SQL MATERIAL

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 DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

A DBMS which is based on relational theory

is called as relational database management
system.

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 Database

It is collection of meaningful data

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 Management System
It is a software it helps to manage the database management system should able to perform the
following activities very easily.

1. Inserting the new data.

2. Updating the existing data.

3. Deleting unnecessary data.

4. Retrieving the require data.

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 Examples of RDBMS
1. ORACLE

2. SQL SERVER

3. DB2

4. MYSQL

5. SYBASE

6. TERA DATA

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 SQL
Structured query language pronounced as (SEQUEL). This
language is used to communicate to oracle database.

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 SQL Commands
1. DDL (Data Definition Language)

2. DML (Data Manipulation Language)

3. DRL/DQL (Retrieval/query)

4. TCL (Transaction Control Language)

5. DCL (Data Control Language)

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 DDL
This language is used to manage database objects. It is collection of five commands.

 CREATE

 ALTER

 DROP

 TRUNCATE

 RENAME

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 DML
This language is used to manipulate the data you have stored. It is collection of four commands.

 INSERT

 UPDATE

 DELETE

 MERGE

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 What is Flashback Query ?

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 DRL
This language is used to retrieve the data from the database. It is collection of only one command.

 SELECT

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 TCL
It is used to maintain the transaction of Oracle database. It is collection of three commands.

 COMMIT

 ROLLBACK

 SAVEPOINT

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 DCL
This language is used to control the axis of the data to the users it is collection of two commands.

 GRANT

 REVOKE

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 DATA TYPES
 Char

 Varchar2

 Number(P,S)

 Date

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 Char & Varchar2

Black Padded Mechanism

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 What is an Operator ?

SQL Operator is a special symbol in database which can be used for Mathematical and Logical
Operations.

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 Operators in SQL
o Arithmetic Operators

o Comparison Operators

o Logical Operators

o Special Operators

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 Arithmetic Operators
+ Add

- Subtract

* Multiply

/ Divide

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 Comparison Operators

Operator Description
= Equal to
> Greater than
< Less than
>= Greater than or equal to
<= Less than or equal to
<> Not equal to

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 Logical Operators
 AND

 OR

 NOT

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 Special Operators
 IN NOT IN

 BETWEEN NOT BETWEEN

 LIKE NOT LIKE

 IS NULL IS NOT NULL

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 SELECT QUERY FLOW
SELECT
FROM
WHERE
GROUP BY
HAVING
ORDER BY
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 NVL Function

NVL(expr1, expr2)

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 Data Model

Data models define how the

logical structure of a database

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 ER Model
ER Model is best used for the conceptual design of a
database.
ER Model is based on −
•Entities and their attributes.
•Relationships among entities.
Entity = Attribute

Relationship = Mapping Columns

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 ER Relationships
• one to one
• one to many
• many to one
• many to many

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 What is Schema ?

A Schema is the relational structure of database

objects

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 About Schema ?
 The schema contains tables and joins.

 It defines the logical relationship of the tables and is within the database

 The tables contain columns that you eventually map to objects that end users use
to create reports.

 The joins link the tables so that the correct data is returned for queries that are run
on more than one table.

 A schema is the set of metadata (data dictionary) used by the database, typically
generated using DDL.

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 Types of Schema

1. Star Schema
2. Snow Flake Schema
3. Galaxy Schema

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 Fact Tables

The fact table contains business facts.

KPI – Facts (Number data)

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 Dimension Tables

Dimension Tables has description of data.

NKPI – Non Facts (Text Information)

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 1. Star Schema

Star schema is a simplest form of dimensional data

model where the data is organized into facts and
dimensions.
One fact table connects to several dimensions.

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 2. Snow Flake Schema
A Snowflake Schema is an extension of a
Star Schema, and it adds additional dimensions.
It is called snowflake because its diagram resembles
a Snowflake.
The dimension tables are normalized which splits
data into additional tables.

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 3. Galaxy Schema
Galaxy Schema is also known as fact constellation schema
as the name suggests, appears like a galaxy in the space.

The design involves more than one fact table, which are
connected further with multiple dimension tables that are
completely normalized.

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 SQL Functions
1. Number Functions
2. Character Functions
3. Date Functions
4. Group Functions

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 1.Number Functions
oABS -> abs(value)

oMOD -> mod(value1,value2)

oROUND -> round(value), round(value1,value2)

oTRUNC -> trunc(value), trunc(value1,value2)

oGREATEST -> greatest(value1,value2,value3,…)

oCIEL -> ceil(value)

oFLOOR -> floor(value)

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 2. Character Functions

LOWER -> lower(ENAME)

UPPER -> upper(ENAME)

INITCAP -> initcap(ENAME)

CONCAT -> concat(exp1,exp2)

LENGTH -> length(ENAME)

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 2. Character Functions
SUBSTR -> substr(exp1,exp2) / substr(exp1,exp2,exp3)
INSTR -> instr(exp1,exp2)
LPAD -> lpad(exp1,exp2,exp3)
RPAD -> rpad(exp1,exp2,exp3)
LTRIM -> ltrim(exp1,exp2)
RTRIM -> rtrim(exp1,epx2)
REPLACE -> replace(exp1,exp2,exp3)
TRANSLATE -> translate(exp1,exp2,exp3)

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 3.Date Functions

o SYSDATE

o ADD_MONTHS

o LAST_DAY

o NEXT_DAY

o MONTHS_BETWEEN

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 4. Group Functions
o MAX

o MIN

o AVG

o SUM

o COUNT(*)

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 USING GROUP BY

 ROLLUP

 CUBE

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 IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS

 TO_DATE

 TO_CHAR

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 SQL Joins

Joins are used to get the data from more than one table.

If you we have ‘n’ tables then we need to use ‘n-1’ join conditions.

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 8i Joins & 9i Joins

8i Joins
 Equi Join
 Non Equi Join
 Self Join
 Outer Join

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 9i Joins

9i Joins
 Inner Join
 Left Outer Join
 Right Outer Join
 Natural Join

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 Equi Join (Inner Join)

We use equality operator (=) in where condition to retrieve the data from
multiple tables using join condition.

We can fetch the data from common columns using ‘joins’.

We get only matching rows for inner join.

Note : same datatype is required for joining columns.

ORA-01722: invalid number

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 Syntax for Inner Join

Select column1,column2,…….
From Table1,Table2
Where Table1.Commoncolumn=Table2.Commoncolumn ;

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 How to avoid ambiguity?

We need to use alias names in the query to avoid ambiguity.

ORA-00918: column ambiguously defined

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 Example :

Select e.ename, e.sal, d.deptno, d.loc

From emp e, dept d
Where e.deptno=d.deptno;

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 Example :

Write a query to get maximum, minimum, and sum salary from the location
wise?

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 Non Equi Join

We use Non-Equi Join to fetch the data from the tables

except equality conditions (>,<,>=,<=).

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 Self Join

 Joining a table itself is called ‘Self Join’.

 Both columns must be same datatype.

 We need to use column alias for self join.

We use self join for two conditions:

 We can compare column to column in the table

 We can compare value to value in the column.

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 Self Join

1. Write a query to display employee names and their manager names

from emp table using self join?
select e1.ename “employees”, e2.ename “managers”
from emp e1, emp e2
where e1.mgr=e2.empno ;

Hierarchical Relationship

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 Hierarchical Relationship

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 Hierarchical Relationship

SELECT ename, empno, mgr

FROM emp
START WITH mgr IS NULL
CONNECT BY PRIOR empno = mgr;

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 Outer Join

We can fetch the all rows from one table and matching rows from another table
using Outer Join.

For Outer Join, We use Join Operator (+).

This Join operator is used only one side in the joining condition.

(+)  matching rows

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 Outer Join Example
Select ename, sal, d.deptno,dname

From emp e, dept d 14 ROWS

Where e.deptno = d.deptno(+);

Select ename, sal, d.deptno,dname

From emp e, dept d 15 ROWS

Where e.deptno(+) = d.deptno;

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 Practice Join Query :
1. Write a query to display the employees who are working in ‘CHICAGO’
location ?

2. Write a query to display the sum salary by department name wise?

3. Find out total employees in location wise?

4. Write a query to get sum salary in department name wise along with total

Salary amount using rollup?

5. Display the employees from each department wise and also display the
department names which has more than 5 employees?

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 9i Joins & ANSI Joins

9i Joins
1. Inner Join

2. Left Outer Join

3. Right Outer Join

4. Full Outer Join

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 Inner Join

It returns matching rows only.

Joining columns must be same datatype.

We use these joins in all databases because of ANSI Joins.

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 9i Inner Join Syntax :

Select column1,column2,….
From TableName1 join TableName2
On TableName1.Commoncolumn=TableName2.Commoncolumn ;

Select e.ename, d.dname

From emp e join dept d 14
Rows
On e.deptno=d.deptno;

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 Inner Join

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 9i - Inner Join Example

Display the employees who are working in ‘CHICAGO’ Location?

Select e.ename, d.loc from emp e join dept d

on e.deptno=d.deptno

Where loc=‘CHICAGO’;

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 Practice Query :

Display the employee names who is working in ‘SALES’ Department?

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 9i Join – Left Outer Join

Returns all rows from left side table and matching rows from right side table.

And also returns ‘NULL’ values in the place of non-matching rows.

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 Left Outer Join

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 Left Outer Join Example

Select e.ename, d.loc 14

from emp e left join dept d Rows
on e.deptno= d.deptno;

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 9i Join – Right Outer Join

Returns all rows from right side table and matching rows from left side table.

And also returns ‘NULL’ values in the place of non-matching rows in another
table.

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 9i Join – Right Outer Join

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 Right Outer Join Example

Select e.ename, d.loc

15
from emp e right join dept d Rows
on e.deptno= d.deptno;

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 9i Join – Full Outer Join

Return all rows from all tables (left & right).

It will return matching and non-matching rows.

But ‘NULL’ values return in the place of non-matching rows.

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 9i Join – Full Outer Join

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 9i Join – Full Outer Join

Select e.ename, d.loc 15

from emp e full join dept d Rows

on e.deptno= d.deptno;

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 Natural Join

We are using this Natural Join when we do not required joining condition
between the tables.

But must contain common column.

Note : Only we can use for two tables.

Example:

select * from table1 natural join table2;

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 Cross Join

Cross join is also referred to as Cartesian Product.

For every row in the LEFT Table of the CROSS JOIN

all the rows from the RIGHT table are returned and
Vice-Versa.

(i.e. result will have the Cartesian product of the rows

from join tables).

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 Cross Join

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 Cross Join Example

Syntax:

Select * from Table1 cross join Table2 ;

Example:

Select * from emp cross join dept ;

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 Cross Join

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 Cross Join

No.of Rows in the Result of Cross Join = (No. of Rows in LEFT Table) * (No. of Rows in RIGHT Table)

CROSS JOIN = EMP (14 ROWS) * DEPT (4 ROWS)

56 ROWS

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 SQL CONSTRAINTS

 Constraints are used to stop invalid data entry into tables.

 We use constraints for columns in the table.

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 Types of Constraints

1. Not Null

2. Unique

3. Primary Key

4. Foreign Key

5. Check

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 1. Not Null

Not Null doesn’t support null values but it will accept duplicate values.
Note: This Constraint is not supported for Table Level.
Example :
create table xpresdata (sno number(10) not null,name varchar2(100));
insert into xpresdata values (10,’BCD’);
insert into xpresdata values (10,’DFG’);
insert into xpresdata values (null,'ABC’); - Error

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 2.Unique
Unique Constraint doesn’t accept duplicate values but it accept null values.
This is defined at column level & at Table level.
Example:
create table xpresdata1(sno number(10) unique,name varchar2(100));
insert into xpresdata values (null,'ABC’);
insert into xpresdata values (10,’BCD’);
insert into xpresdata values (10,’DFG’); - Error
create table xpresdata2(sno number(36),name varchar2(100) ,unique(sno,name));

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 3.Primary Key

 Primary Key doesn’t accept duplicate values and null values.

 This key used to identify the unique record from the table.
 We use Primary key for relationship with another tables.
 Primary Key table is Parent Table.
 This is also called as Master Table.
Note : Only one Primary Key for One Table.
create table xpresdata4 (sno number(10) primary key ,name varchar2(10),primary
key(sno,name)); -> Error

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 Primary Key Example
Example :
create table xpresdata3 (sno number(10) primary key ,name varchar2(10));
insert into xpresdata3 values (10,'ARJUN’);
insert into xpresdata3 values (20,'RAM’);
insert into xpresdata3 values (20,'SIVA’); -> Error

Composite Primary Key :

create table xpresdata4 (sno number(10) ,name varchar2(10),primary key(sno,name));

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 4.Foreign Key
We use Foreign Key to maintain the relationship with the tables.

We can call it as ‘Referential Integrity Constraints’ (Foreign Key).

Note:

This Foreign Key always with connection of ‘Primary Key Columns’.

Primary Key Column & Foreign Key Column must be same datatype.

Foreign Key Column will accept duplicates and null values.

 This is called CHILD Table.

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 Foreign Key Example

Example :

create table xpresdata5(sno number(10) references xpresdata3(sno),loc

varchar2(100));

Note:

 All Constraints can be used for column level to avoid ambiguity.

 Only Primary key data will be inserted into Foreign key columns in any
tables.

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 5.Check

Check Constraint is used to stop invalid entry to the columns in the tables.

Example 01:

create table xpresdata6(sno number(10),name varchar2(100),sal number(5)

check(sal>5000));

insert into xpresdata6 values (1,'ARJUN',6000);

insert into xpresdata6 values (2,'RAJ',7000);

insert into xpresdata6 values (3,'KIRAN',3000); -> Error

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 Check

Example 02 :
create table xpresdata7(sno number(10),name varchar2(100)
check(name=upper(name)),sal number(5));
insert into xpresdata7 values (1,'ARJUN',8000);
insert into xpresdata7 values (2,'Uma',9000); -> Error
Important Note:
Select search_condition,table_name,constraint_type from user_constraints where
table_name=‘XPRESDATA7’;

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 How to see the constraints
We can see the constraints for columns using ‘Data Dictionaries ‘ (Real Only
Tables from Database).

For Constraints we use USER_CONSTRAINTS table to verify.

Step-01:

desc user_constraints;

Step-02 :

Select constraint_name,constraint_type,table_name from user_constraints

where table_name like '%XPRES%';

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 How to create a table from
another table?
Example 01 :
Table Creation without data from another table.
Create Table EMP_NEW as select * from emp where 1=2;
Example 02 :
Table Creation with data from another table.
Create Table EMP_NEW as select * from emp where 1=1;
Or
Create Table EMP_NEW as select * from emp;

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 SET Operators
 Set Operators are used to fetch the data from tables.

 Whenever we use set Operators, then expressions must be same data

type.

 Always set Operators returns first query column names.

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 SET Operators
We have 4 Set Operators in SQL.

They are :

 Union

 Union All

 Intersect

 Minus

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 Union
 It return unique values.

 It has automatic sorting operations.

 It has sorting operations on first column.

Syntax :

Select Column1,Column2,Column3,….from Table1

UNION

Select Column1,Column2,Column3,….from Table2 ;

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 Union Example
Example : 01
select * from emp
Union
Select * from emp;
Example : 02
select ename, sal from emp
Union
select ename, sal as total from emp_new;

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 Union Example
Example : 03
select ename, sal from emp
Union
Select empno, sal from emp_new;  Error
Example : 04
select ename, sal from emp
Union
Select ename as empname, sal from emp_new;

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 Union All
 It will accept duplicate values.

 There is no sorting in Union All.

Syntax :

Select Column1,Column2,… from Table1

Union All

Select Colum1,Column2,… from Table2;

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 Union All Example
Example: 01
Select * from emp
Union all
Select * from emp_new;
Example: 02
Select ename,sal from emp
Union all
Select ename,sal from emp_new;

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 Intersect
It returns common values from the tables.

Syntax :

Select Column1,Column2,… from Table1

intersect

Select Colum1,Column2,… from Table2;

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 Intersect Example
Example 01 :
Select * from emp
Intersect
Select * from emp_new;
Example 02 :
Select ename,sal from emp
Intersect
Select ename,sal from emp_new;

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 Minus
It will returns first query rows those values are not in second query.

Syntax :

Select Column1,Column2,… from Table1

intersect

Select Colum1,Column2,… from Table2;

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 Minus Example
Example 01:
Select * from emp
Minus
Select * from emp_new;
Example 02:
Select empno,ename,sal from emp
Minus
Select empno,ename,sal from emp_new;

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 Union Vs Union All

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 Set Operators Task
STAGE1 STAGE2
ID BANK ID BANK
234 HDFC 298 BANDAN
278 SBI 245 CITI
298 YES Union - ? 756 DBS
245 CITI Union All - ? 987 IDFC
756 DBS 234 HDFC
Intersect - ?

Minus - ?

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 Analytical Functions

 We use Analytical Functions to assign ‘ranks’ to each row in

a table either group wise or row wise in a table.

 It is similar to ‘Group By’ Only.

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 Analytical Functions

1. Row_Number()
2. Rank()
3. Dense_Rank()

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 Analytical Functions Syntax
Very Important ****

For Group Wise Rows:

Select Column1,Column2,… Analytical Function Name

Over(Partition By Column Name Order by column name[asc/desc) from Table

Name;

For Row Wise Rows:

Select Column1,Column2,… Analytical Function Name

Over(Order by column name) from Table Name;

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 Analytical Functions
Row_Number() will assign different rank numbers when values are same.

Rank() Function will assign same ranks when values are same but rank() will
skip next consecutive rank numbers.

Dense_Rank() Function will assign same ranks when values are same but
Dense_Rank() doesn’t skip any consecutive rank numbers.

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 Analytical Functions Example
DEPTNO ENAME SAL ROW_NUMBER()
20 SCOTT 3800 1
20 FORD 3800 2
20 JONES 3475 3
DEPTNO ENAME SAL RANK()
20 SCOTT 3800 1 Rank is
20 FORD 3800 1 Skipped
20 JONES 3475 3
DEPTNO ENAME SAL DENSE_RANK()
20 SCOTT 3800 1
20 FORD 3800 1
20 JONES 3475 2
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 Example
Example :
Write a query to get Nth highest salary using emp table.
Select * from (select deptno,ename,sal,dense_rank()
Over(order by sal desc ) r from emp ) where r=&n;
Example:
Write a query to get Nth highest salary in department wise using emp table.
Select * from (select deptno,ename,sal,dense_rank()
Over(partition by deptno order by sal desc ) r from emp ) where r=&n;

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 Example Task
ID ENAME SAL ROW_NUMER() RANK() DENSE_RANK()

191 SIVA 2700

989 RAM 3400

154 GANI 3400

765 SEEMA 3400

787 YOGI 6790

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 To be Continued…..!

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