list only applicable to a face-to-face classroom? Or to an online
classroom?

B Organizing learners 1 There are many different ways of organizing learners during
lessons, each with advantages and disadvantages. Your trainer will divide you into
two groups. If you are in group A, look at page 180. If you are in group B, look at
page 182. Complete the table with your own ideas. Compare your completed table
with somebody from the other group. Was there anything you hadn’t thought of? 2
Which of the interaction patterns you discussed in B1 have you observed in
lessons or input sessions so far? How many different interaction patterns were
used in the session overall? What effect do you think this had on the pace of the
lesson/session and learner/trainee engagement in the activities?

C Group dynamics Read this quote from Sarah Mercer. Whether we are in online or
face-to-face classrooms, our learners need to feel psychologically safe and it is
time well spent ensuring that they do. Especially in the language classroom, which
depends so heavily on interaction and student engagement, learners must feel
secure. When they do, then they will be comfortable to engage in classroom life.
They’ll be able to use the language without fear of being embarrassed or ridiculed,
and feel a sense of belonging in the group.

Sarah Mercer, 2020

Think of at least two ways in which teachers can help learners to feel secure and
psychologically safe in the classroom. Compare your ideas with a partner. 151
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5 – Developing teaching skills and professionalism

D Using the whiteboard Work in pairs. Say what the pictures below suggest about
the best use of the whiteboard, and how this might be the same or different when
making a record of information which comes up during an online lesson for
learners.

E Grading language One of the most important things that teachers have to learn is
how to adjust their language to make it appropriate for different groups of learners,
particularly lower-level learners. Read sentences a–g. Tick five sentences that offer
good advice. Cross out the other two sentences. Then compare your answers with
a partner. a Pronounce each word slowly and deliberately. b Use gestures, pictures
and other things that will support what you are saying, to make it easier to
understand. c Speak with natural rhythm and intonation. d Miss out small words
(articles, prepositions, auxiliary verbs and so on), so that learners can focus on the
‘content’ words and understand the message. e Speak at a natural speed, but
pause slightly longer after each ‘chunk’, if necessary. f Try to avoid ‘difficult’
vocabulary (for example, very idiomatic language). g Try to avoid complex grammar
patterns.

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33 Organizing and managing a class

F Trainees’ queries As part of the training process, trainees are asked to write an
evaluation of their own lessons.

1 Read the trainees’ reflective comments, and discuss possible solutions to the
problems that they express.

Trainees’ comments: 1 I wasn’t sure what to do when they were writing sentences. I
knew they hadn’t all finished, but I didn’t want the others to wait too long doing
nothing. 2 I didn’t enjoy it much. There were a few students who just spoke their
own language the whole way through. I did say ‘in English’ once but it didn’t do
much good. 3 I wasn’t sure what to do in the pair work bit. I thought my instructions
were OK, but it was obvious when they started that some of the students hadn’t
understood, and so I tried to go round to each group and sort it out. I think they did
get it in the end, but some of them had finished and others hadn’t started.
4 The learners were all doing the pair work exercise in breakout rooms and I just
waited in the main room. I was worried they might stop talking if I entered the
room. I wasn’t sure what I should do, really. 5 I tried to ask more learners questions
today. I know I just kept asking the same people in my last lesson. But it was
embarrassing. I asked Kim what she thought and she was so quiet I couldn’t hear
her. Even when I got really close to her it was still difficult. 6 I really wanted to use
pair work but I had an odd number, so I did the activity with one of the students.
Was this right?

2 Now match the trainees’ comments (1–6) with the trainer’s advice (a–f).

Trainer’s advice: a

b Waiting in the main room at the beginning of the activity is OK because it gives
the learners some space to make a start. Once they’ve done this, you should drop
into the rooms to hear how things are going and make sure that all learners are on
task, but don’t interrupt if everything is going well. Just listen to what they say and
make some notes. You could also turn off your camera before you enter breakout
rooms, to make learners less likely to start speaking to you, rather than continuing
to speak to their partners.

OK – you did well to sort the problem out, but quite a lot of time was wasted,
particularly for the last pair you got to. If there’s a fairly general problem, don’t be
afraid to stop the activity and give the instructions again.

d Yes, that learner speaks quietly. If you get closer to learners they often get even
quieter because they talk to you – not the class. Try getting further away and saying
something like ‘a bit louder, so everyone can hear’.

I thought you made a pretty good decision here. You have to get the right balance.
Have something ready for the fast finishers to do, like checking and correcting
some of their sentences. You can also set time limits rather than achievement
limits, for example ‘Write as many sentences as you can in five minutes.’, rather
than ‘Everybody write five sentences.’.

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5 – Developing teaching skills and professionalism f

e If you do this, it becomes very hard for you to know what the other learners are
doing, or to respond if they need help or guidance. You need to think about how
you will deal with awkward numbers before the lesson – usually a group of three for
pair work is fine and can be managed.

I think part of the problem was that they didn’t quite understand what you wanted
them to do at times. It was good that you said something but you probably needed
to be a little more assertive about it, or consider demonstrating the activity. You
could also move learners around a bit so that they are not always sitting next to
people who speak the same language.

3 Ask your trainer any other questions you have about classroom management.

KEY WORDS FOR TEACHERS Check you know the meanings of these terms. •
classroom management • monitoring • mingling • pace • engagement • grading
language • group dynamics • interaction pattern

REFLECTION Think about the next lesson that you are going to teach in teaching
practice. • Consider the interaction patterns. Will these be the same throughout
the lesson? • How will you keep a record of new information for students to see
during your lesson, such as extra vocabulary or corrections? Will you use a
whiteboard or another method? When would it be appropriate to remove what you
record? • At what points in the lesson will you monitor the learners? What will you
be looking and listening for? • What is one other point which has come up during
this session which you think it will be particularly useful or important for you to
consider during your teaching practice?

References Mercer, S. (2020). Nurturing the Relationships in our Classrooms.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
https://www.cambridge.org/elt/blog/2020/09/23/nurturing-relationships-in-our-
classrooms/ Scrivener, J. (2012). Classroom Management Techniques. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.

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34 Managing an activity

34 Managing an activity A Warm-up Your trainer will set up two activities. What was
helpful and unhelpful about the way they set up the activities?

B Stages of activity set-up 1 Here is a list of things a teacher might do when setting
up and running an activity. Put them in a logical order. (There may be more than
one order.) Demonstrate the activity. Get learners’ attention. Check learners have
understood the instructions. Give a clear signal for learners to finish. Follow up on
the content of the activity (for example, by checking answers or eliciting ideas from
students). Allow learners to compare their answers or ideas with other learners.
Monitor learners’ progress during the activity. Feedback on the language of the
activity (for example, by correcting errors or clarifying the meaning of vocabulary
items). Give the instructions orally while indicating the relevant areas of the
material to be used. Give a clear signal for learners to start. 2 Which of these things
did your trainer do when setting up the activity during the warm-up? To what extent
did they help you to understand what was expected of you as a learner?

C Strategies for managing an activity 1 The type of activity you are setting up, and
the type of learners you are working with, influence how you might set up an
activity. Look at the list of classroom management strategies (A–K). Which
strategies could be useful if you are setting up: • an activity where adult students
work alone to complete sentences by putting the verb into the correct tense, as
specified in the written instructions? • an activity where university students work in
small groups to prepare a presentation? • an activity where young learners work in
open class, guided by the teacher, to draw and write about a monster? • an activity
where teenagers work in pairs to design their perfect school? A Put learners into
pairs or groups before you give them any of the other instructions. B During your
instructions, display materials clearly by holding them in front of you or putting
them on the screen, rather than having learners look at materials in front of them.
C Break instructions into small stages. Wait for students to complete one stage
before you introduce the next. D Keep the language of instructions as simple and
straightforward as possible. Check that learners have understood them. 155
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5 – Developing teaching skills and professionalism E Demonstrate how to do the

activity. F Have an example of a finished model prepared, so that you can show
learners what they are aiming for. G Write key words on the board / in the chat box
to summarize the instructions, for example 10 minutes, 3 ideas, notes only. H Set a
time limit so students know how long they have to complete the activity. I Have a
clear purpose in mind for your monitoring. For example, are you checking whether
students are on task? Or whether they’ve finished? Or whether they’ve got the
answers right? Or taking notes of language being used and its accuracy and/or
appropriacy? This may change throughout the activity, but can help you to choose
what to focus on at each point. J Ensure learners know all of the answers before
you move on to the next activity. K Follow up on the content of an activity before
you correct errors or upgrade language. You can also add your own ideas.

2 How might your use of these strategies be the same, or different, if you are
teaching online or in a physical classroom?

Tip

When planning your lessons, you might want to script instructions and add
reminders about anything else you need to do to manage an activity. After the
CELTA course, it’s unlikely you’ll continue to plan in this much depth. However,
thinking through activities in detail during the course can help you to anticipate
potential problems with activities, feel more confident during lessons, and better
support your learners’ learning.

D Putting it into practice 1 Choose an activity you are going to use in your next TP.
Plan how you will manage the activity. 2 Share your plan with a partner and look at
their plan. Check you have both thought about all of the applicable stages of the
activity set-up cycle. Can you think of any ways to make the management of the
activity more streamlined or straightforward for the teacher or the learners?

KEY WORDS FOR TEACHERS Check you know the meanings of these terms. •
classroom management • monitoring • feedback

REFLECTION Work in a small group. Choose one aspect of activity management

which you think will be most challenging for you, and most beneficial for your
learners if you can improve it. Decide with your group how you can work on this,
including things you could ask your colleagues to look out for when observing you
during TP.

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35 Teaching young learners and teenagers

35 Teaching young learners and teenagers A Warm-up 1 What experience do you

have of the following age groups? Tick the relevant boxes. 2–6 years old

7–12 years old

13–16 years old

I have/had children that age I’ve got family that age (e.g. cousins/siblings) I’ve
taught them a lot I’ve taught them a little I’ve worked with them in a non-teaching
position a lot I’ve worked with them in a non-teaching position a little None 2
Compare your experiences with these age groups to those of your partners. How
do you think you would feel about teaching English to each of these age groups?

B Characteristics of different age groups Your trainer will allocate you to one of the
following age groups: • Very young learners (2–6 years old) • Young learners (7–12
years old) • Teenagers (13–16 years old) For your age group, answer the following
questions with your partners. • What are the characteristics of this age group?
What can they do? What can’t they do? • EITHER What kind of activities work well
with them? What don’t work? OR Find one activity for this age group which you
could share with your fellow trainees. • What can go wrong in the lessons? What
can you do to prevent/resolve these issues?

Summarize what you learn in a method of your choice, for example as a poster, a
document, or a presentation. Don’t forget to include your sources. Be prepared to
tell others about your research.

C Sharing projects Share what you learned with trainees from a different group.
What are two key differences between each age group?

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5 – Developing teaching skills and professionalism

D Project-based lessons Today’s session was an example of a project-based
lesson. Answer the following questions with a partner. 1 What are the possible
benefits and drawbacks of using project-based lessons? 2 How did your trainer set
up and run the session to make the project as successful as possible? Consider
aims, support, roles, and sharing projects. 3 What age groups do you think would
benefit from project-based lessons? 4 What topics could work well as projects?

KEY WORDS FOR TEACHERS Check you know the meanings of these terms. • very
young learners (VYL) • young learners (YL) • project-based lessons • routines

REFLECTION 1 How might the following areas be different when working with
different age groups: • activity set-up? • lesson content? • classroom
management? • lesson types? What other areas do you think might be different? 2
Think back to the warm-up. Now that you have found out more about working with
different age groups, how do you think you would feel about teaching English to
each of them?

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36 Teaching at different levels

36 Teaching at different levels A Warm-up 1 Read these five descriptions of learner

proficiency and answer the questions. a Which one describes the highest level? b
Which one describes the lowest level? c What order would you put the other three
descriptions in (from highest to lowest)? i Can understand the main ideas of
complex text on both concrete and abstract topics, including technical
discussions in their field of specialisation. Can interact with a degree of fluency
and spontaneity that makes regular interaction with users of the target language
quite possible, without imposing strain on either party. Can produce clear,
detailed text on a wide range of subjects and explain a viewpoint on a topical issue,
giving the advantages and disadvantages of various options. ii Can understand
and use familiar everyday expressions and very basic phrases aimed at the
satisfaction of needs of a concrete type. Can introduce themselves and others,
and can ask and answer questions about personal details such as where someone
lives, people they know and things they have. Can interact in a simple way,
provided the other person talks slowly and clearly and is prepared to help. iii Can
understand a wide range of demanding, longer texts, and recognize implicit
meaning. Can express themselves fluently and spontaneously without much
obvious searching for expressions. Can use language flexibly and effectively for
social, academic and professional purposes. Can produce clear, well-structured,
detailed text on complex subjects ... iv Can understand sentences and frequently
used expressions related to areas of most immediate relevance [. . .] Can
communicate in simple and routine tasks requiring a simple and direct exchange
of information on familiar and routine matters. Can describe in simple terms
aspects of their background, immediate environment and matters in areas of
immediate need. v Can understand the main points of clear standard input on
familiar matters regularly encountered in work, school, leisure, etc. Can deal with
most situations likely to arise whilst travelling in an area where the language is
spoken. Can produce simple connected text on topics which are familiar or of
personal interest. Can describe experiences and events, dreams, hopes and
ambitions and briefly give reasons and explanations for opinions and plans.
Council of Europe Common European Framework of Reference for Languages,
p.175

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5 – Developing teaching skills and professionalism 2 Read the text about the
Common European Framework and label the descriptors in the table above. The
Common European Framework The Common European Framework of Reference
for Languages (CEFR) ‘presents a comprehensive descriptive scheme of language
proficiency’ (page 27). It provides descriptors of learners at three broad levels: A:
basic user; B: independent user; and C: proficient user. Each level is divided into
two bands: A1, A2; B1, B2; C1, C2. The descriptors in the table represent levels C1,
B2, B1, A2 and A1. Common European Framework of Reference for Languages
Council of Europe

3 Think about the TP group you are currently teaching. What level are they? Do you
think these descriptors reflect their abilities? 4 Complete these sentences in any
way that seems appropriate to you. You can use ideas from the CEFR descriptors
or your own ideas. a At higher levels, learners might need … b At lower levels,
learners might need … c The learners in my current TP group are … level, which
means that in our lessons … Compare your ideas with a partner.

B Adapting to different levels 1 Look at these comments made by two CELTA

trainees. Maria moved from teaching an elementary class (i.e. CEFR A1–A2) to
teaching an upper-intermediate class (i.e. CEFR B2). Salim moved from teaching
the B2 upper-intermediate class to teaching the A1–A2 elementary class. Which
person do you think made each comment? a In the other group, I didn’t mind if the
learners used their own language a bit – but I try to keep it to an absolute minimum
now.

b I realize that the learners I have now can already say a lot of what they want to,
and my job is partly to give them alternative ways of saying things.

I got a real shock when I started with this new group. I don’t think they understood
anything I said in the first lesson! There was an activity that was quite easy but I just
couldn’t get across what they had to do.

I’ve noticed that I have more activities in a lesson and they tend to be a bit shorter –
particularly, pair and group work doesn’t last as long.

I sometimes found it difficult to explain how to use our online platform. I had to
remember to carefully show them what to click on and where to type, not just tell
them.

f I really have to work hard to research grammar now. The learners sometimes ask
quite difficult questions and my research helps me to feel more confident.

I can’t just chat to this group and find out about them as people so easily. I don’t
think I have such a good rapport with them.

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UNIT 6
ple: positive

rm of verbs 1–5 in

36 Teaching at different levels

4 VOCABULARY 2 WorkPast in pairs. Compare yourverbs experiences. simple

irregular a a Have haduse any experiences to Maria and Salim with your current TP
group? Hannah you and Charlie thesimilar past simple irregular verbs in
theanything box in their conversation. Match them b Is there else which has
surprised or interested you about the level(s) you have with 1–9. taught so far?
went spent got made told came bought cost ate

ar verbs add

or

C Productive skills .

7 make 8 get 9 come

4 go 5 cost 6 spend

1 buy 2 eat 3 tell

1 Work in pairs. Read this speaking activity from an elementary coursebook and
answer the questions. b Now go to Vocabulary Focus 6B on p.163 o the infinitive
and the past a How do the materials support the learners before they speak? 1a.
Which two verbs have an Use the verbs go, eat, buy, make and get to talk bc Can
you predict about things you did: the sort of exchanges that would happen in
activity 5c? • last night

ounds.

ble /ɪd/ only after

and

5a

hese past simple forms. ? Listen and check your

ved embered

• last year

2.62 Read about Becky’s hobby. Complete the text with the past simple form of the
verbs in the box. Listen and check your answers.

buy

like

listen

have

start

When I was young my hobby was playing the piano. I only 1 jazz not modern or
classical music. My parents 2 me a piano when I was eight years old and I 3
lessons then. They 4 a lot of jazz CDs and I always 5 to them. So they were happy
for me to play jazz. I 6 jazz piano all the time. I still play the piano now and jazz is
still my favourite music.

m of verbs 1–4 in His family ar or irregular?

make

• last week

SPEAKING

play

• finished • needed

• yesterday

4 become

s 6B on p.146
b Think of a hobby you had when

was a child was electronics. when you were a child.

you were a child. Make notes. Read Becky’s example in 5a to help you. Think about:

g photos ng the guitar

• what you did • how your parents helped you

es?

Charlie. obbies?

plete the notes Charlie

Talk with a partner about your childhood hobby. Start the conversation with this
question. What was your hobby when you were a child?

cakes

63

Empower A2

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t n e m n i a t r Ente

5 – Developing teaching skills and professionalism

2 a Work in groups. Discuss how you would expect a higher-level speaking activity
to be the same or different. b Now look at the following activity from an upper-
intermediate coursebook. Are the activities the same or different in the ways you
predicted?

GeTTING STArTed

have started my own business, but it’s been ROBIN Thank you. really successful.
I’ve always fancied working P Robin, what can you tell us about Stan from home,
and so I moved to the country Lee’s early life? when I last saw you a suit. Look at
inthe picture and answer the questions. and bought a nice little cottage. I wouldn’t
R Well, his real name was Stanley Lieber, PATRICK Thanks. But I wish we didn’t
have haveare left watching? London if I’d stayed ad ideas: and he started working
for a company to1go to this party. I don’t reallythese feel upchildren What do you
think Here with are the some agency. I don’t get as much money as I used called
Timely Comics when he was to it. a play a cartoon • can’t miss your sister’s
birthday. • happier than I was then. to, but I’m much sixteen. Twenty years later the
company M Oh, you – which was now called Marvel Comics Anyway, enjoy
itplaying when you’re there. someone music a magic show • you’ll MICHELLE
•Well, for me it’s probably the – was almost broke, so Lee was asked to P Yes, I
suppose so. But let’s not hang day I won my first race. When I was a kid I 2 Look at
each child. How you do think he or she feels? invent some new superheroes.
around for too long after dinner. used to get into trouble a lot at school, and P
Which characters did he create? M No, ofHere courseare not.more So, which of
these ideas: the only thing I enjoyed was running, which R First he created a comic
called The dresses should I wear? I was always quite good at. Then one day my •
afraid • excited • upset Fantastic Four, which was very successful P Er … I don’t
mind, it’s up to you. dad took me to the local athletics club. When and saved the
company. This was angry M The red I think … or maybe the • one, • surprised we got
there I found out that • he’d worrried entered followed by The Incredible Hulk, The
green one. me for the 400 metres! I was really nervous, X-Men, and then, er, Spider-
Man. Talk about what you enjoyed when you a That child. but I won by over twowere
seconds. was the 5 P Where did the idea for Spider-Man come turning point for me.
If I hadn’t won that DYLAN Are you off? Say why. from? race, I’d never have become
a serious athlete. BARBARA Yes, I’m meeting Jackie at the R Well, according to Stan
Lee himself, he I started training really hard and three years station in a few
minutes. was in his office trying to come up with a later I managed to get into the
British youth D Well, give her my love. B2 superpower for a new character he’d just
athletics team. I’ve got better as I’veEmpower got B Will do. I wish you were coming
to the created. While he was sitting there, older and now I want to compete in the
next theatre with me. he was watching a fly walking up a wall. Olympics. So, yeah,
running’s changed my D You know I’m not really into musicals. Then he thought,
wouldn’t it be great if HowAnyway, wouldI’ve you tasks to diff lower and life. er If
Ibetween hadn’t started doing this,higher I’d have levels? got gotexpect to
finishwriting marking all my character could walk up walls like into a lot more
trouble, I’m sure of that. these exams. an insect? So Spider-Man was born. B OK.
I’ll see you later. CD3 33 Actually, he nearly called him InsectD Have a good time.
Bye. Man. 1 They’d have come to the party if they’d CD3 30 P Really? wanted to. R
Yes, but he thought it just didn’t sound 2 If you’d left a message, I’d have called
ANSWERS 1 could 2 wasn’t/weren’t Read the following listening transcript. What
level do you think it would be appropriate for:heelementary, right. Then tried
Crawling-Man, you back. 3 didn’t have to 4 had 5 were staying Mosquito-Man …
and then finally intermediate, or advanced? Why? 3 He wouldn’t have sold his car
if he 6 was/were 7 could 8 didn’t have to Spider-Man. hadn’t lost his job. 9 liked 10
was/were sitting P And Spider-Man was rather different to 4 If I hadn’t been so
tired, I’d have gone CD3 31 earlier superheroes, wasn’t he? out last night. R Yes,
absolutely. The character Peter 5 If he hadn’t moved to New York, he CAROL The
most important moment in Parker – who’s Spider-Man, of course – wouldn’t have
met his wife. my life was um the day I met Owen. An old was a typical young guy.
He had problems friend was having a party, but the weather CD3 34 with girls, he
missed appointments, he was so bad that I nearly didn’t bother going. couldn’t pay
the rent, that kind of thing. if they’d wanted to ➞ They’d have /əv/ come Just think,
if I’d stayed at home, I wouldn’t So um even though he had these amazing have met
my husband. Anyway, my friend to the party if they’d wanted to. | I’d have
superpowers, he was still a normal guy introduced me to Owen and we got on
really /əv/ called you back ➞ If you’d left a with all the problems young people well.
He was only in London for a few days – message, I’d have /əv/ called you back. | if
he usually have. he’s American, you see – and he was supposed hadn’t lost his job
➞ He wouldn’t have /əv/ P How did he get his superpowers? to fly back to Boston
the following day. But sold his car if he hadn’t lost his job. | I’d have R Well, in the
original comic Peter Parker the next morning Owen called me to say that /əv/ gone
out last night ➞ If I hadn’t been was bitten by a radioactive spider at a Heathrow
airport was closed because of ice so tired, I’d have /əv/ gone out last night. |
science museum. This gave him his super and snow. He’d have flown home that
day if he wouldn’t have /əv/ met his wife ➞ strength and his “spider sense”, which
is the weather hadn’t been so bad. Anyway, he If he hadn’t moved to New York, he
his ability to sense danger. And of course invited me out for lunch and we got to
know wouldn’t have /əv/ met his wife. he er can also climb up the sides of each
other a bit better. He flew home the next buildings, which is very useful! CD3 35
day, but by that time we were already madly P As we’ve all seen in the films. in love.
We got married two years later – and [words in pink = weak forms] R Yes, indeed.
And a funny little fact is Stan the rest, as they say, is history. PRESENTER Hello and
welcome to the Lee often appeared in his characters’ ANTHONY For me the, um …
probably the programme. Stories of superheroes have movies – usually as a hot-
dog seller. biggest turning point in my life was when I entertained us for nearly
eighty years, and P Robin, thanks very much for coming in to face2face lost my job.
I was working for an advertising one of the most popular of these is Spidertalk to us
today. agency, but they got into financial trouble and Man. Today I’m talking to the
author R My pleasure. had to get rid of some people, including me. I Robin Baker,
whose new book, CD3 37 got quite depressed at first, but I was getting Superhero,
tells the story of Spider-Man’s fed up with working for a big agency anyway. creator,
Stan Lee. Welcome to the Listening Test (see Teacher’s Book) So I decided to start
my own online design programme, Robin. company. If I hadn’t lost my job, I
wouldn’t

MOLLY You look nice. I can’t remember

D Receptive skills 1

162

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36 Teaching at different levels 2 Read how three teachers used this listening text at
different levels. Match the lesson descriptions with the levels: elementary,
intermediate and advanced. Think about what features of the activities helped you
to decide on the level. a ‘I told the learners that they’re at a party and they overhear
Carol. The next day they meet a friend and they want to retell Carol’s story. They
listened once, then worked with their partner to retell the story. After that, they
listened again to see what details they had forgotten. They discussed what aspects
of Carol’s storytelling style had made certain parts of the story more memorable
than others.’ b ‘I displayed pictures of the different events in the story, for example
a party, a man and a woman meeting, a snowy airport, and a wedding. The learners
predicted the order of the events, then listened and checked if they were correct. I
played the recording two or three times, letting them discuss the task in pairs
between each playing. I then handed out the transcript for them to listen one final
time.’ c ‘I dictated the following questions: 1 Where did Carol meet her husband? 2
Where is her husband from? 3 Why couldn’t he fly home? 4 When did they get
married? Then I played the recording, checked the answers and re-played the bits
they were having trouble with. I played the recording another couple of times and
asked the learners to pick out phrases that helped Carol to tell her story. Finally,
the learners talked in pairs about memorable moments in their lives. 3 Work in
groups. Discuss what these tasks suggest about dealing with listening texts at
different levels.

E Teaching grammar 1 Work in groups. Discuss how you would expect grammar
input to differ between levels. Consider: • the type of context used to present the
language • how much is taught • the complexity of the rules that are given • the
type of practice activities that are used 2 Work in groups. Discuss the aspects of
grammar input that you would expect to remain the same at different levels. 3
Compare the two coursebook extracts on the next page. One is taken from a
beginner coursebook and the other is taken from an upper-intermediate course
book. • In what ways are the extracts similar? • In what ways are the extracts
different? • How well do they match what you discussed in activities E1 and E2?
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5 – Developing teaching skills and professionalism 3

GRAMMAR: Statements with be going to

Circle the correct answer. Use the sentences in the grammar box to help you. 1
Use be going to to talk about things you’re doing right now / future plans. 2 Make
future statements with be going to + a verb / a noun.

Statements with be going to I’m going to be home tomorrow. It’s going to be light all
night. You’re going to meet me at the airport. We’re going to get together with some
of my friends. B

C
I’m not going to be home tonight. It isn’t going to be light all night. My friends aren’t
going to go shopping. They’re not going to eat outside this weekend.

Complete the sentences with be going to and the affirmative or negative form of
the verb in parentheses ( ). 1 I (be) home tomorrow. I have to work at the office.
(take) me to lunch on Saturday. They’re busy. 2 My parents (go) on a trip to Rio next
year. We have our tickets! 3 My friends and I (study) a lot next week. I have an
important test. 4 I (meet) me tonight. She’s sick. 5 My friend PAIR WORK

Change the sentences in exercise 3B so they’re true for you. Then compare with a
partner.

I’m not going to be home tomorrow. I have to go to college. D

4A

Now go to page 137. Look at the grammar chart and do the grammar exercise for
10.1.

SPEAKING PAIR WORK

Evolve 1

What can you do outside in your city? Make a list.

We can eat outside at a lot of restaurants.

GRAMMAR: Future forms

True. And we can watch movies outside. Read the sentences in the grammar box.
Circle the correct options to complete the rules.

PAIR WORK Make outdoor plans with your partner for next weekend. Future forms
Then share your plans with the class. It won’t cause you stress but will give you a
real sense of satisfaction. Next Saturday, we’re going have a picnic in … Eventually
I’m going to edit it.

I’m not showing it to them until it’s done. In a couple of years, I’ll be looking for a
job. This video is going to be a useful example of my skills as a filmmaker. If things
go smoothly, I might start my own video production business one day. 1 Use be
going to, will, or don’t / won’t for predictions, expectations, or guesses about the
future. 2 Use be going to or the present continuous / simple present for future
plans and intentions. 3 Use will + be + verb + -ing for an action in progress / a
finished action at a time in the future. 4 Use might, may, or could when you’re
certain / uncertain about the future.

Now go to page 136. Look at the grammar chart and © Cambridge University Press
do the grammar exercise for 8.2. For reference purposes only Write six sentences
on plans and predictions about your work, studies, or side projects. Use a different
future form from exercise 3A in each sentence. Check your accuracy. Then
compare with a partner. Are any of your predictions similar?

SPEAKING

PAIR WORK Choose a side project from the list below or your own idea. Think
about how it will fit with your short-term and long-term plans, ambitions, or goals.
Is it linked to your career in any way? Then tell eachEvolve other 5 about your side
project. Ask questions to find out more. For ideas, watch Jacqueline’s video.

164

create an app improve your cooking skills start an English speaking group

do a podcast make jewelry or furniture write a blog

ACCURACY CHECK 99
Use the future continuous, not the present continuous, for an action in progress in
the future. In a couple of years, I’m looking for a job. ✗ In a couple of years, I’ll be
looking for a job. ✓

grow plants play in a band write a children’s book

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36 Teaching at different levels

KEY WORDS FOR TEACHERS Check you know the meanings of these terms. •
CEFR • beginner, elementary, intermediate, advanced, proficiency • grading
language

REFLECTION Think about the level you have just been working with on your course.
Work with the rest of your teaching practice group and complete the chart below
with information which might be useful for your colleagues when they take over the
class. Then compare your charts with a partner from another teaching practice
group. Advice for teaching my class Classroom management • • • Vocabulary and
grammar • • •

Level:

Other • • •

Productive skills • • • Receptive skills • • •

Reference

Council of Europe (2020), Common European Framework of Reference for

Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment – Companion volume, Council of
Europe Publishing, Strasbourg, available at www.coe.int/ lang-cefr. p.175

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5 – Developing teaching skills and professionalism

37 Maintaining learner motivation A Warm-up Think about the following questions

for a few moments and then discuss them with your partners. 1 What was the
reason for you choosing to do the CELTA course? What is your goal? 2 What things
have helped keep you motivated during the course? 3 Have any things demotivated
you during the course? 4 Think about the learners you have been teaching. What
are some of the reasons that they are learning English? 5 What things do you think
have impacted on their motivation, both since they started learning and also since
the start of this particular course? 6 Are there any similarities between your
experiences and those of your learners?

B Supporting motivation Look at the quote below. A common experience for many
learners and teachers is that motivation, however strong to begin with, will ebb and
flow through the learning process, subject to many internal and external influences
over a course of study or even within the space of a single lesson. Ema Ushioda,
2012

What things might cause motivation to ‘ebb and flow’, both over a period of time
and in a single lesson? 2 Work in pairs to complete the text by reading it to each
other. Trainee A should complete the version of the text on page 181. Trainee B
should complete the version on page 183. Trainee A should start. 3 Look back at
the completed text and answer the questions. a Can you give some examples of
teacher behaviours that would indicate that they are motivated? b How might a
teacher build interest in a reading activity before learners see the text? c How
could teachers give some control to learners over their learning, including lesson
content and delivery style? d How might a teacher help learners to feel a sense of
progress and mastery of the language?

C Learning from learners 1 Look at following situations and complete the

sentences. A ‘My English is OK for most things, I think. I really want to improve
though, but don’t really know what to work on.’ The teacher should help the learner
to set … B ‘I love it when my teacher lets us choose what to do. Last night she gave
us three different bits of homework and we did the one we wanted.’ This is one way
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37 Maintaining learner motivation C ‘The teachers are really good. They make sure
everyone is polite and friendly in the class. When I make mistakes, I know people
won’t laugh at me. The best thing about the class is meeting up with everyone.’ This
shows how important it is to … D ‘I used to really enjoy English last year. It was
good fun and the teacher was always smiling. The first few minutes of the class
was always talking about what show we were streaming, or something like that.
But the new teacher doesn’t smile at us and never asks about our interests.’ It is
important that a teacher … E ‘I need English mainly for travel – booking hotels,
going to restaurants and things. The class is OK, but it can be a bit boring. It is
mainly about grammar and so I don’t really feel ready to use English for the things I
need.’ Ideally the teacher needs to make the classes more …

2 Work in small groups. Consider the learners you have been teaching as part of
your course. What things do you think motivate them? Are there any things that
demotivate them? Try to be as specific as you can.

D Putting it into practice 1 Work in small groups. Look at the following short piece
of material. How could you make it more interesting?

1 Look at Jane and Maria. What things can they do? Jane: swim ✓ juggle ✓ speak
three languages ✗ Maria: swim ✗ juggle ✓ speak three languages ✗ Example: Jane
can swim but Maria can’t. Write more sentences about Jane and Maria.

sail a boat ✓ sail a boat ✗

sing ✗ sing ✓

2 Ask and answer. Look at the information about Jane and Maria. Work with a
partner. Ask and answer questions about them. Can Jane swim?

Yes, she can.

3 Now you. Write three sentences about what you can do.

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5 – Developing teaching skills and professionalism 2 Explain how you adapted the
material to another group.

KEY WORDS FOR TEACHERS Check you know the meanings of these terms. •
motivation • goals • relevance • (learner) autonomy • mastery • personalization

REFLECTION 1 Write five ‘golden rules’ for motivating language learners that you
will aim to implement in your teaching. They may refer to either the teaching you
are currently doing as part of your CELTA course or your teaching after the course.

Motivation: My Golden Rules 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

2. When you are ready, compare your list to a partner. 3. Which of your rules do you
think are easiest to implement on an ongoing basis? Do you envisage any being
difficult to implement? 4. Set a reminder on your phone to review these principles
when you start teaching.

Reference Ushioda, E. (2012). Motivation. In A. Burns and J.C. Richards (eds.), The
Cambridge Guide to Pedagogy and Practice in Second Language Teaching. New
York: Cambridge University Press.

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38 Introduction to assessment

38 Introduction to assessment A Warm-up 1 Answer as many questions as you can

in five minutes.

Revision Quiz 1 How is the future continuous formed? 2 Which form is best, and
why?

i Ah, let me look at my calendar – yes, here’s Laura’s appointment, I’m meeting/I’ll
meet her on the 14th.

ii People will work/are working entirely from home in a few years.

iii Who do you think will win/are winning the football match tomorrow?

3 What things does a learner need to know about new vocabulary items? 4 In what
ways is a physical class different to an online class? 5 How can a teacher help to
keep learners motivated?
2 If this test had been designed to measure your progress on the … testing is not, of
course, the CELTA course, to what extent do you think that it would be fair? only
way in which information How could it be improved? about people’s language
ability can be gathered. It is just one form of assessment, and other methods B
Some key terms will often be more appropriate. Use the words below to complete
each sentence. Arthur Hughes, 2003 assessment test

formative practical reliable valid washback

refers to the collection of information about a learner’s language ability and

progress. It can be carried out in many ways, including formal and informal
situations, and scoring may be objective or subjective. 2 A is one form of
assessment. It may be formal or informal, and has connotations of objectivity and
being completed individually. 3 An assessment is considered if it measures what it
is supposed to measure. This often involves ensuring that the content of the
assessment is appropriate. 4 An assessment is considered if the results are
consistent. Two learners of the same ability should receive the same outcome in
the assessment. 5 An assessment is if it can be carried out within the constraints
of the situation. For example, it has to be done within the specified timeframe and
within any financial constraints. 6 is the effect that the assessment method has on
teaching. It may have a positive impact (making teaching more effective) or a
negative impact. 7 assessment is assessment that is carried out during a course
with the goal of improving learning. For example, teachers might take the data into
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5 – Developing teaching skills and professionalism

C Reasons for assessing learners 1 Work in small groups. Look at the following
assessment situations, and in each case think why the assessment may be taking
place. a A course director is expecting an intake of 100 students. They will all sit a
test on the first morning of the course. b A teacher has a new class. In the second
lesson they decide to give the class a short piece of assessment. c A teacher has
taught 50 hours of a 100-hour course. They decide to give the class a formal piece
of assessment. d A class is very near the end of their course. In the penultimate
lesson, they will have a test. 2 Work in small groups. Can you think of any other
reasons why teachers may want to test learners? Can you think of any
disadvantages to testing learners?

D Ways of assessing learners 1 There are many ways of gathering information

about a learner’s abilities. Look at the methods listed below and answer the
questions that follow. Examples Observation

A teacher monitors classroom activities carefully, forming an impression of which

learners are progressing most quickly.

Portfolios

Learners keep a record of their homework tasks, along with the feedback they
receive. They also reflect on their performance in specific classroom activities. The
portfolios are reviewed by the teacher periodically.

Self-assessment

The teacher provides learners with a list of things that have been covered in recent
lessons. Learners mark each item with one of the following to indicate their level of
understanding:

Multiple choice questions

I’m

to see Zoe tomorrow.

a) gone b) go c) going d) went Gap-fill exercises

‘What is your

Sentence transformations

The shop sold the last copy of the book yesterday.

film?’ ‘Casablanca – it’s great.’

The last copy of the book Writing a composition

You see the following job advert in a newspaper. Write a letter of application.
Oral interviews

Learners are shown pictures and describe what they can see.

Sentence production

Learners write sentences about themselves using a given structure, such as used
to + infinitive.

abcd

Which of these assess individual language items? Which of these assess language
items in combination? Which can be marked objectively? Which require subjective
marking criteria?

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38 Introduction to assessment 2 Choose one of the following areas: • receptive

skills • productive skills • vocabulary and grammar Decide which of the
assessment types in 1, above, could be used to assess your chosen area. 3 What
features make one learner’s spoken language better than another’s? For example,
a learner may use a wider range of vocabulary than another. Imagine that you want
to give an oral test to a group of learners. Work in a small group and design some
criteria by which you can assess performance.

E How not to assess Look at the following complaints from learners. What was the
problem with the assessment design in each case? Complete the sentences. 1
‘The instructions just said ’fill the gaps’ – so I did and got nearly all of the questions
wrong because I was only supposed to use one word. A lot of the students did the
same as me.’ Instructions need … 2 ‘The course was all about listening and
speaking and I really liked it – but then we had to do a writing test and I didn’t do
very well.’ The content of the test should … 3 ‘It was a writing assessment and we
had to write a reply to a letter. I didn’t do very well because I didn’t understand the
letter, so I put the wrong information in the reply.’ Input data (the information the
test taker responds to) needs to be … 4 ‘I got the test back from the teacher and I
hadn’t done very well. I was the worst in the class. The teacher just wrote ‘You
must work harder’ at the bottom, but I was working quite hard.’ Feedback should …
5 ‘It was obvious that the teachers marking the essays had completely different
ideas on what should get a good mark. It was really unfair.’ Markers of assessments
should …

F Teaching exam classes Exams are a type of assessment which have some formal,
public significance. They are generally linked to a specified level of what a
successful candidate can accomplish in a language. There are many different ELT
exams and teachers often teach classes that are geared towards preparing
learners for a particular exam.

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5 – Developing teaching skills and professionalism Agree

Disagree

For each of the numbered statements below, decide where you would place it on
the cline. 1 It is a good idea to start with a past paper of the test, so that learners
know what they are working towards. 2 Learners in exam classes are usually more
goal-oriented than those in a general English class. 3 The most important thing is
to ensure that learners understand the requirements of the exam. 4 The teacher
should make teaching exam strategies the main focus of each class. 5 The learners
in an exam class will always be highly motivated. 6 The most important thing in an
exam class is that learners become familiar with exam-style questions. 7 In
preparation for the exam, it is a good idea to give learners the marking criteria for
subjectively marked parts of the exam (such as speaking) and ask them to grade
themselves. 8 Teachers of exam classes need to know exactly what the exam
consists of and how it will be graded.

KEY WORDS FOR TEACHERS Check you know the meanings of these terms. •
assessment • test • validity • reliability • practicality • washback

REFLECTION 1 Answer the questions below. a In your experience, what impact do

regular assessments and tests have on learning? b How can a teacher ensure that
feedback on assessment is constructive? c What are the advantages of including
self-assessment in a course? d How can a teacher avoid negative washback
effects when teaching? 2 Think about what your own teaching practice students
have learned since you’ve been teaching them. Design a short assessment that
would be appropriate for them.

Reference Hughes, A. (2003). Testing for Language Teachers (2nd edition).

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 173.

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39 Developing as a teacher

39 Developing as a teacher A Warm-up 1 Think of something which you have

become very good at. It could be learning a language, a musical instrument, a
sport, a hobby (such as cooking), or anything else. How did you first learn? How did
you continue learning? Tell your partner. 2 Work with a partner. Talk about what you
consider to be the most useful parts of the CELTA course. However, you can only
say one word at a time. Do not plan what you will say beforehand. You must listen
to each other so that sentences are coherent and grammatically accurate.
Example: Trainee 1

Trainee 2

the enjoyed

practice teaching

etc. because

3 Could you use an activity type such as 2 in your teaching? If so, how?

B Professional development 1 Indicate with a cross how much impact the following
parts of the CELTA course have had on your learning. Compare your ideas with a
partner. Input sessions

big impact

not much impact

Planning teaching practice lessons

big impact

not much impact

Teaching

big impact

not much impact

Post-teaching feedback discussions

big impact

not much impact

Writing evaluations of your own lessons

big impact

not much impact

Researching and writing course assignments

big impact

not much impact

Websites for teachers and online forums

big impact

not much impact

Tutorials with tutors

big impact

not much impact

Course reading, e.g. handouts, articles, chapters from books

big impact

not much impact

Observation of peers

big impact

not much impact

Observation of practising teachers

big impact

not much impact

Informal discussions with colleagues

big impact

not much impact

Other (what, exactly?)

big impact

not much impact

2 Work in groups. In the light of the above, discuss ways to continue developing as
a teacher after the course.

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5 – Developing teaching skills and professionalism

C Learning from experience The learning experience that underpins the CELTA
course is, essentially, one of ‘reflecting on experience’. That is, learning takes place
through cycles of action and reflection.

1 Study the reflective learning cycle. Identify some concrete experiences that you
have had during the course (e.g. ‘a student told me that they really liked the
speaking activity in the lesson I did on pets last week’). How did you review that
experience? What did you decide to do as a consequence? (How) did it change
your teaching? Tell your partner about your experiences. ACTION (having an
experience)

REFLECTION (reviewing the experience)

EXPERIMENTATION (planning the next steps)

THEORY BUILDING (concluding from the experience)

2 Read the quote below.

Reflective practice occurs . . . when teachers consciously take on the role of

reflective practitioner and subject their own beliefs about teaching and learning to
critical analysis, take full responsibility for their actions in the classroom, and
continue to improve their teaching practice. Thomas Farrell, 2018

This suggests that teachers can modify both their beliefs about learning and
teaching and their practice over time. Work in small groups and discuss the
questions below. a Why do you think this change happens? b How you can reflect
on lessons and continue to improve your teaching practice after the course? c Can
you think of reasons why teachers might not change their practices? 3 Complete
the table below, using the terms your trainer dictates. I will definitely try to do this

I would like to do this but it is unlikely

I don’t like this idea much

I don’t understand how this helps me as a teacher

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39 Developing as a teacher

D Case studies 1 Read about these teachers. How are the teachers similar and
how are they different in terms of their development? Who do you think you will be
most similar to?

George

Cara

When I finished my CELTA course, I couldn’t wait to start teaching. I was

determined that I would try the new things I had learned. If I hear a colleague say
they have done something that students liked, I rush to try it out too. Some things
work and so I use them again and again. Some things are disasters and I never
repeat them! And sometimes I can think of a way of improving it so that it will work.
My goal is to start a website where I can share my teaching ideas and also invite
other teachers to share theirs. I am already quite active on discussion forums and
social media – I just loving talking about teaching!

When I finished my CELTA course, I knew I still had a lot to learn. I was really
nervous in the classroom and didn’t feel I knew enough. I’ve always liked reading
and I started reading more about teaching: all sorts of things – blogposts but also
some journal things. It actually gave me confidence. I remember an experienced
teacher talking about something in the staffroom and I knew about it – I had been
reading about it – and started to feel I belonged. Colleagues even started asking
me questions! I want to go on now and do more courses and get even better
qualified. There’s so much to learn, and one day I would like to teach
other teachers.

Ayala

Jane

When I got my first job after CELTA, I was quite nervous going into a new school.
The Director of Studies said she wanted to watch me teach and I was so worried,
but actually she gave me really good feedback. There were things to work on but it
was really helpful and encouraging. There were some development workshops at
the school which staff took turns to lead, and they were great. I learned a lot
because they were teaching the same sorts of classes as me. After about a year I
actually led one of those sessions and the feedback on that was good. I was so
proud. I felt I was really contributing to the school.

I did my CELTA course nearly two years ago. I learned a lot on my course but even
more when I started teaching. I tried to make friends in the staffroom and found
people were really helpful to me and were usually happy to share their
experiences. I think I am ready for a new challenge, and I am currently deciding
whether to do an MA in TESOL or a Cambridge DELTA course. I know they are both
high level and will be hard work. I would really love to end up working in a university
so that might influence my choice, but I know a lot of teachers who feel they have
benefited from the Diploma because it is really practical.

2 Jane says, ‘I am currently deciding whether to do an MA in TESOL or a Cambridge

DELTA course. I know they are both high level and will be hard work.’ What
information would you like to know about these courses? You could consider such
things as: • entry requirements • duration • recognition/value • modes of study •
assessment • prices Ask your trainer any questions you have.

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5 – Developing teaching skills and professionalism

KEY WORDS FOR TEACHERS Check you know the meanings of these terms. •
reflection • observation • teacher beliefs

REFLECTION Draw up a ‘continue learning’ action plan for your first six months of
teaching after this course. Make your plan as specific as possible. Then work in
pairs or groups and compare your plans.

Reference Farrell, T. (2018). Reflective Practice for Language Teachers. In J. Liontas

(ed.) The TESOL Encyclopedia of English Language Teaching. New York: Wiley and
Sons.

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40 Preparing for the workplace

40 Preparing for the workplace A Warm-up Put a tick next to the three things that
you think will influence you most in looking for a teaching job. • working in an
organization with a good reputation • working in an organization with a good
professional development programme • being part of a supportive staffroom within
an organization • gaining as much experience as possible • earning a decent salary
• staying near family and friends • travelling • being in a culture you are already
familiar with • learning about a new culture and a new language When you are
ready, see if you can find anybody who has chosen the same three things as you.

B Finding a job Your trainer will tell you about some useful websites you could use
to look for teaching positions after your CELTA course. Look at two different sites.
Find a position you would be interested in applying for. Work in pairs. Discuss
which positions you have chosen and why.

C Job interviews 1 Imagine you are going to apply for the job which you or your
partner selected in B. Make a list of questions you might be asked during the
interview. Here are some possible categories of questions: • professional
development, including qualifications • experience • language awareness • soft
skills, such as teamwork or time management • strengths and areas to develop 2
Work together to create a list of questions you could ask during the interview. Here
are some possible topics: • learners • teachers • syllabus, materials and resources
• pay and conditions • professional development • safeguarding • (if applicable)
relocating to another country

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5 – Developing teaching skills and professionalism 3 Compare your lists from C1

and C2 with another pair. Do they have any questions you could add to your list? 4
Your trainer will tell you if you are an interviewer or an applicant.

Interviewers Use questions from C1 to conduct a short interview. Find out whether
the applicant is suitable for the job you chose in B. After the interview, think about
what particularly impressed you in the applicant’s answers, and decide on one tip
you could give them to improve their interview skills.
Applicants Answer the questions the interviewer asks. After the interview, think
about which questions were easier or more challenging to answer. What might you
need to bear in mind when preparing for real job interviews?

Switch roles and conduct another interview.

D Maintaining health and wellbeing Read the quote. Teacher burnout and attrition
rates are at record highs across the globe. Teaching has become a profession
frequently characterized by high levels of stress and low professional wellbeing.
Yet, research has shown that teachers who experience high levels of wellbeing
teach more effectively and more creatively with fewer discipline issues, leading
ultimately to higher levels of learner achievement. Quite simply, teacher wellbeing
is desirable for teachers themselves as well as for their learners. Sarah Mercer,
2020

Work in groups. Answer the following questions. 1 What might contribute to high
levels of stress for teachers? 2 How do you think high levels of wellbeing might help
teachers to ‘teach more effectively and more creatively with fewer discipline
issues’? How do you think this might lead to ‘higher levels of learner achievement’?
3 What could teachers do to help them maintain a high level of wellbeing? Some
areas to consider might include: maintaining physical health, time management,
professional and personal relationships, and leisure activities.

KEY WORDS FOR TEACHERS Check you know the meanings of these terms. •
continuous professional development (CPD) • soft skills • burnout • wellbeing

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40 Preparing for the workplace

REFLECTION 1 Work in pairs. Play ‘tennis’. Your trainer will demonstrate how to do
this. Round 1: What questions might you be asked in a job interview? Round 2:
What questions could you ask in a job interview? Round 3: How can teachers
maintain a high level of wellbeing? 2 Think of three tips you could give to somebody
who is preparing to work in ELT. Compare your tips to a partner’s.

References Mercer, S. (2020). The Wellbeing of Language Teachers in the Private

Sector: An Ecological Perspective. Language Teaching Research.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168820973510

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Pair and group work Unit 25 Trainee A Mutual dictation – Integrating skills You get a
text message, you read it

. You read an interesting news story

. You go to a lecture you might pass it on.

, language skills are not always used in isolation.

. Think back to the last lesson you taught.

Unit 33 Group A

Interaction pattern

Example activity

One advantage of this interaction pattern

One disadvantage of this interaction pattern

Individual work

Reading comprehension

Learners have some time to concentrate on learning at their own pace.

Learners may be unsure of their answers and therefore not want to share them.

Pair work

Answering discussion Maximizes opportunities questions for speaking.

Small group work

Creating a product to ‘sell’ to classmates

Two big teams

A whiteboard race

Mingle*

A survey of classmates’ opinions

Teacher leads the class

Drilling pronunciation All learners are working on the same thing at the same time,
of a new grammar which can (sometimes) be easier item for the teacher to control.

Learner(s) lead(s) the class

Checking answers to a gap-fill activity

Some learners may be reluctant to participate in small groups, leaving others to do

the work. Working as a team can motivate learners to push their English
production to higher levels. This can be challenging to set up in an online
classroom, depending on the platform used.

Some learners may think that only the teacher should lead the class, and therefore
not listen to their classmates.

* In a mingle, learners speak to one or two other learners at a time, moving to

speak to the next person when they are ready. They will speak to multiple other
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Pair and group work

Unit 34 Trainee A Present continuous statements Say what is happening in Picture

A. Then find seven differences between Picture A and Picture B. Picture A

Evolve 1

Unit 37 Trainee A Motivation There are many factors which can affect a learner’s
motivation. One of the most important factors is actually

, they are more likely to have motivated students. they feel that their lessons are
useful and relevant to them, and tailor lessons to meet those needs. intrinsically
interesting, and this means that teachers before doing them.

and lesson styles

. Motivation is further boosted when over what and how they learn. Finally, another
important contributor to motivation is a sense of success and mastery, so
teachers need to help learners see the progress that they are making.

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Unit 25 Trainee B Mutual dictation – Integrating skills You get a text message,
someone about it.

and you text back.

and you tell

and you take notes. If you hear some gossip,

. So, outside the classroom, combined.

. They tend to be . Were any skills combined?

Unit 33 Group B

Interaction pattern

Example activity

One advantage of this interaction pattern

One disadvantage of this interaction pattern

Individual work

Reading comprehension

Learners have some time to concentrate on learning at their own pace.

Learners may be unsure of their answers and therefore not want to share them.

Pair work

Answering discussion questions

Small group work

Creating a product to ‘sell’ to classmates

Two big teams

A whiteboard race

Mingle*

A survey of classmates’ opinions

Teacher leads the class

Drilling pronunciation of a new grammar item

Learner(s) lead(s) the class

Checking answers to a Learners enjoy being given gap-fill activity responsibility,

and this can help them to feel engaged.

Face-to-face classrooms can get very noisy, and it can be a challenge for the
teacher to hear individuals. Learners can bounce ideas off each other and
experiment with their English with supportive classmates. If there is an element of
competition, learners (and teachers!) sometimes forget the English-related goals
of the activity. Learners can speak to lots of different classmates, getting to know
everybody better. Depending on how the teacher runs the activity, learners may
disengage and lose interest in the lesson.

* In a mingle, learners speak to one or two other learners at a time, moving to

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Pair and group work

Unit 34 Trainee B Present continuous statements Say what is happening in Picture

A. Then find seven differences between Picture A and Picture B. Picture B

Evolve 1

Unit 37 Trainee B Motivation There are many factors which can affect a learner’s
motivation. teacher motivation. Research suggests that if a teacher is enthusiastic
and motivated, . Learners are also more likely to be motivated if , so clearly
teachers have to understand the needs of their learners to be in activities more
interesting.

. Materials and activities also need ,

are well advised to build interest

. Using a variety of activities

can also make classes

learners have a sense of control . Finally, another important contributor to
motivation is a sense of success and

mastery, so teachers need to help learners see the progress that they are making.

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Teaching practice Introduction

Teaching practice (often called TP) is a core component of the course and the one
that gives the course its essentially practical nature. By giving you the opportunity
to teach classes of real learners, TP prepares you for the reality of the classroom,
and provides a means for putting into practice the techniques and procedures that
are discussed in the input sessions. TP provides an ongoing cycle of planning,
teaching and reflection, and thereby provides an experientiallydriven model for
your future professional development. TP is timetabled continuously throughout
the course. Each centre will organize TP differently, but it will always involve each
trainee teaching at least two different groups at a minimum of two different levels.
Lessons may vary in length, but in all centres the total of supervised teaching will
add up to six hours for each candidate. Each member of your TP group will take it in
turns to teach (parts of) the lessons. You will observe while your TP group
colleagues teach. After the lesson, the trainer will conduct a feedback session,
normally involving other trainees. Part of your assessment is based on your ability
to contribute to peer feedback, and to respond in a professional way to feedback
which has been given to you. Check with your trainer how TP is organized at your
centre.

To get the maximum benefit from TP, and to ease some of the anxieties associated
with it, you may find the following advice helpful.

Planning Go easy! You will usually be given a section of a coursebook, or a specific

language item (often called a ‘TP point’) to teach. Stick to this – don’t try and teach
everything you know about English! If you’re asked to teach six items of vocabulary,
don’t attempt more than six. If you’re asked to teach one specific use of a grammar
structure, don’t attempt to teach all its other uses as well. If you’re asked to teach
one page of a unit of a coursebook, don’t teach the whole unit.
Liaise It’s generally the case that you will be sharing the lesson with your
colleagues, each taking their turn in the overall sequence. This usually means that
you will be working from the same material. It is imperative, therefore, that you are
each clear as to which sections of the material you are working with, so that there
is no obvious doubling up. You will also need to check which parts of the lesson
sequence are dependent on what has gone before. For example, is the person who
follows on from you depending on your having taught some key vocabulary?

Research Do some research into the language area you are going to teach. See unit
5 for some ideas on how to do this. At the same time, don’t simply regurgitate the
contents of the grammar reference in your lesson plan. Your job is to make the
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Teaching practice

Manage your time Try not to spend longer planning the lesson than would be
reasonable in real working conditions. In other words, don’t stay up all night
planning a twenty-minute lesson. If you are having trouble coming up with an idea
for the lesson, put it aside and do something different – like going for a walk, or
cooking a meal. Some of our best ideas come to us when we’re busy doing
something physical or routine.

Be economical Don’t try and reinvent the wheel. If you have been asked to teach
some coursebook material, you don’t have to rewrite it or redesign it. Remember
that it is your teaching skills that are being developed, not your ability as a
materials writer or graphic artist.

Be prepared Allow for the unexpected, e.g. a late start, or a new learner, or a
problem you hadn’t foreseen. Predict possible problems and consider how you
might solve them ready for the lesson.

Be flexible Keep your plan flexible. Don’t try and put more than is realistically
achievable into your lesson. At the same time, it’s also a good idea to have one
extra activity ‘up your sleeve’, just in case you have time to spare. There are some
ideas in the ‘5-minute activities’ section on pages 207–211.

Structure your lesson Plan around a basic lesson format that makes sense to you
and that will make sense to the learners, such as one that has a beginning, a
middle and an end. For example, the beginning might be a short ice-breaker, the
middle might be the presentation of a grammar structure, and the end might be
personalized practice.

Prioritize Decide what the main activity of the lesson should be: reading, or
speaking, for example, or writing, or listening. This will often be specified in the TP
point. Make sure your plan foregrounds this core activity, and that it is not pushed
to the end of the lesson by lots of preparatory stages.

Build in variety At the planning stage, think how you will vary the focus throughout
the lesson – so that some of the focus is on you, some is on the learners, and some
is on a reading text or listening passage, for example. Even in a twenty- or thirty-
minute lesson it’s possible to have three different activities, and three different
types of interaction. If you are not the primary focus of the whole lesson, it is likely
to be more engaging for the learners, and will give you more space to pay attention
to their needs.

Be resourceful Don’t overburden yourself with materials, such as different

documents or websites, unless absolutely necessary. The more ‘stuff’ you bring
into the lesson, the more chance you will lose your way, or things will go wrong.
Also, the more you attempt to ‘plug every hole’ in the lesson, the fewer
opportunities there will be for spontaneity and learner participation. Check with
your trainer how lesson planning works at your centre, including the specific
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Teaching Be ready to teach Make sure you have everything that you need ready for
the lesson. If you have prepared a worksheet, make sure you have sufficient
copies. If you are using audio or video, make sure they are set up so you only have
to click play. Remember that it doesn’t create a good impression if you have to
leave the room for something you have forgotten, or if you have to find a document
on the computer before you can open it.

Learn their names Learn and use the learners’ names. Check the pronunciation if
you are unsure. This is a common courtesy; it also makes classroom management
a lot easier.
Don’t overrun You only have a limited amount of time to teach your lesson, and you
are likely to be sharing the same class with your colleagues, so it is imperative that
you start and finish on time. If you are worried that you may run over time, organize
with a colleague, or your trainer, some means by which they signal that you have,
say, only five minutes left.

Start on time The class starts when there are learners in front of you – even if only
just one. However, don’t launch into your prepared lesson when the bulk of the
class still haven’t arrived. Spend this time getting to know your learners better, or
reviewing the last lesson, or checking homework. Useful questions include: How
was your day? Did you have good weekend? What do you like doing in your spare
time? You can also ask the learner(s) to ask you the same or similar questions. If
there are two learners, they can ask and answer these questions in a pair.

Focus on the learners Focus your attention on the learners throughout your lesson,
and not on your trainer or your colleagues. Witty asides to your colleagues are
likely to be misinterpreted by the learners and so are generally best avoided.

Look calm You are likely to feel nervous, but you don’t need to look nervous. Face-
to-face, try and find a ‘still point’ in the classroom and stay there: it may be seated,
or standing. Online, experiment with switching off your self-view, so that you don’t
focus on what you look like. Try and maintain a natural speaking voice, as if you
were not really in a lesson at all. Exploit opportunities for friendly laughter – this
helps defuse the tension.

Don’t panic! If you lose your way in the lesson, and are not sure what to do next,
don’t panic. Stop and consult your plan: there is no requirement to have
memorized what is on it. The learners know that you are there to improve your
teaching skills, so they are forgiving when there are problems.

Adapt Even if you think you are running out of time, don’t rush. It may be better to
skip a stage, if it means getting to your main activity. Be prepared to abandon or
adapt parts of your planned lesson if you feel that these parts are simply not
working as planned. Remember that during the feedback on the lesson you will
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Teaching practice
Observe When you are not teaching, but observing the lessons of your colleagues,
give them your full attention. This is not just a question of courtesy: you will learn a
lot from watching your colleagues in action, and will be able (and expected!) to
discuss their lessons during the feedback session. Also, you can learn a lot about
the learners by observing the way they respond to different techniques and
teaching styles. However, avoid becoming involved in the lesson in any way – for
example, by answering questions that learners may try to address to you. Indicate
to the learners that they should ask the teacher who is currently teaching them.

Check with your trainer how TP is conducted at your centre. Here are some
comments on TP lessons. They have been collected from trainers’ assessments.

Choose one or two of the problem areas below. Consider how you could avoid
them. • • • • • • • •

••••••

You directed your attention at one half of the class only. You added ‘OK?’ to
virtually everything you said. You wrote everything on the board in capital letters.
You allowed one or two learners to dominate. You were talking to the learners while
you were writing on the board with your back to them. After each new word that
you presented, you asked ‘Do you understand?’. You didn’t give time for learners to
answer your questions. You often answered the questions yourself. The learners
weren’t always clear when they were supposed to pay attention to what you were
saying. You kept a sort of running commentary on what you were doing, or going to
do, throughout the lesson. You started giving the instructions for the activity before
you had got the learners’ full attention. Everything that the learners said you wrote
in the chat box, in a rather random way. During the pair work stage, you spent a lot
of time helping one learner, without noticing that the other learners had finished.
You adopted a rather unnatural delivery, as if you were speaking to a child, or
someone hard of hearing. You set up the group work task nicely, but you didn’t go
round the breakout rooms to check that the learners were doing it properly. While
the learners were reading the text, you kept distracting them by talking.

Read the positive comments. What can you do to make sure that you receive
similar comments during your course? • • • •

You were very calm, and you were able to draw the learners’ attention. You used a
natural but intelligible speaking style. You knew all of the learners’ names, and
made sure they all had a chance to participate. It was good that you gave the
instructions for the task before putting the learners into their groups. 187

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• Demonstrating the task with one of the learners before they went into pairs
seemed to help the learners feel more confident when starting the activity. • When
you realized that the learners were confused, you stopped the task and gave them
clear instructions. • You encouraged the learners to expand on their contributions,
from single words and phrases to fuller utterances. • You responded naturally to
what the learners said, before moving on to correct the way that they were saying it
in a supportive way. • The board work was legible and well organized. • Your use of
the camera, microphone, slides and other materials was effective, especially your
decision to turn off your camera or microphone or stop screen sharing at times. • I
liked the way you provided individual help to learners when they needed it, while
remaining aware of the rest of the class. • You gave clear, constructive feedback on
all of the activities.

Post-teaching Balance your reflection – don’t forget the positives! Few, if any,
lessons go as planned. Be kind to yourself if you feel that yours didn’t. Even if you
weren’t satisfied with the lesson, remember that it is part of the learning process of
improving your teaching. Ensure you identify the strengths of the lesson, not only
its weaknesses.

Take responsibility Consider your role in the parts of the lesson which worked well,
not just what the learners did. When thinking about the weaknesses, consider
what action points you can take away to improve your future lessons. Don’t
abdicate responsibility for the lesson by, for example, blaming the learners, or the
coursebook, or the TP point. Effective teachers adapt to the constraints that are
imposed on them.

Reflect After the lesson, spend some time to reflect on the lesson. On pages 189–
191 there are some ways of framing the reflection process, in the form of reflection
tasks. Your trainer may assign one of these tasks as the basis for completing your
self-evaluation or for the post-lesson feedback session. You may also want to use
them to continue to reflect on your lessons after the CELTA course has finished.
Keep a journal You may wish to keep a training journal – that is, a private written log
of your experience learning to become a teacher. You can use any of the reflection
tasks to structure your journal. There are some special journal tasks on pages 191–
192.

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Reflection tasks Reflection task 1: Questions Think about your lesson and answer
the questions. • What happened according to plan? Why? • What didn’t happen
according to plan? Why? • What happened that I didn’t expect? Why? What effect
did this have? • What would I do differently next time? Why?

Reflection task 2: Sentence starters (aims) Complete the sentences. • My main

aim in this lesson was … • I achieved my main aim partially/completely. As
evidence I would mention … OR: • I didn’t achieve my main aim because … • My
subsidiary aim(s) was/were … • I achieved my subsidiary aim(s)
partially/completely. As evidence I would mention … OR: • I didn’t achieve my
subsidiary aim(s) because … • In my next lesson, I’ll continue/stop/change/…

Reflection task 3: Sentence starters (impressions) Complete these sentences in as

many ways as you can. • I was happy with the way … because … • I wasn’t so
happy with the way … because … • The learners seemed to be engaged when … •
The learners didn’t seem engaged when … • Next time, I’ll continue/stop/change/…

Reflection task 4: Statements Complete the table (0 = totally disagree; 5 = totally

agree). Statement

Evaluation

1. I achieved what I was aiming to do.

012345

2. I managed the class effectively.

012345
3. I involved all the learners.

012345

4. I used the time effectively.

012345

5. I used the materials/aids effectively.

012345

Evidence

Based on what happened in this lesson, next time I’ll continue/stop/change/…

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Reflection task 5: Personal objectives Before the lesson, write down two or three
personal objectives you hope to achieve. After the lesson, evaluate the extent to
which you achieved them. Write some more objectives for your next lesson.

Reflection task 6: What I learned, and what I still don’t know What did you learn
from this lesson? Summarize what you learned in the form of statements. • I
learned that … • I learned that … • I learned that …

What are you still unsure about? Summarize your uncertainties in the form of
questions. For example: • Why … ? • When … ? • How … ? • How much … ? • …

Reflection task 7: My report Write a report on your lesson. Complete the table.
Subject*

Grade (A–D)

Comments
Planning Classroom management Manner and rapport Use of lesson materials Use
of technology / other resources, e.g. the whiteboard Use of learners’ L1 Dealing
with pre-planned language Dealing with learner language Dealing with individuals
Achievement of aims Summary * You can add extra ‘subjects’ if you wish, or put
N/A where appropriate.

Reflection task 8: Learner feedback Work in groups. Design a short feedback

questionnaire for the learners to complete in the last few minutes of each lesson.
The object of the questionnaire is to give you feedback on the effectiveness of the
lessons – but it is not to compare teachers. Typical questions might be: • What was
the most important or most interesting thing you learned in this lesson? • What
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• What activity would you not like to do again? • Was there anything missing in the
lesson?

Alternatively, provide sentence stems for the learners to complete. • I learned … • I

enjoyed it when ... • I didn’t like it so much when … • I would like to do more … • I
don’t really want to do more … Collect the feedback forms from the learners at the
end of the lesson and compare their responses with your own evaluation of the
lesson.

Journal Tasks Journal task 1: Narrative Write a narrative account of the lesson,
saying what happened. • Compare this to your plan. • Explain any departures from
the plan. • Draw some conclusions from this experience.

Journal task 2: Key event Focus on a ‘key event’ in the lesson, that is, a significant
moment that stands out in your recall of the lesson. • Why was this event
significant? • What did you learn from it?

Journal task 3: Focus on a learner Choose one learner to focus on, and keep a
journal record of his or her progress over a number of lessons. Record your own
assessment and those of your colleagues. You should do this task with the
consent of the learner concerned. You can then ask the learner to read your
account and to make their own comments. This will allow you to judge, for
example, to what extent your inferences were correct.

Journal task 4: Recording the lesson With the permission of the learners, audio- or
video record a segment of your lesson. Play it back, and transcribe a section of it.
Analyse this section with a view to answering questions such as: How natural is my
classroom language? How intelligible am I? How clear are my instructions? Do I
have any obtrusive mannerisms (either vocal or gestural)? How naturally do I
interact with the learners?

••••

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Journal task 5: Feedback and reflection Record your reflections on the feedback
that you were given – by your trainer, by your colleagues, or by the learners
themselves. • How useful was the feedback? • Was it fair? Was it balanced? • Did
the feedback match your own assessment of the lesson? • How do you think you
will take the feedback into account in planning and teaching future lessons? •
What have you learned about giving feedback?

Journal Task 6: Self-evaluation At periodic points in your journal, such as at the end
of each week if you are on a full-time course, answer these questions: • How am I
developing as a language teacher? • What are my strengths? What are my
limitations at present? • How can I improve my teaching? • How am I helping my
learners? • What satisfaction does language teaching give me?

Adapted from Richards, J. C and Ho, B.

Reference Richards, J. C., and Ho, B. (1998). Reflective Thinking Through Journal
Writing. In Richards, J. C., Beyond Training. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, p.170.

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Classroom observation These Observation tasks are for use when observing the
teaching practice lessons of your colleagues, or any other classes that you are
required to observe during the course. Each task has a particular focus, and links
to some aspect of the course input. Some tasks focus on the teacher, others focus
on the learners, and some focus on the interaction between both teacher and
learners. These tasks are designed to provide a focus for post-observation
discussion. Normally, your trainer will tell you which task you should use. Note that
there is no obligation to compete all the tasks during the course. You may find
them useful after the course, if you have the opportunity to observe other teachers.
Below are some commonly observed points of observation etiquette when
observing an experienced teacher. Many of these points will also be relevant when
observing peers in TP. • arrive on time • be polite and courteous at all times • in a
physical classroom, take a seat where the teacher asks you to • in an online
classroom, keep your camera and microphone off unless the teacher asks you to
put them on • keep an unobtrusive presence throughout, and do not participate
unless invited to by the teacher • focus all of your attention on the lesson – do not,
for example, be distracted by messages on your phone • if you have to leave before
the end of the class, forewarn the teacher before the lesson starts • pay attention –
if you are taking notes, do this discreetly • after the lesson, do not make any
evaluative comments about the lesson to the teacher • thank the teacher for
letting you observe

Observation task 1 Focus: The teacher’s position and body language

Note the teacher’s/teachers’ position and movement. If possible, draw a ground

plan showing the teacher’s movements during the lesson. • When and where do
they sit? • When and where do they stand? • How near do they approach the
learners at different parts of the lesson? • When do they move around? • Do they
project to all the learners? • Can they be heard and seen clearly by all the learners?
• Do they use gesture effectively? • Do they make eye contact with individual
learners? • What impact did the teacher’s position and body language have on the
learners during the lesson?

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Observation task 2 Focus: The individual learners

Make sure you know the learners’ names! Observe the learners and complete the
table with their names. You can write the name of more than one learner in each
box, and put the name of one learner in more than one box. Names

Behaviour take the initiative, volunteer answers to questions, and ask questions of
their own avoid answering questions, or only answer if called on by name; don’t
participate much in open class take part actively in pair and group work tend to
take a back-seat role in group work, and do only the minimum in pair work take
risks with the language, and are not afraid of making mistakes are hesitant, even
reluctant, to speak catch on quickly and follow explanations relatively easily often
get confused and frequently seek clarification from peers [add anything else that
strikes you as worthy of comment]

Observation task 3 Focus: Interaction

Observe the different interactions in each lesson and complete the table. Then
answer the questions. Teacher – whole class

Learners in pairs

Learners in groups

Learners working individually

Other

• What is the predominant type of interaction? • Does it seem appropriate to the

aims of the lesson? • In which interaction were the learners most productive (in the
sense of producing most English)?
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Observation task 4 Focus: Meaning

Are there any points during the lessons where the learners seem unclear as to
what something means? How can you tell? • How is the problem resolved? Does
the teacher deliberately seek to check understanding? • How is this done? • How
effective is it? • What impact did this communication breakdown, and the way it
was resolved, seem to have on the learner?

Observation task 5 Focus: Instructions

Are there any points in the lesson when learners seem unsure of what the teacher
wants them to do? Why is this, do you think? Write down, word for word, some
examples of instructions that occur during the lesson(s). Are they clear,
economical and effective? Does the teacher do anything else to support their
instructions? If so, what?

Observation task 6 Focus: Engagement/Interest

To what extent do the learners seem engaged by the lesson? What is the level of
learner interest? Plot their engagement over the course of the lesson using this
graph (100% = maximally engaged; 0% = totally uninterested). Make a note of what
was happening in the lesson during any particular peaks or troughs.

engagement

100%

0%

time

Note: You could do this task to record your impression of the group as a whole or of
an individual learner.
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Observation task 7 Focus: Learner participation

Choose one learner to focus on (preferably one that you can see and/or hear well)
and answer the questions. • How much speaking (in English) do they do during the
lesson? • Do they speak in their own language? If so, for what purpose? • How
many contributions do they make in whole-class stages (as opposed to pair or
group work)? • Do these contributions take the form of one- or two-word
utterances, or are they longer turns? • Do you think the learner wanted to
contribute more during the lesson? If so, what prevented them? • Do you think the
learner should have contributed more during the lesson? If so, what prevented
them?

Observation task 8 Focus: Own language use

Make a note of all the instances in which either a learner or the teacher uses a
language other than English. • At what stage(s) of the lesson does this occur? •
What is the purpose of the communication? (e.g. is it to clarify understanding, ask
for help etc.?) • How effective was it in achieving this purpose?

Observation task 9 Focus: Teacher–learner interaction

Draw a ‘map’ of the class, and label each learner. For example:

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Draw lines and arrows to indicate the different interactions between the teacher
and individuals, or between individuals and the teacher. The direction of the arrow
should indicate whether the interaction is teacher-initiated or learner-initiated. For
an online class, you might want to draw the layout of the screen, and note who has
cameras / microphones on if you think that is relevant. • What does your
interaction map suggest? • What is the dominant direction of interaction? • With
which learners did the teacher interact with most? • Which learners initiated
most? • Can you think of possible explanations for your findings?

Observation task 10 Focus: Error and correction

Note down in the table any instances of learner error, the teacher’s response (if
any) and the learner’s response, e.g. self-correction: Error

Teacher’s response

Learner’s response

Observation task 11 Focus: Planning and staging

Observe a lesson without knowing in advance how it was planned. As you observe
the lesson, note the main stages. • Is there a clear division into stages? For
example, is there a beginning, middle and end? • How is each new stage signalled?
• What is the aim of each stage? If possible, after the lesson compare your
impression of the lesson’s design with the • teacher’s plan.

Observation task 12a Focus: Boardwork (physical classroom)

Note down at what points in the lesson the teacher uses the board. • Are there
clearly differentiated boardwork stages, or is the board used intermittently
throughout the lesson? • What is written on to the board? And where? How legible
is it? • Do the learners copy what is written on the board? • If possible, ask to look
at a learner’s book at the end of the lesson, and see if the learner’s record of the
lesson is an accurate summary of the lesson. To what extent is the learner’s record
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Observation task 12b Focus: ‘Boardwork’ (online)

For an online lesson, there may not be a clear ‘board’. Follow the steps above in
12a and consider anything the teacher uses to share live notes with the learners
during the lesson, for example the chat box, online whiteboards, or the use of
documents or slides. Focus on notes which are based on what has come up during
the lesson, rather than materials which seem to have been prepared before the
lesson.

Observation task 13 Focus: Time on task

Draw a pie chart to show the proportion of time on task. • How much time is spent
leading up to tasks (including pre-teaching, giving instructions, etc)? • How much
time do the learners spend engaged on the tasks? • How much time is spent on the
post-task phase (e.g. checking, reporting back, etc)?

Observation task 14 Focus: Roles of the teacher

Complete the table. Observation sheet Does the teacher . . .

Time/Stage of lesson

What happened? Was it effective?

give instructions? check instructions? correct errors? explain new language?

monitor pairs/groups? say/do anything designed to build rapport? The teacher’s
questions What questions does the teacher ask?

What is the function, or purpose, of each question?

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Classroom observation

Observation task 15 Focus: Teacher questions

Monitor the teacher’s questioning techniques, and answer the questions. • How
many real questions does the teacher ask? (These are questions for which the
teacher doesn’t know the answer, such as What did you do at the weekend?) • How
many display questions does the teacher ask? (These are questions for which the
teacher already knows the answer and prompt learners to display knowledge, such
as What is the past of the verb ‘go’?) • Is there a difference in atmosphere and/or
learner behaviour between stages that are dominated by real questions and those
dominated by display questions?

Observation task 16 Focus: Teachers’ ‘in-flight’ decisions

Observe a lesson for which there is a detailed lesson plan. Keep a record of how
closely the lesson follows the plan, and answer the questions. • Are there any
points where the actual lesson departs from the plan? • Does the actual timing
differ from the planned timing? • Can you account for these differences? • If
possible, talk to the teacher after the lesson. How does your account of the
teacher’s ‘in-flight’ decisions compare to their own?

Observation task 17 Focus: Pronunciation

Is there any focus on pronunciation included in the lesson? If yes, when and for
what purpose? • Keep a note of any pronunciation errors that occur in the lesson. •
Does the error affect communication? • Is the error corrected? If so, how and by
whom?

Observation task 18 Focus: Coursebook use

Observe a lesson that is based on coursebook material. Monitor how closely the
lesson follows the coursebook. Use the following cline to record the extent to
which the lesson follows the coursebook. (100% = the lesson follows the
coursebook exactly; 0% = the lesson bears no resemblance to the coursebook
material). 0%

100%

If possible, compare your evaluation with the teacher’s own assessment of how
closely the lesson followed the coursebook. What was the effect of either following
the coursebook closely, or not following it closely?

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Observation task 19 Focus: Differentiation

Observe the lesson and make note of any instances in which the teacher adapts a
task or the material to make it easier, or more challenging, for an individual, or
several individuals, in the class. • How does the teacher adapt the material? •
What is the impact of the adaptation?

Observation task 20 Focus: Use of technology

Observe a lesson in which the teacher is using some form of technology. • What
technology is used? • How ‘fluent’ is the teacher with the use of this technology?
Does it contribute to the flow of the lesson, or does it disrupt it? • To what extent
does the technology enhance the lesson? • Could the lesson aims have been
achieved as effectively without it?

Observation task 21 Focus: Teacher talking time

Make a pie chart to show how much time the teacher talks, and how much time
the learners talk. • Who spends more time talking, the teacher or the learners? • At
what points in the lesson do the learners talk more? • At what points in the lesson
does the teacher talk more? • Approximately how much of the learner talking time
is spent talking in open class? • Approximately how much of the learner talking
time is spent talking in pairs and groups? • Does the teacher ever address
individuals or small groups ‘privately’ (i.e. without the whole class hearing)?

Observation task 22 Focus: You choose!

Decide what aspect of your class you would like your colleagues to observe. For
example: While watching my lesson, I would like you to monitor / observe / note
down any instance of the following: 1. 2. 3.

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Guide to tutorials During your course you will have the opportunity to speak to your
tutor on a one-to-one basis. Your tutor will keep a written record of your tutorial,
which you will need to sign. You will have the opportunity to discuss how you feel
about the course generally, and specifically you will talk about your progress with
the written assignments and your teaching practice. The tutorials will be based
around the ‘progress records’ in your CELTA 5, which is the document which is
filled in to confirm that you have completed all of the course components. The
number of tutorials you have is not fixed, but remember that your tutors will be
happy to discuss your progress with you, so you can ask to make additional
appointments if you feel you need to. At a minimum, you will have a compulsory
tutorial halfway through the course, called a Stage 2 tutorial. The information in
this guide refers to this tutorial only, though some of it is applicable to other
tutorials you may have.

Before your tutorial Look at the list of criteria in the CELTA 5. If you do not
understand any of them, then look in the back of the CELTA 5, where they are
explained. If you are still unsure, ask your tutor to explain them. For each criterion,
you should consider whether you feel you are meeting the necessary standard for
this stage of the course. Try to think of examples from your teaching and think back
also to the feedback you have received. Remember that you are in the process of
learning to be a better teacher, and it is not expected that you are perfect at all the
things described in the criteria – in fact, that would mean you are on the wrong
course! Remember that being able to evaluate your teaching objectively is a key
part of developing as a reflective teacher both during and after the course, which is
why there is a focus on it during your lesson self-evaluations and as part of your
Stage 2 tutorial.

During your tutorial Remember, your tutorials are two-way processes – you need to
speak and also listen to your tutor. Try to be as honest and open as you can be. If
there is anything that you do not understand or that you are having trouble with, do
not be afraid to say so. Your tutorial will be based around the list of points in your
CELTA 5. Your tutor will have considered all of the points as part of their evaluation
of your progress, although they may not comment on all of them in detail, as time
may be limited. If you need to, make a note of any important points that you wish to
raise before the tutorial and take it in with you, so that you do not forget what you
want to say.

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After your tutorial Think carefully about what was said. Read the notes that your
tutor made and, if you agree with the summary, sign the page in the CELTA 5.
Ensure you understand the points you need to work on, and also how to make
progress in these areas. If you are not sure, you could look back at notes you have
made during input sessions, read relevant books or blog posts on the topic, watch
teacher training videos for CELTA trainees, or ask your tutor for further guidance.
When you next teach, try to include evidence of having worked on relevant points
in the way you plan the lesson, the way you teach it, and also when you reflect on
the lesson in feedback.

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Guide to written assignments There are four written assignments on the CELTA
course. They are: • Focus on the learner • Language related tasks (including
language analysis) • Language skills related task • Lessons from the classroom In
total you should write around 3000–4000 words: your centre will give you guidance
on how much to write for each assignment. The centre will also give you the criteria
by which your work will be assessed. It is very important that you read and
understand these before you start writing. The precise requirements of the
assignments will vary from centre to centre, but the marking criteria are
standardized and are the same in all centres. For each assignment you should read
the instructions very carefully, so that you know exactly what you are expected to
write. If you are not sure, then ask for further clarification. The work you submit
must be your own. When you include quotes or take ideas from other sources, you
must acknowledge where these come from. If your first submission of an
assignment is not up to the required standard, you are allowed to resubmit it one
more time. If necessary, you can resubmit all four assignments, once each,
without any effect on your final CELTA grade. In order to pass the written
component of the course, and therefore the course overall, you must pass three
out of the four assignments. A proportion of all the assignments will be ‘double-
marked’ – that is to say, two tutors will read the assignment and agree on marks.
This is a way of standardizing the process and ensuring that it is fair.

Things to remember Writing can be viewed as a process – there are stages you go
through before ending up with the final ‘product’. You may find it helpful to clearly
distinguish the stages in your mind – research, planning, producing a draft, editing
the work, redrafting, checking for spelling and grammar mistakes and so on. Think
of who you are writing for. Your tutor will read the work, but so too may an external
assessor. It is important that the tone is not too informal – it should either be in a
slightly academic style, or be neutral. Using headings and sub-headings can help
the reader to follow your arguments and are appropriate in most assignments. All
assignments require you to use terminology accurately, so double-check you know
what terms mean during the course and ask your tutor if you’re not sure.

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Things that can go wrong Time management Your centre will tell you when you
should hand work in. The deadlines are spread throughout the course to help both
you and your tutors with time management. It is important that you make every
effort to meet the deadlines set, both for first submissions and resubmissions,
because otherwise you may find work piling up towards the end of the course.
Fulfilling requirements It is very important that you actually do what you are asked
to do in the assignment. When you have drafted your assignment, check the
wording of the task to ensure that you have included all the components required.
Two of the main reasons that trainees are asked to resubmit their assignments is
because they have not followed the instructions carefully enough, or have left out
one or more parts of the assignment. Relevance Although 3000–4000 words may
sound a lot, that is for all four assignments. Each assignment is generally 750 to
1000 words long, though this may be different at your centre. You will probably find
it a challenge to include all you want to say in the number of words you have for
each assignment. It is therefore important that you write concisely and include
only relevant information.

Look at the following extract from the Focus on the learner assignment. Can you
identify two sentences which are probably not directly related to Cinzia’s needs as
an English learner? Cinzia lives in a small town in the north of Italy, Saronno.
Saronno is famous for the production of a drink called ‘Amaretto’, although Cinzia
herself is not keen on it. Cinzia is a doctor and she combines a busy professional
life with bringing up her two children (Eugenia, 9, and Carlo, 7). She learned a little
English at school, but says she was easily bored and preferred maths and science
subjects. As a doctor she needs to be able to read medical journals, which are
often published in English, and one of her motivations for learning English is to
allow her to do this. She also attends conferences and would like to develop some
‘social conversation skills’. When not working or studying, Cinzia likes to watch her
favourite football team, AC Milan, and she tries to attend at least three or four
matches a season.
Detail Although it is important to only include relevant information, you also need
to include detail where necessary. In the Focus on the learner assignment, for
example, you may well be asked to include a reference to specific material to help
the learner with an identified difficulty.

Compare these two responses: Jurgen wishes to improve his grammar, so

something from English Grammar in Use Intermediate (Murphy, Cambridge) would
be appropriate.

Jurgen wishes to improve his grammar. I noticed in my conversations with him that
he made several errors using reported speech (see transcript on page 7), and so I
would recommend English Grammar in Use Intermediate 5th edition (Murphy,
Cambridge) Unit 47 (page 94), which deals with this and provides practice that he
could do outside class time.

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Guide to written assignments

Accuracy of information It is important that what you write is accurate. Here is part
of a Language related tasks assignment. Analyse the form and meaning of the
underlined parts of the sentences. Suggest a context in which the sentence could
be introduced. In each case say how you would check understanding. You do not
need to write in complete sentences. 1 Would you like an ice cream? 2 Are you
going on holiday next week?

Now look at a trainee’s response. Consider the accuracy and detail of the work and
then grade it as ’Pass’ or ‘Needs resubmission’. 1 Would you like an ice cream?

Would + subject + verb

Used to make offers.

Context: parent to a child

Checking: I’d ask questions.

2 Are you going on holiday next week?

going to future

talking about the future

Context: in a restaurant

Checking: I’d ask questions

Now look at another trainee’s response. Again, grade the work as ‘Pass’ or ‘Needs
resubmission’, according to the accuracy and detail. 1

Would you like an ice cream?

would + subject + base form of the verb

Used to make an offer

Context: parent to a child, standing by an ice-cream van on a hot day. I might

introduce this with a picture in a lesson. Clearly the child should not be holding an
ice-cream.

Checking: I’d ask a question such as:

‘Is this about one time, now, or something that the child always likes?’ (one time)

Are you going on holiday next week?

present continuous (question form be + subject + present participle)

Used to talk about future plans/arrangements

Context: two colleagues talking

Checking: I’d ask questions such as:

‘Is the holiday planned or not planned?’ (planned)

‘Do you think he has booked his hotel already?’ (probably, yes)

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Standard of written English As a teacher you will have to teach writing skills. It is
therefore important that you demonstrate your ability to write accurately in terms
of spelling, grammar and linking. Even if you meet the other criteria for the
assignment, you may be asked to resubmit if the level of accuracy of your writing
makes it challenging to read.

Look at the following piece of writing taken from the Lessons from the classroom
assignment. Do you think it is of an appropriate standard for a teacher of English?
When I start teaching I knew that my writting on the board was not great – not at all.
The tutor told me in the first lesson that it was a bit iffy but I tried for the next
lesson. There’s alot of things to learn when you start teaching because there’s
grammer, vocabulary and skills. I was maybe thinking too much about all of them
things to really be able to do myself justice.

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5-minute activities Many teachers find it useful to a have a bank of short activities
that they can use during lessons. These short activities are often referred to as
‘warmers’ or ‘fillers’. They can be useful to change the pace of the lesson, to help
learners relax, to help build the dynamics of the group and to give variety. They are
often used at the start of lessons, but they can be exploited at any point in a lesson
to help to improve the quality of the activity that follows, for example by building
energy prior to a quieter, more reflective, task. Some warmers have a clear
linguistic element (such as vocabulary revision) but others have a more affective
purpose. Many can be done either as a whole-class activity or in small groups. The
teacher needs to assess the appropriacy of these short activities. Some groups
enjoy and benefit from them, while others may feel that they are a block to
focusing on the main point of the lesson. Most of the activities described below
can be used in either a physical classroom or online, with only minor changes in
how they are set up.

Getting to know you My name is . . . and I like . . . A memory game. Go round the
class: the first person completes the formula My name is … and I like … . The next
person reports this (Her name is … and she likes … .) and then adds their own
name and something they like, and so on, each person reporting on what everyone
else has said, before adding something new.

Five-pointed star Learners each draw a five-pointed star. On the first point they
write a person’s name that is important to them; on the second a place name; on
the third a number; on the fourth a date; and on the fifth a sign, symbol or logo.
They then get into pairs or small groups, show each other their stars, and ask and
answer questions about them.

Phonemic likes and dislikes Display the following questions in phonemic script: •
Who’s your favourite actor? • What kind of music do you like? • What was the last
video game you played? Learners write their answers in phonemic script. They
then share their answers with each other and comment on them.

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Maps Face-to-face: The learners imagine the room as a world map (establish
north, south, east and west, and where one country is on the ‘map’). They must
then go and stand on the country they would most like to visit and talk to others
who are near them about why they have chosen that part of the world. Online: ask
learners to place a cross onto a slide of a world map and then discuss their choice
with other learners.

Last weekend In pairs learners ask and answer yes/no questions in order to find
out as much as possible about their partner’s weekend. They then report to the
class.

In a line Ask learners to organize themselves either physically into a line (in a
classroom), or to write their names in the correct sequence (online), according to
specific criteria, e.g. birthday, distance they travel to get to the centre, number of
foreign countries visited, alphabetical order of first (given) name, etc.

What I like about you is . . . Learners work in small groups. One member of the
group in turn should remain silent while the other members have 30 seconds to
pay as many compliments as they can to that person, beginning What I like about
you is … .

Word games What word? The teacher gives a word to a learner, who must then
represent the word either through drawing a picture or through mime. Others guess
the word. This can be played as a team game. If preferred, learners can select the
words themselves.
Kim’s game The teacher collects seven or eight possessions from members of the
class (with their permission) and then covers them. The learners must remember
what items were collected and who they belonged to. Online, every learner holds a
possession up to the camera simultaneously for a specified period of time, then
puts it out of shot. The learners must remember who held up what.

Vocabulary quiz The teacher prepares a short quiz with questions such as: • Think
of five things that are green. • Think of three things that are thinner than a pencil. •
Think of six things you could keep money in.

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5-minute activities

The teacher allows two minutes for the learners to write answers after each
question. Learners can play individually or in small groups. Learners report back
answers when the quiz is complete.

Letters to words The teacher gives the class a collection of letters. Learners have
to form as many words as they can, using each letter only once.

Alphabet game The teacher gives the class (or groups) a topic, e.g. transport or
cinema. The learners have to think of words beginning with as many letters of the
alphabet as they can that they associate with the topic.

I went to the market . . . Each learner adds an element to the formula: I went to the
market and I bought … and repeats from memory what other learners said.
Variants: I went to the pharmacy / stationers / clothing department …; For my
summer holiday, I packed …

Relaxing Visualization Everyone should close their eyes. Play the class a piece of
relaxing music. As it plays, tell the class a story, or engage them in creating the
story by asking questions as they listen. So, for example, the teacher could either
say: You see a beautiful sailing boat on the horizon, with a bright yellow sail or You
see a boat on the horizon. What does it look like? The learners do not say anything
until after the story is finished, when they can share their thoughts.

If I were The teacher displays some If I were sentence stems and the learners
complete them and then compare their answers. For example: If I were a season,
I’d be … because … If I were a colour, I’d be … because …

Classroom quiz Everyone except one person should close their eyes. That person
then asks simple questions about either the physical environment, or, if online,
what can be seen in the camera shot e.g. How many windows are in the room?.

Paper conversation Learners work in pairs or small groups, and share one piece of
paper, or type on a shared document. On this they ask and answer questions, as if
they were having a conversation, but writing – not speaking.

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Teach a Martian The teacher poses as an alien and asks the class to tell him/her
how to boil an egg. This will involve explaining what an egg is, a chicken, a bird, etc.
Alien: Learner 1: Alien: Learner 2: Alien: Learner 3: Etc.

How do I boil an egg? You need a saucepan of water. Excellent – thanks. But what is
a saucepan? It’s a thing you cook food in. Oh, yes. Like a microwave – we have
those on my planet. No, not a microwave. Can I use the board? I’ll draw it.

Once the teacher has modelled it, learners can work in small groups to do the
same activity.

Energy raising Yes/No game One person must answer yes/no questions asked by
others, and must do so without saying yes or no.

Finding a partner The teacher distributes halves of sentences, questions and

answers, infinitives and past forms, or anything else where there is a clear
‘partner’. The learners must mingle and try to find their partner.

My word, your word Learners work in pairs and must answer questions asked by
the rest of the group. However, they are only allowed to say one word at a time, and
so must listen to each other to try to form utterances that make sense and are
grammatically accurate. For example: Question: What is your favourite time of
day? A: My B: favourite A: time B: is and so on.
How do you feel? Learners must have short conversations in which they greet each
other, but every few seconds the teacher ‘changes their mood’ by saying, for
example, Say it as if you are exhausted, Say it as if you have just received some
really good news, Say it as if you are speaking to a former boyfriend/girlfriend, etc.
(In an online environment the teacher can broadcast messages to the group.)

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5-minute activities

Physical exercise The teacher gives instructions to the class to do a (very light)
physical workout. For example: Teacher: Stand up, and copy me. Do what I do. All
stretch as high as you can. And bend – try to touch your toes. Walk on the spot.
Like me – get your knees high.

Find something . . . Create a short list of criteria or ask the learners to create one.
Learners have 3 minutes to find as many of the things as they can. This can be
used to practise various language points or vocabulary sets. For example: Find
something round/square/triangular, Find something which you use to write/which
you find at school/which you can put in your pocket.

Mini-conversation Learners have a conversation in pairs, but each utterance can

only be a maximum of two words long, said with the appropriate intonation. For
example: A: B: A: B:

Last night? TV. Interesting? Boring …

Who am I? Attach sticky notes with the names of famous people to learners’
foreheads, so they can’t see whose name it is. They all circulate, asking and
answering questions, e.g. Am I a film star? Am I American?, until they have
guessed who they are.

Last lesson Learners write three things that are true about the last lesson and two
that are untrue. They then read them out, and others have to say whether they are
true or not. For example, Alejandra was speaking Spanish when the teacher came
in.
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A brief guide to the English verb Verbs can be affirmative (She speaks three
languages), negative (She doesn’t speak Japanese) or in a question form (Does she
speak Italian?). 1 Negation: to negate a verb form, insert ‘not’ (‘nt) after the first
auxiliary. It isn’t raining. The children haven’t been studying. In the absence of an
auxiliary, insert the appropriate form of ‘do’ and add ‘not’ (‘nt): It doesn’t work. My
parents didn’t approve. 2 Question forms: to make a question, invert the subject
and first auxiliary: Is it raining? Have the children been studying? In the absence of
an auxiliary, invert the subject with an appropriate form of ‘do’: Does it work? Did
your parents approve?

Present simple

Uses: to talk about completed actions in the past

Form: base form + ed (for regular verbs)

Future with will Examples: You won’t win the lottery. We’ll drop by later. The
President will meet the PM on Tuesday.

Uses: to make predictions about the future to express decisions made at the time
of speaking to give facts about the future

Form:

Examples:

will + base form of the verb

He usually drives to work. The sun rises in the east. I don’t eat meat. What time
does your train leave?

Future with going to

Uses: to talk about routines and habits to talk about things that are always true to
talk about schedules and timetables
Form: base form of the verb (+ s in the third person singular)

Examples: She’s going to look for a new job. Are you going to see Juliet later? It’s
not going to snow tomorrow.

Uses: to talk about plans to make predictions about the future

Form: be + going to + base form of the verb

Past simple Examples: He played for England in the 1970s. We didn’t see them.
When did you wake up?

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A brief guide to the English verb

Present continuous/progressive Examples: He’s playing upstairs at the moment.

The universe is expanding. What time are we meeting?

Uses: to talk about actions in progress in the present to describe changes in

progress in the present to talk about future plans and arrangements

Form: am/is/are + present participle

Past continuous/progressive Examples:

Form: will + be + present participle

Present perfect simple Examples: Have you seen Casablanca? They’ve lived in the
same house for years. I’ve fed the cats.

Uses: to talk about a past situation at an unspecified time that has present
relevance to talk about something started in the past and continuing to the present
to talk about a recently completed action that has present consequences

They were having dinner at the Mermaid Inn when we saw them. Where were they
going?
Form:

Uses:

Past perfect simple

to talk about an action in progress at (and perhaps after) another point in time in
the past

Form: was/were + present participle

Future continuous

have/has + past participle

Examples: She had decided to leave him before we met. Had you known each
other long before you got married?

Use: to sequence past actions

Examples:

Form:

I’ll be working all day tomorrow. Message her now – she’ll be watching the cricket.
He’ll be meeting the PM later today.

had + past participle

Uses: to talk about things happening around a point of time in the future to talk
about planned future events to make predictions about things happening at the
time of speaking

Future perfect simple Examples: They’ll have been married for three years in June.
Some types of frog will have become extinct by 2050. He’ll have arrived by now, I
expect.

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Trainee Book

Uses: to say how long something will have been in progress by a point in the future
to say that something will be finished before a particular point in time to make
predictions about things happening at the time of speaking

Past perfect continuous Examples: We had been playing there for ages before
anyone complained. I hadn’t been looking to change my job, but this offer was too
good to turn down.

Form:

Use:

will + have + past participle

to talk about situations in progress prior to a specific point in the past.

Present perfect continuous/ progressive

Form:

She’s been commuting for years. Have you been working all night? What have you
been doing?

Uses: to talk about something started in the past and continuing to the present to
talk about recently completed actions (particularly if there is some evidence)

had + been + present participle

Future perfect continuous/ progressive Examples: By next month, he’ll have been
running marathons for fourteen years. How long will we have been dating by
October?

Form:

Use:

have/has + been + present participle

to say how long something will have been in progress up to a point in the future

Form: will + have + been + present participle

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Glossary accent the influence of a person’s social, geographical and first language
background on their pronunciation. accuracy the extent to which a learner’s use of
a second language conforms to a standard form of that language; it is often
contrasted with fluency. acquisition the process of language development in an
individual; it is sometimes used to mean the natural process of picking up a
language, in contrast to learning, which involves formal instruction. active listening
when a listener shows that they are paying attention to a speaker, for example by
nodding their head or asking follow-up questions. active (voice) a verb form such
as makes or was writing where the subject is the person doing the action, as
compared to the passive (is made, was written). adjective a word, such as old, blue
or interesting, that tells you about the qualities of a person or thing or event.
adverb a word, such as quickly, well, here or then, which tells you about the
circumstances of an event, such as how or where or when it happens. affirmative
(sentence) a sentence that makes a positive statement, as opposed to a
negative one. affix an element that is added either to the beginning of a word (in the
case of prefixes, such as un-, anti-, re-) or to the end of the word (in the case of
suffixes, such as –less, -wise, -ly), and which change the word’s meaning or part of
speech. aim the learning objective of a teaching sequence; a distinction is made
between the main or primary aim and secondary or subsidiary aims; aims are
defined in terms of linguistic items, such as verb forms, and also in terms of skills
development; or in terms of

communicative outcome. antonym a word, such as old, which is opposite in

meaning to another word, such as young or new. appropriacy, appropriateness the
use of language that is suitable for its context, e.g. not too formal in an informal
context. article either of the determiners the (definite article) or a/an (indefinite
article) as in the banana, a banana; when nouns are used without an article, the
absence of the article is called zero article: it tastes like banana. aspect a verb
form that expresses the speaker’s view of the event described by the verb, such as
whether it is in progress, or complete. There are two aspects in English: continuous
(also progressive) and perfect. assessment collecting information in order to gauge
a learner’s progress; assessment may be formal, as in testing, or informal, as in
simply observing learners doing tasks. asynchronous (teaching/learning) lessons
which happen online with the teacher and learner(s) accessing the course at their
own pace, for example via recordings or forums, in contrast to synchronous. There
is no realtime interaction. authentic materials classroom materials that were not
originally written or spoken for language teaching purposes, such as news articles
or television documentaries. authentic task an activity which reflects what would
happen in an authentic situation outside the classroom. For example, notetaking
while listening to a lecture is an authentic task, whereas answering true or false
questions is probably not. auxiliary verb grammar words such as do, had, was, that
are used with main verbs to form tenses, questions, and negatives. bare infinitive
the infinitive form without to, as in she made me do it. 215

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base form (of the verb) the form of the verb that is not inflected by the addition of
grammatical elements, such as –ing, -ed, -s, for example go or drink. bottom-up
knowledge familiarity with the words and grammatical structures in a spoken or
written text, which interacts with top-down knowledge, e.g. of topic or text type, to
aid comprehension. CEFR (Common European Framework of Reference) a project
aimed at providing a common basis for language education in Europe, in such
areas as syllabus design and assessment, and consisting of a description of the
components of language proficiency at all levels and across a range of skills.
checking understanding the process of gauging the learners’ grasp of a new
concept, by asking concept (checking) questions, for example. chunk (also multi-
word unit) a phrase of two or more words that is stored and used as a single unit,
such as by the way, head over heels, see you later. classroom management the
ways the teacher organizes and controls the classroom activity, including the
learners’ interactions and the use of resources. clause a group of words containing
a verb, forming the main structures of which sentences are built: [She was sitting in
the waiting-room], [reading a newspaper], [when it was announced [that the train
[she was waiting for] had been delayed]]. CLIL (content and language integrated
learning) the use of a language other than the learners’ L1 to teach a school
subject such as science or physical education, with the aim of developing
competence in both the target language and specified subject. cloze test a test
consisting of a text in which every nth word has been replaced by a space.
coherence the capacity of a spoken or written text to make sense to the
listener/reader because of the way it is organized, for example. cohesion the way in
which the units of a text (the words, clauses, and sentences) are 216

meaningfully connected, through the use of cohesive devices such as linkers.

collocation the way that certain words regularly occur together, such as good
clean fun, but not bad dirty fun. communicative activity a classroom speaking or
writing task in which the learners have to interact in order to solve a problem or
complete a task. communicative aim ➔ aim communicative approaches language
teaching methods whose goal is meaningful communication rather than
knowledge of language rules, for example. comparative the form of an adjective or
adverb that is used to make comparisons: older, better, more expensive, less
often. compound noun a noun formed from two or more individual words, such as
bookshop, hairdryer, washing machine. concept the basic meaning of a word or
structure, independent of context, e.g. You can go now. means You are free to go
now. concept (checking) questions (or CCQs) one method of concept checking, in
which the teachers asks questions in order to check the learners’ understanding of
a new word or grammar structure. conditional the form of a verb made with
would/should: I would ask someone; a conditional clause is one that usually starts
with if, which tells us about possible or hypothetical situations: If you don’t know a
word, look it up. I would ask someone, if I were you. conjunction a word such as
and, but, so, that links two clauses, or phrases, or words. connected speech the
way that speech sounds are produced as part of a continuous sequence, rather
than in isolation. consonant in pronunciation, a sound that is made when the
airflow from the lungs is obstructed in some way, such as /b/, /p/ or /v/. content
words (also known as lexical words) the words in a text which carry the main
information load; for example I’m living in Poland at the moment, in contrast to the
grammar words. Content words are usually nouns, adjectives, main verbs or
adverbs.

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Glossary

context either the text that immediately surrounds a language item (also called
cotext), or the particular situation in which language is used (also called context of
situation). continuous/progressive (aspect) the aspect of the verb that is formed by
combining the auxiliary verb be with the present participle: She is leaving. It was
raining. continuing professional development (CPD) the act of continuing to
develop as a teacher throughout your career, both through external stimuli like
reading or attending workshops, and internal stimuli like reflection. contraction the
reduction of some elements that results in joining two words, such as a pronoun
(they, it) and an auxiliary verb (will, is): they’ll, it’s. controlled practice (sometimes
called restricted practice) a stage in the teaching of a language item in which the
learners use the item in restricted contexts so as to gain mastery of the form,
rather than to use the item communicatively; drilling is a form of controlled
practice. corpus (pl. corpora) a digital database of texts that can be used to
research how language is actually used. countable noun a noun such as day, child
or glass, that refers to something that can be counted, and so has a plural form:
days, children, glasses; uncountable nouns, like water or information, do not
normally have plural forms. coursebook (also called textbook) the book that
contains the materials used in a language course, often part of a series, each part
aimed at one level. deductive learning an approach to learning where learners are
given rules which they then apply in the creation of examples; it contrasts with
inductive learning. determiner a word, such as the, some, my, many, no, etc. that
belongs to the class of words that can go at the beginning of a noun phrase: the
woman in white; my many friends.

Determiners help to identify things (e.g. if the thing is known or unknown to the
hearer) or to quantify things: All the staff went on strike. differentiation adapting
materials or activities to the level, learning dispositions and special needs of
individual learners. diphthong a vowel sound, such as the ones in boy and cow,
that is made when the tongue changes position mid-sound to produce a sound like
two vowels joined together. discourse any connected piece of speech or writing;
the analysis of its connectedness is called discourse analysis. display question a
question asked by a teacher in order for learners to display their knowledge. For
example, What tense is this?, in contrast to a real question. drill, drilling a form of
controlled practice involving oral repetition of words or sentence patterns. Drilling
can be choral, when the whole class (or a section of the class) is repeating the item
together, or individual. dynamic verb a verb which expresses an event or activity,
such as run or eat, and which can therefore be used in the continuous aspect, in
contrast to stative verbs. EAP (English for Academic Purposes) the teaching of
English to students who will need to use English in their studies, particularly for
university study. educational technology (also edtech) the use, or design, of
technology, particularly software, to aid teaching and learning. EFL (English as a
Foreign Language) the learning of English in a context where English is not
generally the medium of communication. For example, this would include a
Japanese student having English classes in Japan. EIL (English as an International
Language) the use of English as a means of communication between speakers of
different L1s; also called English as a lingua franca (ELF). For example, a Mandarin
speaker and a Swahili speaker speaking together in English.

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ELF (English as a lingua franca) ➔ EIL eliciting the teacher’s use of questions, or
other prompts, to get learners to provide answers and responses, often with the
intention of finding out what they already know. ellipsis the omission of an
otherwise obligatory element in a sentence because it can be inferred from the
context: [THERE IS A] RAILROAD CROSSING AHEAD. engagement the degree to
which learners are actively participating in and interested in (parts of) the lesson,
which in turn may affect their attitude to, and enjoyment of, learning. ESL (English
as a Second Language) the teaching of English to speakers of other languages who
live in a country where English is an official or important language. ESP (English for
Specific Purposes, also English for Special Purposes) a general term for the
content of courses that are targeted at groups of learners whose particular
vocational or academic needs have been identified, such as businesspeople or
medical professionals; EAP is one example of ESP. extensive reading the reading of
longer texts, such as stories or novels, in order to gain a general, not detailed,
understanding, and often for pleasure. feedback the messages that learners get
about their language use or their language learning; positive feedback is
information that the learner’s language use has been correct; negative feedback
indicates that it has been incorrect. finger correction, finger coding the use of the
fingers to represent the elements of a word or phrase in order to display its form or
to identify an error. flashcard a card with pictures or words on it which is used as a
prompt in the lesson. fluency the capacity to be communicative in real-time
conditions; often contrasted with accuracy. focus on form a stage in teaching
where the learner’s attention is directed to the form of a language item, e.g. when
the teacher

points out the –ed ending on regular past tense verbs. form the way that words or
structures are spoken or written, e.g. /mi:t/ is written as meat or meet; the past of
meet is met. formulaic expression a conventionalized way of expressing a concept
or function. For example, Would you like [an X]? typically functions as an offer.
function the communicative purpose of a language item, often described in terms
of speech acts, such as offering, apologizing, requesting, asking for information.
functional exponent one of the ways that a function is commonly realized; thus, a
functional exponent of offering is Would you like …? gap-fill an exercise that
requires learners to complete a sentence or text in which certain items have been
removed. genre any type of spoken or written discourse which is used and
recognized by members of a particular culture or sub-culture. gerund the form of
the verb ending in -ing, and which acts like a noun, as in No parking; the term -ing
form is now more generally used. See also the present participle. gist a general
understanding of a written or spoken text, as opposed to a detailed understanding;
a gist task is one that checks or tests this general understanding. graded reader an
extended reading text where the level of language has been controlled so as to be
more easily intelligible for learners, often used as part of extensive reading. grading
(language) the way teachers simplify their classroom language in the interests of
intelligibility, especially with beginners and elementary learners. grammar the
process by which language is organized and patterned in order to make meaning,
and also the description of the rules that govern this process. grammar words the
closed set of words which express grammatical relationships between content
words: I’m living in Poland at the moment.

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Glossary

guided discovery a form of inductive learning in which learners are encouraged to

work out rules for themselves, with some teacher guidance. head word the main
word in a phrase, which tells you what kind of phrase it is. For example, in a black
cat, the noun cat is the head, making it a noun phrase. highlighting (form)
techniques that draw learners’ attention to the forms of second language items,
such as using boardwork to show inversion in question forms. homophone a word
that sounds like another word, but is written differently, such as sea and see. A
homograph is spelt the same as another word, but pronounced differently, as in
the long and windy road; a dark and windy night. A homonym is the same in both
spelling and pronunciation as another word, but different in meaning, as in a
cricket bat and a vampire bat. idiom a phrase whose meaning is not literal, and is
not deducible from its components, as in a can of worms (= a complicated
problem). imperative the base form of the verb when it is used without a subject to
give instructions, orders or directions: Turn left. Don’t say that. indirect question a
question that is embedded in a statement or another question, as in I don’t know
what her name is. Can you tell me when the bank opens? inductive learning an
approach to learning in which learners are given examples of a structure and they
then work out the rules underlying them; it contrasts with deductive learning.
infinitive the base form of the verb, used with or without to (in the latter case it is
called the bare infinitive), as in to be or not to be; you made me love you. When the
infinitive expresses an intention it is called the infinitive of purpose: We stopped to
admire the view. information gap a type of communicative activity in which the
information that is necessary in order to complete a task is distributed between
the two or more learners who are doing the task, so that they must communicate
with one another.

-ing form a word ending in –ing, such as cooking or seeing, which is used 1) to form
verb tenses where it is also called the present participle: I’m cooking. and 2) like a
noun after certain verbs and prepositions where it is also called a gerund: I like
cooking. I look forward to seeing you. integrated skills the teaching of the skills (of
reading, writing, speaking and listening) in conjunction with one another, rather
than separately, for example watching a video and then writing a comment about
it. intelligibility how possible it is to understand the speech or writing of a particular
person. interaction the use of language between people; interaction is considered
a necessary condition for language acquisition. interaction pattern the way in
which learners are grouped (or not) in order to complete an activity, for example
alone, in pairs, or in two teams. interactive listening listening as part of, for
example, a conversation, in which the listener has to both process what they
hear and formulate a response, in contrast to non-interactive listening.
interlanguage the grammatical system that a learner creates in the course of
learning another language. intonation the use of either rising or falling pitch in
speech to contribute to meaning. intransitive verb a verb, such as laugh, go,
happen, that doesn’t take an object: nobody laughed; something happened.
irregular verb a verb such as go, say, or write, whose past simple form and/or past
participle does not end in -ed. jigsaw technique a type of communicative activity in
which information is distributed among the members of a group, so that, in order
to complete a task, they must share the information. L1 the learner’s first
language(s), or mother tongue(s). L2 the learner’s second (or possibly third, or
fourth, etc.) language, which, when it is the object of instruction, is also called the
target language. 219

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Trainee Book
learner autonomy the capacity of the learner to learn independently of teachers,
and one of the goals of learner training. learner dictionary a dictionary written
specifically for language learners, for example the Cambridge Advanced Learner’s
Dictionary. It uses a limited range of defining vocabulary, and may contain other
information to help learners, such as potentially confusing words. learner training
techniques that help learners make the most of learning opportunities, such as
ways of recording and memorizing incidental vocabulary. learning preferences the
learner’s preferred ways of approaching learning, influenced by their personality or
by their previous learning experience, for example working in groups, or learning
grammar by reading rules. learning strategies techniques or behaviours that
learners consciously apply in order to improve their learning, such as asking the
meaning of unfamiliar words. lexical approach an approach to language teaching
that foregrounds the importance of vocabulary acquisition, including the learning
of chunks. lexical set a group of words that are thematically related, such as
windscreen, steering wheel, handbrake, indicator. lexis the vocabulary of a
language, as opposed to its grammar. linguistic aim ➔ aim linkers (also cohesive
devices) words, such as but, nevertheless, therefore, which are used to connect
ideas within texts. literacy the ability to read and write in a language. main aim ➔
aim main verb the lexical verb in a complex verb phrase that combines with one or
more auxiliary verbs: Kim has arrived. It must have been raining. mastery having
complete control over one’s use of the (target) language. materials evaluation the
act of deciding to what extent a specific set of materials might be appropriate for a
specific learning and teaching context; generally based on pre-defined criteria.

metalanguage the language that is used to talk about language, such as

grammatical terminology. milling, mingling an activity in which learners move
around the classroom space and interact with one another in turn, as when
conducting a survey, for example. minimal pair a pair of words which differ in
meaning when only one sound is changed, such as bin and bean, or ban and pan.
modal verb a verb, such as can, may, should, must, which is used to express
possibility and to make offers, suggestions, commands, etc. To form questions and
negatives, modal verbs function like auxiliary verbs, as they combine directly with
main verbs. model sentence a sentence, often taken from a longer text, which is
used as an example of a particular grammar structure for teaching purposes.
model text a written example of a particular type of text which learners can imitate.
monitoring the process of observing learners doing a task in order to check that
they are ‘on task’, to collect samples of language to give feedback on, to collect
information about learner performance in activities, and to be available for
consultation. monophthong a vowel sound, such as the ones in cat and egg, that is
made without any movement of the tongue, lips, etc from one position to another,
in contrast to a diphthong. motivation the effort that learners put into language
learning as a result of their desire or need to learn the language. multi-word unit ➔
chunk needs analysis the process of determining the purposes for which a learner
is learning a language, used to design a course (typically an ESP course) that is
appropriate. nominating indicating which learner is to answer a question by using
their name, or through using a gesture. non-interactive listening listening to, for
example, a podcast, in which the listener simply listens without having to speak, in
contrast to interactive listening.

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Glossary

noun a word, such as bus, driver, journey, fare, request, etc. that names things.
They can be used after a determiner and as the subject or object of a sentence.
noun phrase a word or group of words consisting of at least a noun or a pronoun
and which functions like a noun: last night; your old car; I; those big red London
buses. object a noun phrase which refers to what or who is affected by the action
described by the verb: I caught the bus. I paid the driver (= indirect object) the fare
(= direct object). objective test a test that can be marked without requiring the test
marker’s personal judgement, as opposed to a subjective test. observation
noticing what another teacher (or yourself in the case of self-observation) does in
the classroom in order to learn from it, to help that teacher to develop
(developmental observation) or to assess their teaching abilities (evaluative
observation). pace the flow of activities in a lesson, and the (perceived) variations
in the speed and intensity of the activities. part of speech (also word class) any one
of the (usually) eight classifications of words according to their function, i.e. noun,
verb, adjective, adverb, determiner, pronoun, preposition and conjunction. passive
(voice) a verb form, such as is made or was written, where the subject is the
person or thing who is affected by the action, as compared to the active (makes,
was writing). past continuous (or progressive) the form of the verb that combines
the past of the auxiliary verb be with the present participle: It was raining. The dogs
were barking. past participle a verb form that is used to form the present perfect
and the passive: I have worked. The letter was written. Regular past participles end
in -ed. past perfect the form of the verb that combines the past of the auxiliary verb
have and the past participle: The film had started. The form ‘had + been + present
participle’ is called the past perfect continuous (or progressive): It had been
raining.
past simple the form of the verb that takes an -ed ending (for regular verbs) and
typically expresses past meaning: Dan called. I sent you an e-mail. peer correction
the correcting of one learner’s error by another learner. perfect (aspect) the aspect
of the verb that combines the auxiliary verb have with the past participle: The post
has arrived. It had been raining. personalization the classroom use of language to
express one’s own feelings, experiences and thoughts. phoneme any one of the
distinctive sounds of a particular language; for example, standard British English
has 44 phonemes, distributed between 24 consonants and 20 vowels. phonemic
chart a teaching aid that displays the 44 phonemes of English in the form of
phonemic script. phonemic script the conventional way of representing the
phonemes of a language; in phonemic script the word phoneme is written
/fəʊni:m/. phonology the system of pronunciation of a specific language, and the
study of this system. phrasal verb a verb that is made up of two (or sometimes
three) parts and which often has idiomatic meaning: I got up at nine. Do you take
after your Dad? phrase a meaningful group of words which form a single unit,
clustered around a head word, either a noun, verb, adjective, adverb or
preposition. possessive ‘s’ the use of an apostrophe and s at the end of a noun to
indicate ownership: Claire’s knee; the neighbours’ cat. possessive adjective a
word, such as my, your, her, their, that precede nouns and denote possession: my
bike; your turn. possessive pronoun a word, such as mine, yours, hers, theirs, that
stands for a noun and denotes possession: That bike is mine. Whose turn is it?
Yours. post-modification words which appear after the head word in a noun
phrase. 221

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PPP (presentation, practice, production) a format for the staging of grammar (or
vocabulary) teaching that starts with the presentation of a new grammar item,
followed by controlled practice, and ends with free production. prefix ➔ affix pre-
listening task the task set in advance of listening to a text, often oriented to the gist
of the text. pre-modification words which appear before the head word in a noun
phrase. preposition a word, or group of words, such as in, on, behind, in front of,
which often indicates place or time, and is always followed by a noun phrase: in
the garden; on Sunday; behind the times. preselection a method of teaching in
which the teacher decides what specific language items to focus on before the
lesson rather than during it, as opposed to teaching reactively. It is often
connected to working with coursebooks. present continuous (or progressive) the
form of the verb that combines the present of the auxiliary verb be with the present
participle: It is raining. The doors are opening. present participle an -ing word that
is used to express verbal meaning: Jan is sleeping. I heard the dog barking. as
compared to a gerund. present perfect the form of the verb that combines the
present of the auxiliary verb have with the past participle: I have phoned for a taxi.
Has Kim had lunch? present perfect continuous (or progressive) the form of the
verb that combines the present of the auxiliary verb have with the past participle of
be and the present participle: It has been snowing; Have you been waiting long?
present simple the form of the verb that has no auxiliary verb and in the third
person singular, takes third person –s: They live in Houston. Her back hurts.
presentation the stage of a lesson where a new language item, such as a grammar
structure or a set of vocabulary, is introduced.

process writing an approach to the teaching of writing that emphasizes the

composing processes rather than the finished product. productive skills the skills
of speaking and writing, in contrast to the receptive skills. progressive ➔
continuous project-based lessons lessons focused on the individual or
collaborative production of a piece of work that usually involves some out-of-class
research and preparation, and which is then presented, either in spoken or written
form, or a combination of the two, as opposed to a lesson which focuses primarily
on language work. pronoun a word such as she, me, it, you, etc., that can be used
in place of a noun as subject or object of a sentence. pronunciation the way the
sounds of a language are spoken. quantifier words or phrases which specify
quantity or amount, e.g. all, a few of, loads of. question tag a structure containing
an auxiliary verb and a pronoun, which is added to a sentence to make a question,
as in It’s a nice day, isn’t it? You’re not hungry, are you? rapport the feeling of
mutual understanding and respect that exists between learners and their teacher.
real question a question asked by a teacher when they do not know the answer, for
example, What did you do on your holiday?, in contrast to a display question. realia
real objects that are used in the classroom as aids for teaching and learning.
receptive skills the skills of listening and reading, in contrast to the productive
skills. recycle/recycling returning to previously studied topics in a later lesson,
particularly grammar or vocabulary, in order to help learners to revise or remember
them. reflection the process of thinking about teaching and learning experiences in
order to learn from them and improve your own practice in the future. reflexive
pronoun a pronoun, such as myself, himself, themselves, used when the object of
the verb refers to the same person as the subject: I cut myself.

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Glossary

reformulation (also known as recasting) a method of error correction in which the

teacher repeats what the learner said, but in the correct form, without drawing
attention to the error explicitly. register the way that the use of language varies
according to variations in the context, such as the social distance between
speakers, or the topic, or the medium. regular verb a verb, such as work, live, start,
whose past tense and past participle are formed by adding -(e)d to the base form:
worked, lived, started. Irregular verbs do not follow this rule. relative clause a
clause that gives more information about something mentioned in the main
clause: This is the house where Freud lived. relative pronoun a pronoun that
connects a relative clause to its noun: This is the house where Freud lived.
reported speech the way in which the sense of what some has said (but not their
exact wording) is incorporated into a text, and where grammatical changes may be
introduced: ‘I’m hungry’ = He said he was hungry. Also called indirect speech, in
contrast to direct speech. reporting verb a verb, such as say, tell, ask, wonder, that
is typically used to report speech or thoughts. rhythm the way that in speech some
words are emphasized so as to give the effect of regular beats. role play a
classroom activity in which learners adopt different roles and act out a situation
according to these roles. rubric the set of instructions for an exercise or a test that
tells or shows the learners what they have to do. scaffolding the support, through
interaction, provided by a teacher (or materials) to enable learners to complete a
task successfully at a level beyond their current competence. scanning in reading,
searching a text for specific information while ignoring other parts of the text, as
when a reader searches a film review for the place where the film is set. scheme of
work the teacher’s plan for a sequence of lessons.

schwa the weak, unstressed vowel sound /ə/, which is the most common sound in
English. self-assessment the process of learners evaluating their own learning
progress. SEN (Special Educational Needs) a difficulty or disability which affects a
person’s ability to learn, for example when concentration levels are affected by
ADHD, or working memory is affected by dyslexia. skill a way in which language is
used, such as speaking or reading, in contrast to language systems, such as
grammar and vocabulary. skills-focused aim ➔ aim skimming in reading, getting
the main ideas, or gist, of a text by reading it rapidly and without attention to detail.
standard English the variety of English that is institutionalized (e.g. in education,
print media etc.) in a region. stative/state verb a verb, such as be or know, which
expresses a state rather than an activity and which, therefore, is rarely used with
the continuous aspect, in contrast to dynamic verbs. stress the effect of
emphasizing certain syllables in speech; the stress pattern in individual words
(word stress) is generally constant, but the stress in sentences (sentence stress)
can vary according to what the speaker considers to be given, as opposed to, new
information: the latter is typically stressed. strong form the pronunciation of
certain words, such as auxiliary verbs and determiners, when they are stressed, as
in Yes, I can (/kæn/), which contrasts to their pronunciation when unstressed
(called their weak form), e.g. I can (/kən/) swim. structure any language pattern
that generates specific instances; generally used to describe grammar items, such
as verb forms. For example, the present continuous structure might generate the
instances I’m writing an email. He’s shopping. subject the noun phrase that
typically comes before the verb and tells you who or what is the agent or topic of
the clause: Chris caught the bus. The bus was crowded. 223

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subjective test ➔ objective test subsidiary aim ➔ aim subskill a subcategory of

one of the language skills; for example, inferencing is a subskill of the skill of
reading. substitution the use of a pronoun to replace a word which has previously
been mentioned. For example: I’ve got a cat. Have you got one too? substitution
table a way of displaying, in the form of a grid, the way the different elements of a
structure relate to one another. suffix ➔ affix superlative the form of an adjective or
adverb that is used to show an extreme or unique quality: the fastest, the most
unusual, the best. syllable a unit of pronunciation that is typically larger than a
sound but smaller than a word: the word syllable has three syllables. syllabus the
selection and sequence of items making up a course. A language syllabus is often
organized in terms of grammar structures. synchronous (teaching/learning)
generally used to describe lessons which take place online with the teacher and
learner(s) present at the same time, for example via a video call, in contrast to
asynchronous. There is real-time interaction. synonym a word that has the same
meaning as another one, as in jail and prison. systems the linguistic constituents
of language, such as grammar, vocabulary, phonology and discourse, in contrast to
the way these constituents are used in specific skills. target form the specific
item(s) of grammar or vocabulary which are focused on at a given point in the
lesson. target language the L2 which learners are studying, for example English or
French. task a classroom activity whose focus is on communication, rather than
on language practice for its own sake. task-based learning (TBL) a way of organizing
language learning around a syllabus of tasks rather than grammar structures.
teacher talking time (TTT) the extent to which the teacher dominates the speaking
time in class. 224

teacher’s book a guide for the teacher that usually accompanies most
coursebooks. teaching reactively an approach to teaching in which the teacher
decides what specific language items to focus on in response to the learners’
needs during a lesson or a task, as opposed to preselection. tense the verb form
which shows whether the speaker is referring to past, present or future. In English,
technically, there are only two tenses: present (they go), and past (they went). test-
teach-test a way of describing lessons that begin with some productive task, which
is then followed by instruction that targets areas diagnosed as needing teaching,
which is in turn followed by a repeat of the initial task, or a similar task. testing
assessing learners’ level or progress, either at the outset of a course (placement
testing, diagnostic testing), during a course (progress testing), or at the end of a
course (achievement testing). text a continuous piece of spoken or written
language. third person ‘s’ the ending that is added to the base form of the verb in
the present simple when talking about he, she, it, etc. she knows; Tom laughs.
timeline a visual representation of a grammatical concept. There are examples on
page 80. top-down knowledge in receptive skills awareness of background
information (such as prior knowledge about a topic) which can be used in
combination with bottom-up knowledge (e.g. of vocabulary and grammar) to aid
comprehension, or which can compensate for lack of such knowledge. transitive
verb a verb, such as make, put, take, that takes an object: We made lunch.
unvoiced/voiceless sound a consonant sound which is produced without vibrating
the vocal cords, such as /p/, /k/, /s/, in contrast to a voiced sound. verb a word or
words, such as worked, has, costs, takes off, that follows the subject of a clause,
and expresses what someone or something does or is.

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Glossary

verb pattern the sentence structure that is determined by the choice of verb. For
example, the verb make can take the pattern verb + object + bare infinitive: you
made me do it, whereas the verb force takes the pattern verb + object + to-
infinitive: you forced me to do it. very young learners (VYLs) although the exact age
range varies depending on the context, these are typically learners aged around 2–
6. voiced sound a sound which is produced while the vocal cords are vibrating;
some consonants, like /b/, /g/, /z/, are voiced; all vowels are voiced. In contrast to
an unvoiced sound. vowel a sound that is produced without obstruction or
constriction of the airflow from the lungs, as opposed to consonants, where the
airflow is interrupted. For example /æ/ or /ə/.

warmer, warm-up an activity done at the beginning of the lesson to ease the
transition into the lesson itself. weak form ➔ strong form wh-question a question
that begins with a word such as what, when, why, how, etc. while-listening task a
task that learners perform while listening to a text, e.g. tracing a route on a map.
workbook a book of activities and exercises that usually accompanies a
coursebook, often used for homework or self-study. yes/no question a question
that can be answered with either yes or no: Are you married? Haven’t you had
lunch? young learners (YLs) although the exact age range varies depending on the
context, these are typically learners aged around 7–14.

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Further reading Learners and their contexts

Language awareness

Equal Opportunity and Diversity: The Handbook for Teachers of English, The British
Council, 2009

About Language: Tasks for Teachers of English (2nd edition), Scott Thornbury,
Cambridge University Press, 2017

Exploring Psychology in Language Learning and Teaching, Marion Williams, Sarah

Mercer and Stephen Ryan, Oxford University Press, 2015 How Languages are
Learned (4th edition), Patsy Lightbown and Nina Spada, Oxford University Press,
2013 Learner English (2nd edition), Michael Swan and Bernard Smith (eds.),
Cambridge University Press, 2001 Special Educational Needs, Marie Delaney,
Oxford University Press, 2016

Classroom teaching 100 Teaching Tips, Penny Ur, Cambridge University Press,
2016
Grammar for English Language Teachers (2nd edition), Martin Parrott, Cambridge
University Press, 2010 Practical English Usage (4th edition), Michael Swan, Oxford
University Press, 2016

Professional development 50 Tips for Teacher Development, Jack C. Richards,

Cambridge University Press, 2017 The Cambridge Guide to Second Language
Teacher Education, Anne Burns and Jack C. Richards (eds.), Cambridge University
Press, 2009 The Developing Teacher, Duncan Foord, Delta Publishing, 2017

30 Language Teaching Methods, Scott Thornbury, Cambridge University Press,

2017

Professional Development for Language Teachers, Jack C. Richards and Thomas

Farrell, Cambridge University Press, 2005

The Cambridge Guide to Learning English as a Second Language, Anne Burns and
Jack C. Richards (eds.), Cambridge University Press, 2018

Useful Websites

Engaging Language Learners in Contemporary Classrooms, Sarah Mercer and

Zoltán Dörnyei, Cambridge University Press, 2020 Learning Teaching (3rd

edition), Jim Scrivener,

Macmillan, 2017 Learning to Teach English (2nd edition), Peter Watkins, Delta
Publishing, 2014 Listening in the Language Classroom, John Field, Cambridge
University Press, 2009 The New A–Z of ELT (2nd edition), Scott Thornbury,
Macmillan, 2017

Cambridge English Language Learning

https://www.cambridge.org/gb/cambridgeenglish Modern English Teacher
https://www.modernenglishteacher.com Humanising Language Teaching
https://www.hltmag.co.uk/ Onestopenglish https://www.onestopenglish.com

Useful Organizations

Teaching and Developing Reading Skills, Peter Watkins, Cambridge University

Press, 2017
International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language (IATEFL)
https://www.iatefl.org

Teaching in Challenging Circumstances, Chris Sowton, Cambridge University

Press, 2021

Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) https://www.tesol.org

Translation and Own-language Activities, Philip Kerr, Cambridge University Press,

2014

British Council https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk

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Course materials Unit 4

Unit 10

Goldstein, B. & Jones, C. (2019). Evolve Level 4 Student’s book. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, contents page

T Puchta, Stranks, Lewis-Jones (2016). Think B2 Student’s book Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, p. 45

Redston & Cunningham. (2020). face2face Upper Intermediate Student’s book 2nd
edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 129

Unit 12

Unit 5

Goldstein & Jones (2019). Evolve Level 4 Student’s book Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, pp. 2–3.

Doff, Thaine, et al (2017). Empower B1+ Student’s book 1st edition Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, pp. 70, 142
Murphy (2019). English Grammar in Use Intermediate Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, p. 5

Godfrey, Gairns, et al (2017). Empower B1+ Teacher’s book 1st edition Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, p. 89

Redston & Cunningham (2020). face2face Upper Intermediate Student’s book 2nd
edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 59

Unit 6

Unit 13

Redston & Cunningham (2013). face2face Intermediate Student’s book 2nd

edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 46

Hendra et al (2019). Evolve Level 1 Student’s book Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, p. 102

Puchta, Stranks, Lewis-Jones (2016). Think B2 Student’s book Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, p. 99

Unit 14

Unit 8 Baker (2006). Ship or Sheep? An Intermediate Pronunciation Course 3rd

edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,

Unit 9 Redston & Cunningham (2013). face2face Intermediate Student’s book 2nd
edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 95 Redston & Cunningham
(2019). face2face Preintermediate 2nd edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, p. 61

Knight and O’Neil (2002). Business Explorer 2 Student’s book Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, p. 69

Unit 16 Puchta, Stranks, Lewis-Jones (2016). Think 1 Student’s book Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, p. 94

Unit 20 Redston & Cunningham (2005). face2face Preintermediate 1st edition.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 90 227
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Trainee Book

Unit 21

Unit 36

Redston & Cunningham (2013). face2face Intermediate Student’s book 2nd

edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 70

Doff, Thaine, et al (2017). Empower A2 Student’s book 1st edition Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, p. 109

Unit 23

Redston & Cunningham (2013). face2face Intermediate Student’s book 2nd

edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 174

Doff, Thaine, et al (2017). Empower A2 Student’s book 1st edition Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, p. 77

Unit 26 Puchta, H. Stranks, J. Lewis-Jones, P (2015). American Think 2 Cambridge

pp. 38–39 Tilbury, A. et al (2010) English Unlimited Elementary Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, p. 11

Hendra, Ibbotson & O’Dell (2019). Evolve Level 1 Student’s book. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, pp. 99, 115 Hendra, Ibbotson & O’Dell (2019). Evolve
Level 5 Student’s book. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 79, 95

Pair and group work Speck, Rimmer, et al (2019). Evolve Level 1 Teacher’s book.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 202

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Acknowledgements

Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank Karen Momber and Jo Timerick
at Cambridge University Press for their support and guidance throughout the
project and also Hugh Moss and his team for their valuable input. Indeed, we are
sincerely grateful to all those behind the scenes at Cambridge University Press and
Assessment for their contributions to all aspects of this work. Our thanks are also
due to David Bunker for his editorial expertise and all those who commented on
drafts of the manuscript. The authors and publishers acknowledge the following
sources of copyright material and are grateful for the permissions granted. While
every effort has been made, it has not always been possible to identify the sources
of all the material used, or to trace all copyright holders. If any omissions are
brought to our notice, we will be happy to include the appropriate
acknowledgements on reprinting and in the next update to the digital edition, as
applicable. Key: U = Unit, TB = Trainee Book, TM = Trainer’s Manual

Text TB – U4: Ryôkan, [“In the empty doorway many petals are scattered;”] from
One Robe, One Bowl: The Zen Poetry of Ryôkan, translated and introduced by John
Stevens, First edition, 1977. Protected by copyright under the terms of the
International Copyright Union. Reprinted by arrangement with The Permissions
Company, LLC on behalf of Shambhala Publications Inc., Boulder, CO,
shambhala.com; U6: Project Gutenberg. (n.d.). Retrieved February 21, 2016, from
www.gutenberg.org; U8: Consonant chart taken from Cambridge International
Dictionary of English. Copyright © 1995 Cambridge University Press. Reproduced
with kind permission of Cambridge University Press via PLSclear; U15: Polish
language presentation and translation by Monika Grza̜dka. Reproduced with kind
permission; U33: Cambridge University Press for the text from ‘Nurturing the
relationships in our classrooms’ by Sarah Mercer. Copyright © 2020 Cambridge
University Press. Reproduced with kind permission; U36 Council of Europe for the
adapted text from ‘A Common European Framework of Reference for Languages:
Learning, Teaching, Assessment – Companion volume’. Copyright © 2020 Council
of Europe. Reproduced with kind permission; TM – U36: Council of Europe for the
adapted text from ‘A Common European Framework of Reference for Languages:
Learning, Teaching, Assessment – Companion volume’. Copyright © 2020 Council
of Europe. Reproduced with kind permission.

Photography The following photos are sourced from Getty Images: TB – U13:
funnybank/DigitalVision Vectors; Caiaimage/Chris Ryan; U17: arh-
[email protected]/iStock Editorial/ Getty Images Plus; Hans-Peter Merten/Photodisc;
Tue Nguyen/EyeEm; Fergus O’Brien/The Image Bank/Getty Images Plus; Steve
Allen/Stockbyte; Fotosearch; James D. Morgan/Getty Images News; U20: Jim
Vecchion/ Photo library; Harold M. Lambert/Archive Photos; U21: Spiderplay/E+;
Siri Stafford/Photodisc; pop_jop/ DigitalVision Vectors; U23: Jose Fuste
Raga/Corbis; U25: Jane_Kelly/iStock/Getty Images Plus; MicrovOne/ iStock/Getty
Images Plus; U36: Juanmonino/E+; ajr_images/iStock/Getty Images Plus; U37:
ShutterWorx/E+; Juanmonino/E+; TM – U13: filadendron/E+. The following photos
are sourced from another libraries: TB – U5: imageBROKER/Alamy; U21:
Superstock; U36: Steven May/Alamy. TB – U21: Commissioned photography by
Trevor Clifford.

Illustrations TB – U8: Felicity House; Johanna Boccardo; Pat Murray; Tony Wilkins.

Typeset Typesetting by QBS Learning.

Corpus Development of this publication has made use of the Cambridge English
Corpus(CEC). The CEC is a computer database of contemporary spoken and
written English, which currently stands at over one billion words. It includes British
English, American English and other varieties of English. It also includes the
Cambridge Learner Corpus, developed in collaboration with the University of
Cambridge ESOL Examinations. Cambridge University Press has built up the CEC
to provide evidence about language use that helps us to produce better language
teaching materials.

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