Group 1

Kinetic Molecular Model

Take a glass of water. Drop a few drops of red food coloring in it. What happens? The red food
coloring drops should make their way down the glass of water slowly, spread out and finally tint
all of the water a reddish color. Why does this happen? It happens because both substances
are made out of molecules that are constantly moving. These molecules have energy; one of
the fundamental principles of the kinetic molecular theory.
The Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT) is a model used to explain the behavior of matter. It is
based on a series of postulates.
Some of the postulates of KMT are as follows:
• Matter is made of particles that are constantly in motion. This energy in motion is called kinetic
energy.
• The amount of kinetic energy in a substance is related to its temperature.
• There is space between particles. The amount of space in between particles is related to the
substance's state of matter.
• Phase changes happen when the temperature of the substance changes sufficiently.
• There are attractive forces in between particles called intermolecular forces. The strength
of these forces increase as particles get closer together.

Now, let us investigate two kinds of forces, or attractions, that operate in a molecule—
intramolecular and intermolecular. Intramolecular forces are the forces that hold atoms
together within a molecule. Intermolecular forces are forces that exist between molecules.

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES (IMF) are relatively weaker than the forces within the molecules
forming bonds (intramolecular forces) Intramolecular Forces hold atoms together in a molecule.
The intermolecular forces of attraction in a pure substance are collectively known as van der
Waals forces; Dipole-dipole, Hydrogen bonding, Ion-dipole, London dispersion

1. Dipole-dipole forces. These forces occur when the partially positively charged part of a
molecule interacts with the partially negatively charged part of the neighboring molecule.
The prerequisite for this type of attraction to exist is partially charged ions—for example,
 the case of polar covalent bonds such as hydrogen chloride. Dipole-dipole interactions
are the strongest intermolecular force of attraction.

2. Hydrogen bonding: This is a special kind of dipole-dipole interaction that occurs specifically
between a hydrogen atom bonded to either an oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine atom. The partially
positive end of hydrogen is attracted to the partially negative end of the oxygen, nitrogen, or
fluorine of another molecule. Hydrogen bonding is a relatively strong force of attraction between
molecules, and considerable energy is required to break hydrogen bonds. This explains the
exceptionally high boiling points and melting points of compounds like water and hydrogen
fluoride. Hydrogen bonding plays an important role in biology; for example, hydrogen bonds are
responsible for holding nucleotide bases together in and RNA.

3. Ion-dipole. The ions and the oppositely charged ends of the polar water molecules overcome
the attraction between ions themselves. Each ion becomes separated and water molecules
cluster around it.
4. London dispersion forces, under the category of van der Waal forces: These are the
weakest of the intermolecular forces and exist between all types of molecules, whether ionic or
covalent—polar or nonpolar. The more electrons a molecule has, the stronger the London
dispersion forces are. For example, bromine has more electrons than chlorine, so bromine will
have stronger London dispersion forces than chlorine, resulting in a higher boiling point for
bromine, compared to chlorine. Also, the breaking of London dispersion forces doesn’t require
that much energy, which explains why nonpolar covalent compounds like methane oxygen, and
nitrogen—which only have London dispersion forces of attraction between the molecules—
freeze at very low temperatures.

The types of intermolecular forces in a

liquid depend on the chemical make up of
the liquid itself. Strength of intermolecular
force is related to the type of intermolecular
force, but it is also affected by the amount
of kinetic energy in the substance. The more kinetic energy, the weaker the intermolecular
forces. Liquids have more kinetic energy than solids, so the intermolecular forces between liquid
particles tend to be weaker. Liquids do not have a simple or regular structure, but many of their
properties can be explained qualitatively by viewing them at the particulate level. Below are the
properties of liquids and their intermolecular forces.

1. Surface tension allows needles and paper clips to float in water if placed carefully on the
surface. It also explains why drop of water are spherical in shaped. These intermolecular
forces tend to pull the molecules into the liquid and cause the surface to tighten like an elastic
film or “skin”. Molecules within a liquid are pulled in all directions by intermolecular forces.
Molecules at the surface are pulled downward and sideways by other molecules, not upward
away from the surface. The liquids that have strong Intermolecular forces also have high
surface tension
2. Capillary action is the tendency of a liquid to rise in narrow tubes or be drawn into small
openings such as those between grains of a rock. Capillary action, also liquid to rise, is a
result of intermolecular attraction between the liquid and solid materials.

Example of capillary actions.

There are two types of forces are involved in capillary action: Cohesion is the
intermolecular attraction between like molecules (the liquid molecules).And Adhesion
which is an attraction between unlike molecules (such as those in water and in the particles
that make up the glass tube).

3.Viscosity. The viscosity of liquid Depends on their intermolecular attraction. The stronger
the intermolecular force, the higher is the liquid’s viscosity. Example is oil which has long-
chained substances that has greater intermolecular forces because there are more atoms that
can attract one another, contributing to the substance’s total attractive forces. Also with
honey, a concentrated solution of sugar, is also highly viscous because of the hydrogen
bonding those forms because of the numerous- OH groups of sugar molecule.

Substances with relatively strong intermolecular forces will have low vapor pressure
because the particles will have difficulty escaping as a gas.
Example:

1.Water (H2O), (Hydrogen Bonding) has vapor pressure of 0.03 atm.

2.Ethyl Ether (C4H10O), dipole-dipole & London Force) has vapor pressure at 0.68 atm.

4. Boiling point. The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which its vapor pressure is
equal to the external or atmospheric pressure. Increasing the temperature of a liquid raises
the kinetic energy of its molecules, until such point where the energy of the particle movement
exceeds the intermolecular forces that hold them together. The greater intermolecular force,
the higher the energy needed to increase the kinetic energy of the molecules to break these
forces.

5. Molar Heat of vaporization (Hvap) is the amount of heat required to vaporize one mole of
substance at its boiling point. The application of heat disrupts the intermolecular forces of
attraction of the liquid molecules and allows them to vaporize. Boiling point generally
increases as molar heat of vaporization increases.
6. The Hvap is also determined by the strength of intermolecular forces between molecules.

Let us continue the properties of solids and their intermolecular forces. As you should remember
from the kinetic molecular theory, the molecules in solids are not moving in the same manner
as those in liquids or gases. Solid molecules simply vibrate and rotate in place rather than move
about. Solids are generally held together by ionic or strong covalent bonding, and the attractive
forces between the atoms, ions, or molecules in solids are very strong. In fact, these forces are
so strong that particles in a solid are held in fixed positions and have very little freedom of
movement. Solids have definite shapes and definite volumes and are not compressible to any
extent.
There are two main categories of solids—crystalline solids and amorphous solids. Crystalline
solids are those in which the atoms, ions, or molecules that make up the solid exist in a regular,
well-defined arrangement. The smallest repeating pattern of crystalline solids is known as the
unit cell, and unit cells are like bricks in a wall—they are all identical and repeating. The other
main type of solids are called the amorphous solids. Amorphous solids do not have much
order in their structures. Though their molecules are close together and have little freedom to
move, they are not arranged in a regular order as are those in crystalline solids. Common
examples of this type of solid are glass and plastics.

There are four types of crystalline solids:

Ionic solids—Made up of positive and negative ions and held together by electrostatic
attractions. They’re characterized by very high melting points and brittleness and are poor
conductors in the solid state. An example of an ionic solid is table salt, NaCl.

Molecular solids—Made up of atoms or molecules held together by London dispersion forces,

dipole-dipole forces, or hydrogen bonds. Characterized by low melting points and flexibility and
are poor conductors. An example of a molecular solid is sucrose.

Covalent-network (also called atomic) solids—Made up of atoms connected by covalent

bonds; the intermolecular forces are covalent bonds as well. Characterized as being very hard
with very high melting points and being poor conductors. Examples of this type of solid are
diamond and graphite, and the fullerenes. As you can see below, graphite has only 2-D
hexagonal structure and therefore is not hard like diamond. The sheets of graphite are held
together by only weak London forces!