Training Manual

Graduate Trainees (Production)

Volume I

Institute of Oil & Gas Production Technology

Oil & Natural Gas Corporation Ltd.
Panvel, Navi Mumbai 410221
 CONTENTS (Vol.-I)

Chapter No. Description Page No.

Chapter 1 Overview of Oil & Gas Occurrence 1-4

Chapter 2 Well Testing 5-41
Chapter 3 Well Completion 42-73
Chapter 4 Well Performance 74-95
Chapter 5 Artificial Lift 96-168
Chapter 6 Well Repair & Maintenance 169-219
Chapter 7 Well Bore Treatments 220-265
Chapter 1

OVERVIEW OF OIL & GAS OCCURANCE

1.1 Production Formation

The earth's crust is composed essentially of three types of With the increasing weight of the accumulating sediments, the
rocks: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary. Although oil seafloors slowly sank, forming and preserving thick sequences
and gas are found in all three kinds of rock, they are most of mud, sand, and carbonates. These eventually formed into
closely associated with sedimentary rock. Sedimentary rocks sedimentary rocks. The tremendous pressure along with the
come from a variety of sources but in general were laid down high temperature, bacterial action, and chemical reactions
on the earth by the action of wind or water, or through caused the formation of crude oil and natural gas.
chemical deposition (e.g., leaching). These sedimentary
materials can be classified as 1.2 Accumulation and Occurrence
(1) Sandstone & shale Contrary to popular belief, oil and gas do not exist in great
(2) Carbonates (certain limestone), lakes and rivers below the surface of the earth (even though
and we do talk about petroleum reservoirs). Instead,
(3) Dolomites (carbonate mineral composed of hydrocarbons-crude oil and natural gas derived from the
calcium magnesium carbonate) restructured hydrogen and carbon in the remains of early plant
(4) Basement and animal life-occur as fluids that occupy the pore spaces of
the sedimentary rocks.
Although sedimentary rocks are associated with oil, not all
sedimentary rocks contain oil. In order for petroleum to be
present, most scientists theorize that the remains of plant and Going back to our sedimentary environment, the layers of silt
animal life, as well as the presence of certain temperatures that originally contained the decaying plant and animal
material are known as source beds. These source beds include
and pressures, were needed. So how did this environment
occur? the dark marine shales and marine limestone. Continued
squeezing of the source
C0"1 PACTION PRESSURE

(Fig. 1-2)
(Fig. 1-1). beds where the sediments were deposited and transformed
Life began in vast seas and inland lakes that covered large resulted in pressures and temperatures high enough to let the
portions of the present continents. As the abundant oil and gas migrate out of the source rocks and accumulate in
populations of marine plant and animal life died, their the adjoining porous and permeable reservoir rocks
remains were buried rapidly and preserved in the silt and mud (Fig. 1-2), such as sandstones, carbonates (limestones), and
that continuously filtered down to the ocean floor (Fig. 1-1). dolomites. These latter rocks are repositories for the
migrating hydrocarbons and are known as reservoir rocks.
Rivers carried great volumes of mud and sand to be spread by How can oil and gas move through rock? Isn't rock solid?
currents and tides over the ever-changing sea shoreline. This Not really. Rock is filled with millions of tiny spaces and
joined the marine life remains that settled to the bottom of the interstices called pores (Fig. 1-3). These pores are the spaces
sea and deltas and were repeatedly buried. The mud and between the individual grains that make up the reservoir
seawater protected the material from further decay. As more rock. Some rocks have large pores; others have small pores.
and more layers of organic material, sand, silt, clay, and lime The ratio of the pore volume to the total rock volume is
accumulated and time passed, the weight of the overlying known as porosity, commonly expressed as a percentage.
sediments exerted great pressure on the deeper sedimentary Good sandstone may have as much as 30% porosity, while a
layers. tight limestone may have as little as 5% porosity. 1
 Folds range in size from small wrinkles to great arches and
troughs many miles across. The upfolds or arches are called
anticlines; the downfolds or troughs are called synclines.
Folds may be symmetrical, with similar flank dips on both
sides, or asymmetrical, with one limb steeper than the other.
A very short anticline whose crest plunges in opposite direc-
tions from a high point is called a dome. Domes are important
to the oil industry because those were the first geological
structures discovered to trap oil and gas.
(Fig 1-3)
Faults are another kind of deformation. Nearly all rocks are
So the greater the percentage of pore volume, the greater the fractured to some extent and form cracks called joints. If the
capacity a rock has to hold large quantities of petroleum. rock layers on one side of a fracture or joint move in a
In addition to finding available pore space, the hydrocarbons different direction from the layers on the other side of the
must be able to move from pore to pore and eventually joint, that constitutes a fault, these faults can displace rock
migrate up closer to the surface. The ease with which fluid layers from only a few inches to many thousands of feet and
moves through the interconnected pore spaces of rock is sometimes even miles, such as along the San Andreas Fault in
called permeability. The higher a rock's permeability, the California. Faults are usually classified as normal, reverse,
easier it is for hydro-carbons to move from pore to pore thrust, or lateral, depending on the movement (Fig. 1-5).
within the rock. Petroleum migration appears to occur in two
separate stages. First, hydro- carbons are lighter than water.
If you place a drop of motor oil in a pan of water, it floats on
the surface of the water.
Likewise, oil and gas moved up from the lower seafloor
source beds where they were generated into the more porous
rocks above. Within the porous layers, they continued to
move up until they reached a layer of non-permeable rock,
which trapped the fluids. Remember that sedimentary rocks
are deposited in essentially horizontal layers or shallow slopes
called strata or beds (See Fig. 1-1) .As additional layers were
deposited, the lower layers were squeezed and compacted to
form rock. However, most rock layers are not strong enough
to withstand movements and pressure of the earth's crust, so
they deform kind of deformation is folds, which is usually the
force behind mountain chains like the Rockies (Fig. 1-4).

(Fig. 1-5)
Movement is upward or downward in normal and reverse
faults but mainly horizontal in thrust and lateral faults. Faults
may also have a combination of vertical and horizontal
movements. Another result of earth movement is to erase or
to prevent the deposition of part of a series of sediments that
are present elsewhere. This buried erosion surface is called an
unconformity (Fig. 1-6).

(Fig 1-6)

2
It is often an important structure because of its trapping Gas is even lighter than oil, so it is usually found in the
capabilities. Earth movements are very important to the study highest portion of the trap. Oil and oil with dissolved gas are
of petroleum geology because they produce barriers that found below the gas. Salt water is below the oil. Although salt
contain a large proportion of petroleum accumulations. water is heavier than oil, not all of it is completely displaced
Remember that oil and gas continue to migrate, ever moving from the pore spaces in the trap. This remaining water, called
up-sometimes vertically, sometimes laterally -until they are connate water, fills the smaller pore spaces and coats or forms
finally trapped by some kind of deformation in the strata or a film over the surfaces of the rock particles or grains. The oil
layers of rock. Traps are classified into three major types: and/ or gas occupy these water coated pore spaces. That's why
structural, stratigraphic, and combination. Structural traps are salt water is often produced along with oil and gas in a well.
where oil and/ or gas are localized as the result of a structural As the oil and gas flow to the wellbore and up to the surface,
condition (a fold or fault) in the reservoir rock. This condition they carry along the connate water.
is caused by the movement of the earth's crust. Stratigraphic
traps are where oil and/or gas is localized as the result of What creates the driving force that moves the fluids in the
variations in the rock's lithology, i.e., changes in rock type or rock to the well-bore? Sometimes it's a difference in pressure.
porosity. And combination traps include features of both Fluids move from areas of high pressure to areas of low
structural and stratigraphic traps (Fig. 1-7). pressure. The wellbore has less pressure than the crushing
layers of surrounding rock, so the oil, gas, and water flow
toward it.
Often water will contribute to this movement. If the pressure
is released at the top of a reservoir, the water will force the
overlying layers of oil and gas to push upward into the"
wellbore. This is called water drive. A gas cap drive works
similarly. Gas is associated with oil and water in reservoirs in
two principal ways: as solution gas and as free gas. Natural
gas remains in solution if the pressure is sufficiently high and
the temperature is sufficiently low. When the oil reaches the
surface and the pressure is relieved in separating equipment,
the gas comes out of solution. Free gas tends to accumulate in
the highest structural part of the reservoir and forms a gas
cap. In a gas cap drive, the wellbore is drilled into the oil
(Fig. 1-7) layer. As the oil is depleted, the gas cap expands to relieve
Three things are required for petroleum to accumulate. First, pressure and continues to push the oil into the wellbore.
there must be a source of oil and gas. Second, there must be a Having gas in solution is advantageous when producing a
reservoir rock, a porous bed permeable enough to let the fluids well As long as there is free gas in a reservoir gas cap, the oil
flow through it. Third, there must be a trap or barrier to stop in the reservoir will remain saturated with gas in solution.
fluid flow so accumulation can occur. The next stage in the And having gas in solution lowers the viscosity (or flow
process is segregation of the fluids in the reservoir. . capability) of the oil, making it easier to move to the
wellbore,
1.3 Oil & Gas Segregation and Reservoir Drives
1.4 Classes of Petroleum
When petroleum migrates into a trap, it displaces salt water One of the main ways to classify petroleum is API gravity.
left by the ancient seas. Petroleum floats on salt water as API gravity is a name given to a measurement found in a
easily as it does on fresh water (big oil spills are evidence of formula set up by the American Petroleum Institute (API)
this) .So the oil and gas continue to migrate up, leaving the .The main factors that seem to affect the gravity of crude oil
salt water in the lower section of the reservoir (Fig. I-B). are the formation temperature and pressure. In most
sedimentary basins, the oil becomes lighter and the API
gravity becomes higher as depth increases. Older, deeper
rocks usually have higher API gravity ratings, while younger,
shallower rocks generally have lower API gravity ratings.
These ratings are important in evaluating the salability of a
particular grade of petroleum.
Another important point in classifying petroleum for sale is
the amount of impurities in the oil and gas. Impurities occur
as free molecules or as atoms attached to the larger
hydrocarbon molecules. The most common impurity found
associated with crude oil and gas is sulfur. Sulfur is very
corrosive and must be refined in special refineries. Therefore,
petroleum that contains sulfur brings a lower price per than
petroleum that is relatively free of sulfur. In addition, sulfur
becomes a hazard in drilling. As hydrogen sulfide, it becomes
a deadly gas that can kill a person in as little as 10 seconds.

3
 The origin, migration, and accumulation of petroleum is a Unlike much natural gas from conventional reservoirs,
highly inefficient process. Only about 2% of the organic coalbed methane contains very little heavier
matter dispersed in fine-grained rocks becomes petroleum,
and only about 0.5% will accumulate in a reservoir for hydrocarbons such as propane or butane, and no natural
commercial production. gas condensate. It often contains up to a few
There are approximately 200 times as many dispersed percent carbon dioxide.
hydrocarbons worldwide as there are reservoirs of
hydrocarbons. This is in part because the volume of reservoir
rock is smaller than the total sediments in the earth's crust.
Within prospective parts of oil-forming basins, the ratio
varies between 10:1 and 100:1.

Finally, several conditions must be met before a reservoir

becomes productive:
1. 1. A trap must exist to block the oil and gas.
2. 2. A reservoir must have enough thickness, a real
extent, and pore space to accumulate an appreciable
volume of hydrocarbons.
3. It must be able to yield the contained fluids at a
satisfactory rate after the reservoir is opened to
production. Most important of all, it must contain
enough fluids to make the entire venture commercially
worthwhile.
Once all these conditions are met, the reservoir is ready to be
developed Production Formation

1.5 Other unconventional sources are:-

1. Shale gas is one of a number of unconventional sources coalbed methane is a form of natural
of natural gas.. Shale gas areas are often known gas extracted from coal beds. It is called 'sweet
as resource plays. Shales ordinarily have gas' because of its lack of hydrogen sulfide. The
insufficient permeability to allow significant fluid flow to presence of this gas is well known from its
a well bore; most shale is not commercial sources of occurrence in underground coal mining, where it
natural gas. Shale has low matrix permeability, so gas presents a serious safety risk. Coalbed methane is
production in commercial quantities requires fractures to distinct from a typical sandstone or other
provide permeability. Shale gas has been produced for conventional gas reservoir, as the methane is
years from shales with natural fractures; the shale gas stored within the coal by a process
boom in recent years has been due to modern technology called adsorption. The methane is in a near-liquid
in hydraulic fracturing to create extensive artificial state, lining the inside of pores within the coal.
fractures around well bores. The open fractures in the coal n also contain free
gas or can be saturated with er. Unlike much
2. Coalbed methane is a form of natural gas extracted natural gas from conventional reservoirs, coalbed
from coal beds. It is called 'sweet gas' because of its lack methane contains very little heavier
of hydrogen sulfide. The presence of this gas is well hydrocarbons such as propane or butane, and
known from its occurrence in underground coal mining, no natural gas condensate. It often contains up to
where it presents a serious safety risk. Coalbed methane is a few percent carbon dioxide.
distinct from typical sandstone or other conventional gas
reservoir, as the methane is stored within the coal by a
process called adsorption. The methane is in a near-liquid
state, lining the inside of pores within the coal. The open
fractures in the coal can also contain free gas or can be
saturated with water.

4
CHAPTER 2
WELL TESTING

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Oil & Gas well Testing involves precise Well testing is the technique and method for the
measurements of oil and gas production from an evaluation of well conditions and reservoir
existing or new well. The data gathered is critical characteristics. It involves producing a well at a
in determining the viability of the well and is of constant rate or series of rates, some of which may
upmost importance if informed decisions are to be be zero (well closed in), while simultaneously
made. The data consists of: gas rates, water rates
taking a continuous recording of the changing
and oil rates. It is this information that determines
pressure in the well bore using some form of
the economics and production capabilities of the
well. pressure recording device. Well tests are also carried
out after completion of a well repair job or on
A well test is an activity during a period of time in recompletion of a well to review the performance of
which the rate, pressure and other parameters of a the job.
well are recorded to estimate well or reservoir
properties, to prove reservoir productivity, or to Here in this chapter it will be mainly discussed the
obtain general reservoir management data‖. initial well test, the potential test, provides a best
estimate of the maximum daily producing
Well testing is the first major activity to be capability of the well under a fixed set of
undertaken after drilling an exploratory well in a circumstances. And also the other production tests.
field. Based on the data collected during the test, a Under most circumstances, gas well may be flowed
reservoir model is created which is then used to
with no restrictions and with the production of gas
formulate the field development strategy.
being flared. The flow rate and pressure
Well testing may de described in two ways. First performance are carefully measured, and the
one is initial well testing for assessment of results are converted mathematically into what is
production after completion of drilling operations called an open flow potential test this gives the rate
for assessing the potential and producing capability expressed in m3/day at which the well will produce
of the each horizon in the well that are proposed without back pressure from the surface equipment.
for testing of various objects identified based on
the data acquired during drilling of the well to the For an oil well, the initial test has got more issues.
required depth. Plan of all activities mentioned Flaring the entire stream of well fluid is not
related to well containing details of all parameters feasible. Instead a portable test unit consisting of a
i.e. Casing, geological, logging, well head & separator with flow meters, choke manifold, gauge
testing requirements which will be signed by all
tank/storage tank, container with all the tools,
heads of departments involved (An important
crossovers, chickson lines with sufficient length,
document kept & displayed at the drill site office)
the formation evaluation programme would also be downhole tools like packers, bridge plug and
used as the basis for an "Outline Drilling scrapper etc. of suitable sizes of production casing
Programme" or GTO (Geo Technical Order) and is in which the well is completed are brought to well
written before the well is spudded. site for testing purpose. The gas is flared, water
and oil are separated and stored for later removal.
The second type is a periodic well testing for The length of the well test shall vary depending
understanding the well behavior in the producing upon the well behavior like stabilization during
wells during the course of production i.e. flow and in static conditions.
monitoring surface as well as subsurface data in
order to review the performance of the wells and OBJECTIVES OF WELL TESTING:
health of the reservoir .This study shall provide an
idea for planning of production from the wells and Well test objectives
other requirements of well repair, well maintenance Exploration well: On initial well, confirm HC
operations etc. based on the interpretation and or existence, predict a first production forecast (DST:
analysis of data. fluid nature, Pi, reservoir properties

5
 Appraisal well: Refine previous interpretation, PVT steel pipe. Running casing into the hole is very similar
sampling, (longer test: production testing) to running drill pipe, except that the casing diameter is
Development well: On production well, satisfy much larger and thus requires special elevators, tongs
need for well treatment, interference testing, P av and slips to fit it. Also devices called centralisers and
(average pressure)
scratchers are often installed on the outside of the casing
The main objectives of well testing operations are to: before it is lowered into the hole. Centralisers are
Identify produced fluids and determine their attached to the casing and since, they have a bowed-
respective ratios. spring arrangement, keep the casing centered in the hole
Measure reservoir pressure & temperature. after it is lowered. Centralized casing can make for a
Determine well productivity (deliverability) better cement job later. Scratchers also come into play
Obtain samples for analysis. when the casing is cemented. The idea is that if the
Evaluate reservoir parameters: Kh/ , size, casing is moved up and down or rotated, the scratchers
permeability etc. will remove the wall cake formed by the drilling mud
Skin and the cement will thus be able to bond better to the
Estimate completion efficiency: optimum hole. Other casing accessories include a guide shoe, a
production tubing and flow line size, special heavy steel and concrete piece attached to the bottom
completion equipment required etc.
most joint of casing that helps guide the casing past
Self-flow life of wells and stage of application of
artificial lift. small ledges or debris in the hole; and a float collar, a
Well sickness and need for well repair. device with a valve installed in the casing string two or
three joints from bottom. A float collar is designed to
A reservoir test can be performed only under dynamic serve as receptacle for cement plugs and to keep drilling
conditions, which means that the reservoir must be mud in the hole from entering the casing. Drilling
exposed to a disturbance that will cause the reservoir environments often require several casing strings in
pressure to change. The pressure change is recorded and
order to reach the total desired depth. Some of the
interpreted in conjunction with the measured flow rates
to yield information about the parameters and geometry casing strings are as follows: drive or structural,
of the well and reservoir. conductor, surface, intermediate, liners, production and
tubing.
Creation of a pressure disturbance depends on whether
the reservoir is producing or shut in:

 If the well has been shut in for a long time, the

best way to create a pressure disturbance is to
flow the reservoir; this is called drawdown.
 If the well has been flowing for a long time,
shutting in the well to create a pressure
disturbance; this is called buildup.
 A pressure disturbance can also be created in a
flowing well by either increasing or decreasing
the flow rate.

The detailed casing hermetical and or integrity test

along with generic well test plan is explained below in
point no.2.2 page 5 .The well test engineer requires to Fig.2.1 Typical Casing String Relationships or well
understand the well construction of the well that is construction
proposed for test for production in the identified objects
since the well is drilled and be completed for sustaining DRIVE PIPE OR CONDUCTOR CASING:
to longer period for producing well with safety. A brief The first string run or placed in the well is usually the
of the well construction details of casing policy and drive pipe or conductor casing. The normal depth range
situations of liner along with cementation is explained is from 100-300 ft. In soft-rock areas the pipe is
below with sketch as shown at fig.2.1page 3 hammered into the ground with large diesel hammer.
Hard-rock areas require that a large diameter shallow
CASING: hole be drilled before running and cementing the well.
Once the pipe is out, the casing crew moves, in to do its A primary purpose of this string of pipe is to provide a
work. Since this is surface hole, the first string of casing fluid conduit from the bit to the surface. An additional
function of this string of pipe is to minimise hole-caving
they run is called surface casing. Surface casing is large problems.
in diameter and, like all casing is nothing more than

6
STRUCTURAL CASING: assistance. Cementing service companies stock various
types of cement and have special transport equipment‘s
Drilling conditions will require that an additional string
to handle these material. Bulk cement storage and
of casing be run between the drive pipe and surface
handling equipment is moved out to the rig, making it
casing. Typical depth range from 600-1000 ft. Purpose
possible to mixlargequantities of cement at the site. The
of this pipe includes solving additional lost circulation
cementing crew mixes the dry cement with water, using
or hole caving problems and minimising kick problems
a device calledjet-mixing hopper. The dry cement is
from shallow gas zones.
gradually added to the hopper and a jet of water
thoroughly mixes with the cement to make a slurry
SURFACE CASING:
(very thin, water cement). Special pumps pick up the
cement slurry and send it to a valve called a cementing
Many purposes exist for running surface casing,
head mounted on the top most joint of casing that is
including:
hanging in the mast or derrick a little above the rig
-cover fresh water sands
floor. Just before the cement slurry arrives, a rubber
-maintain hole integrity by preventing caving
plug (called the bottom plug) is released from the
-minimise lost circulation into shallow- permeable
cementing head and precedes the slurry down the inside
zones
of the casing. The bottom plug stops or ―seats‖ in the
-cover weak zones
floatcollar, but continued pressure from the cement
-provide a means for attaching the blow-out preventers
pumps opens a passageway through the bottom plug.
-support the weight of all casing strings (except liners)
Thus, thecement slurry passes through the bottom plug
run below the surface pipe
and continues on down the casing. The slurry then flows
out through the opening in the guide shoe and starts up
INTERMEDIATE CASING
the annular space between the outside of the casing and
The primary applications of intermediate casing involve wall of the hole.
abnormally high formation pressures. Since higher mud
weights are required to control these pressures, the Pumping continues and the cement slurry fills the
shallower weak formations must be protected to prevent annular space. A top plug, which is similar
lostcirculation or stuck pipe. It is used to isolate salt to the bottom plug except that is solid, is released as the
zones or zones those cause hole problems, such as last of the cement slurry enters the casing. The top plug
heaving and sloughing shales. follows the remaining slurry down the casing as
displacement fluid (usually salt water or drilling mud) is
LINERS pumped in behind the top plug. Meanwhile, most of the
cement slurry flows out of the casing and into the
Drilling liners are used for the same purpose of annular space. By the time the top plug seats on or
intermediate casing. Instead of running the pipe to the ―bumps‖ the bottom plug in the float collar, which
surface, an abbreviated string is used from the bottom of signals the cementing pump operator to shut down the
the hole to a shallower depth inside the intermediate pumps, the cement is only in the casing below the float
pipe. Usually the overlap between the two strings is collar and in the annular space. Most of the casing is full
300-500 ft. Drilling liners are used frequently as a cost- of displacement fluid. After the cement is run, a waiting
effective method to attain pressure or fracture gradient time is allotted to allow the slurry to harden. This period
control without the expense of running a string to the of time is referred to as waiting on cement or simply
surface. When a liner is used, the upper exposed casing, WOC. After the cement hardens, tests may be run to
usually intermediate pipe, must be evaluated with ensure a good cement job, for cement is very important.
respect to burst and collapse pressures for drilling the Cement supports the casing so the cement should
open hole below the liner. becompletely surrounded the casing. Also cement seals
off formations to prevent fluids from one formation
PRODUCTION CASING: migrating up or down the hole and polluting the fluids
in another formation. After the cement hardens and tests
The production casing is often called the oil string. The
indicate that the job is good, the rig crew attaches the
pipe may be set at a depth slightly above, or below the blow out preventer stack to the top of the casing.
pay zone. The pipe has the following purposes: Cement supports the casing so the cement should be
-isolate the producing zone from the other formations.
completely surrounded the casing. Also cement seals off
-provide a work shaft of a known diameter to the pay
formations to prevent fluids from one formation
zone.
migrating up or down the hole and polluting the fluids
-protect the producing tubing equipment.
in another formation. After the cement hardens and tests
indicate that the job is good, the rig crew attaches the
CEMENTING: blow out preventer stack to the top of the casing. The
After the casing string is run, the next task is cementing BOP stack is pressure tested and the drilling is
the casing in place. An oil well cementing service resumed.
company is usually called in for this job although, as
when casing is run, the rig crew is available to lend EXAMINING CUTTINGS:

7
To help the operator make his/her decision, several thirty of the small samples can be taken at any desired
techniques have been developed. One thing that helps depth. Either type of core can be examined in a
indicate whether hydrocarbons have been tapped is a laboratory and may reveal much about the nature of the
through examination of the cuttings brought up by the reservoir.
bit. The mud logger catches cuttings at the shale shaker
and by using microscope or ultraviolet light can see COMPLETING THE WELL:
whether oil is in the cutting. Or he may use a gas-
After the operating company carefully considers all the
detection instrument.
data obtained from the various tests, it has been ordered
to be run on the formation of formation of interest, a
WELL LOGGING:
decision is made on whether to set production casing
and complete the well or to plug and abandon it. If he
Another valuable technique is well logging. A
decision is to abandon it, the hole is considered to be
departmental /logging company is called to the well
dry, that is, not capable of producing oil or gas in
while the crew trips out all the drill string. Using a
commercial quantities. In other words, some oil or gas
portable laboratory, truck mounted for land rigs and
may be present but not in amounts greater enough to
permanently mounted on offshore rigs, the well loggers
justify the expense of completing the well. Therefore,
lower devices called logging tools into the well on wire-
several cement plugs will be set in the well to seal it off
line. The tools are lowered all the way to bottom and
more or less permanently.
then reeled slowly back up. As the tools come back up
the hole, they are able to measure the properties of the
If the company decides to set casing, casing will be
formation they pass. Electric logs measure and record
brought to the well and for one final time, the casing
natural and induced electricity in formations. Some logs
and cementing crew run and cement a string of casing.
pins formations with sound and measure and record
Usually, the production casing is set and cemented
sound reactions. Radioactivity logs measure and record
through the pay zone, that is, the hole is drilled to a
the effects of natural and induced radiation in the
depth beyond the production formation, and the casing
formations. Since all logging tools make a record, which
is set to point near the bottom of the hole. As a result,
resembles a graph or an electrocardiogram the records
the casing and cement actually seal of the producing
or logs can be studies and interpreted by the experiences
zone- but only temporarily.
geologist or engineer to indicate not only the existence
of oil or gas, but also how much may be there.
PERFORATING:
Computers have made the interpretation of logs much
easier. Since the pay zone is sealed off by the production string
and cement, perforations must be made in order for the
DRILL STEM TESTING: oil or gas or to flow into the well-bore. Perforations are
simply holes that are made through the casing and
Still another helpful technique is the drill stem test
cement and extend some distance into the formation.
(DST) tool. This tool is made up on the drill string (the
The most common method of perforating incorporates
drill stem)and set down, on the bottom of the hole. A
shaped-charged explosives. Shaped charges accomplish
packer, an expandable hard-rubber sealing element,
penetration by creating a jet of high pressure, high
seals off the hole below it by expanding when weight is
velocity gas. The charges are arranged in a tool called a
set down on it. A valve is opened, and any formation
gun that is lowered into the well opposite the producing
pressure and fluids present enter the tool. A recorder in
zone. Usually the gun is lowered in on a wire line.
the tool makes a graph of the formation pressure. Then
When the gun is in position, the charges are fired by
the packer is released and the tool retrieved back to the
electronic means from the surface. After the
surface. By looking at the record of the downhole
perforations are made, the tool is retrieved. A service
pressures, a good indication of the characteristics of the
company that specialized in this technique usually
reservoir can be obtained.
performs perforating.
CORING:
INSTALLING THE CHRISTMAS TREE:
In addition to tests mentioned above, froamtion core
samples are sometimes taken. Even though the oil or gas can flow into the casing after
Two methods of obtaining cores are frequently used. In it is perforated usually, the well is not produced through
one, an assembly called a core barrel is made up on the the casing. Instead, small diameter pipe called tubing is
drill string and run to the bottom of the hole.As the core placed in the well to serve as a way for the oil or gas to
barrel is rotated, it cuts a cylindrical core a few inches in flow to the surface. The tubing is run into the well with
diameter that is received in a tube above the core cutting a packer. The packer goes on the outside of the tubing
bit. A complete round trip is required for each core and is placed at a depth just above the producing zone.
taken. The secons is a sidewall sampler in which a small When the packer is expanded it grips the wall of the
explosive charge is fired to ram a small cylinder into the production casing and forms a seal in the annular space
wall of the hole. When the tool is pulled out of the hole, between the outside of tubing and the inside of the
the small core samples come out with the tool. Up to casing. Thus, as the produced fluids flow out of the

8
formation through the perforations, they are forced to New Field Wildcat (NFW) – far from other
enter the tubing to get to the surface. When casing is set, producing fields and on a structure that has not
cemented and perforated and when the tubing string is previously produced.
run then a collection of valves, called Christmas tree, is New Pool Wildcat (NPW) – new pools on already
installed on the surface at the top of the casing. Usually, producing structure.
once the Christmas tree is installed, the well can truly be Deeper Pool Test (DPT) – on already producing
said to be completed as below shown in fig.2.2 structure and pool, but on a deeper pay zone.
Shallower Pool Test (SPT) – on already producing
structure and pool, but on a shallower pay zone.
Outpost (OUT) – usually two or more locations
from nearest productive area.
Development Well (DEV) – can be on the
extension of a pay zone, or between existing wells
(Infill). On production well, satisfy need for well
treatment, interference testing,

2.2 PREPARING WELL FOR HERMETICAL TEST

The following steps may be followed in establishing
casing hermeticity or integrity.
Prior to perforate the desired interval of the zone,
Hermeticity or integrity of the production casing and
satisfactory cement behind casing against the proposed
zone to be established .These are explained below in
detail.
HERMETICAL TEST OF THE CASING
An important test to be conducted prior to
commencement of the production testing of the
proposed objects in the well. Once casing is tested
hermetically it is followed by CBL/VDL to
interpret the performance of primary cementation.
-ve and +ve (hermetical testing) of production
Fig.2.2 Christmas Tree of Control Valves is Positioned casing: During drilling and any consequent
on the Completed Well a field view operations, mud weight in the well is maintained
such that the hydrostatic head of mud column
DRAWDOWN AND PRODUCTIVITY INDEX always exceeds the expected formation pressure.
Producing pressure at the bottom of the well is generally -ve test: Objective: to find out any production
known as the bottom hole flowing pressure, Pwf. The casing and liner hanger faults
difference between the reservoir pressure (PR) and the Theory: By reducing the hydrostatic head of fluid
flowing bottom hole pressure is called drawdown. The column acting on the formation, we can find out
rate og the producing rate of a well,q, to its drawdown at any communication between formation and well.
that particular rate is called Productivit Index (J). This is indicated by the self-flow of the well.
CLASSIFICATION OF WELLS: Production wells Operation:
are drilled primarily for producing oil or gas, once Mud in the well is displaced with water. Well is
the producing structure and characteristics are observed for any self-flow. Initially there may a
determined. little water flow due to thermal expansion. If water
Appraisal wells are used to assess flow is in the increasing trend or constant, then this
characteristics (such as flow rate) of a may be due to imbalance resulting from improper
proven hydrocarbon accumulation circulation. Water is circulated for one or more
Exploratory well is a well drilled for the purpose of cycles and the well is again kept under
discovering new reserves in unproven areas. On observation.
initial well, confirm HC existence, predict a first If the self-flow of water is still continued then this
production forecast (DST: fluid nature, Pi, reservoir indicates fault in casing or liner hanger. To be very
properties PVT sampling, (longer test: production sure of the well influx, compressor is applied to
testing).They are used to extract geological or create draw down and the well kept under
geophysical information about an area with a view observation. Compressor is once again applied and
to exploiting untapped reserves. Exploratory Wells depending the pressure at which tubing returns
are sometimes known as Wildcat Wells. start, we can calculate the influx.
Wildcat wells are those drilled outside of and +ve test (hermetical test): Objective: to prove the
not in the vicinity of known oil or gas fields air tight sealing of the casing.
Theory:
9
In case of sub hydrostatic wells one cannot Layout of testing equipment (Tentative)
conclusively prove the integrity of the casing with
-ve test (only possible with compressor or nitrogen
application). + ve test is carried out by pressurizing
the casing in water upto the expected surface
pressure and checking for leak proofness.
Operation:
After checking for -ve test and if it is found ok ,
then the casing is pressurized in stages upto the
expected surface pressure in water. The well is
kept under observation for 30 min. The pressure
should not vary by more than ± 50 psi during this
observation period. During hermetical testing the Fig:2.5 Layout with distances (approx.)
outer annulus valves should be kept open. After The well testing equipment is required, as given in
+ve test the pressure should be released very Table-1
slowly.
Sl.
The hermetical pressure is derived from the below Equipment Unit Quantity(appr.)
No
mentioned formula considering the compressibility
Choke Manifold No. 1
factor i.e. Z for methane gas as shown in fig.2.3 1
with Accessories
and the tentative flow diagram of well test is given
2 Data Header No. 1
in fig.2.4
Indirect Fired Heater No. 1
3
(Optional)
Three Phase Test No. 1
4
Separator
5 Gauge Tank No. 1
Crude Oil Transfer No. 1
6
Pump (flame proof)
Surface Pressure & No. 1
7 Temperature
Recorder.
Sand Filter/ De- No. 1(optional)
8
sander System
9 Surface Safety Valve No. 1
High Pressure Piping No. 25m
10
Package
Fig.2.3 hermetical pressure test calculation
Medium Pressure No. 150m
11
Piping Package
Gas Burner for No. 1
12 Flaring & Flare
Setup Facility
Air Compressors No. 1
13
low pr.
Flare Cooling Water No. 1
14
Pump
Production Shut No. 1( Optional)
15
Down (PSD) System
Test Laboratory No. 1
16 Cabin and Testing
Equipment
Tools, Cross-Overs No. 1 set
18
& Spares
Down hole Equipment (Optional)
Fig.2.4 well test plan in sketch form 1 Double Grip No. 2
Mechanical set
The well test equipment may be mobilized and placed Retrievable Packer
in consultation with drilling incharge at well site 2 Multiport circulating No. 2
considering the safe distances between each equipment valve
as per guidelines (placement of equipment may vary Compressor Services
with drill site layout plan)shown at fig.2.5 High pressure air No. 1 no.
compressor

10
Note: - Coil tubing, Nitrogen, fluid pumping and hot oil Basic layer testing strategy is to evaluate layer
services are required as per requirement response using DST-TCP equipment and
monitoring of bottom hole pressures during the
WELL TEST PROGRAMME whole test in real time.

The well testing operations commence after a well has Depending on the type of fluid present, gas, gas-
been drilled to target depth, logged, cased and condensate, or oil the testing sequence of events is
cemented. After the well is cleaned and scraped to the determined at the well site, for example if gas is the
required depth, CBL-VDL log is recorded. In case, the discovered fluid, then a isochronal type of test is to
cement bondage is good then the well testing operations be conducted.
start with the hermetical testing of production casing
and/or liner. Duration of flow and shut in periods are to be
defined at the well site and according to the
The major stages of a well test programme are: - behavior of the bottom hole transient pressure
during flow after flow test.
Hermetical testing of production casing and/or liner
in which the casing is tested to maximum expected An important case is the testing of a dry layer, in
surface pressure during testing operations. which the testing procedure should be resolute
Installation of down hole production string. enough as to conclude the nonproductive nature of
Installation of surface pressure control equipment the layer. In this case besides conventional methods
and other surface set up and its pressure testing as an injectivity test should be attempted before
explained in safety considerations in well testing. leaving the interval.
Perforate the zone of interest either conventionally
with wireline (over balanced perforation) or Tubing GENERIC WELL TESTING PLAN (TENTATIVE)
Conveyed Perforation (TCP) (over balanced
Run 5 ½‖ casing scraper and bit on 2 7/8‖ tubing,
perforation/under balanced condition)
clearing the well up to casing shoe in mud of
Activate the zone through placement of lighter fluid
specific gravity used for drilling the bottom section.
cushions, pressure surging or using other suitable
Circulate and condition mud.
activation method based on reservoir characteristics
Land tubing hanger. Remove the BOP. Hook up X-
etc.
mass tree. Test the hanger seal and X-mass tree up
Cleaning of well to eliminate all foreign fluids such
to the hermetical test pressure.
as mud cake, mud filtrate and completion fluids
Displace entire well volume of mud with technical
contained in the invaded zone and well bore so that
water.
representative reservoir fluids are produced during
test. Close the 5 ½‖x 2 7/ 8‖ annulus valve and open all
other annulus valves i.e. 5 ½‖ x 9 5/8‖ & 9 5/8‖ x13
The following criteria are generally used to
3/8‖.
conclude that the well has cleaned-up: -
Test the casing in stages of 500 psi up to maximum
Basic sediments and water (BS &W) are less than 1
expected surface pressure. Observe the well for 30
percent.
minutes for any leak. Release the pressure and
Flowing Tubing Head Pressure (FTHP) is constant.
observe the well for any activity.
In case the well is flowing water along with oil &
gas, then water percentage and salinity are constant. Displace well volume of water with brine of
specific gravity equivalent to mud weight used in
Flowing the well through various chokes and
drilling. Circulate and condition the brine. Install
recording of flow rates and bottom hole flowing
BOP. Pull out bit & scraper.
pressures
Record CBL-VDL under static condition and under
Build-up studies, gradient survey, PVT sample
pressure of 500 psi.
collection
If CBL/VDL is satisfactory against zones. Perforate
Killing/ Subduing the well
Object –I interval in brine.
Isolation of the zone tested
Run in 2 7/8‖ production tubing with bell bottom
Well abandoning after all the identified zones are
/slickline entry guide to the top of perforation
tested
interval, keep the tubing shoe 7-8 meter above the
perforations.
WELL TESTING STRATEGY
Land the tubing hanger. Remove BOP. Hookup X-
mass tree.
The information obtained from the petro-physical
Test the flange up to the desired pressure. Hook up
interpretation including the use of the formation tester
the surface lines. Test the lines up to desired
(formation pressure gradients and fluid samples) allows
pressure.
the engineer to estimate the expected layer rate under
different skin values and type of fluid before perforating Displace well volume of brine with water.
the layer.

11
 Open the well thru 16/64‖ choke to pit, diverting PERIOD 4 MAIN BUILDUP
through choke manifold, bypassing the separator.
Keep the well under observation for flow check. o Pressure analysis techniques are used to
If no activity, apply compressor /nitrogen through interpret the surrounding reservoir
annulus for further drawdown up to pressure of 100 properties (permeability, boundaries,
kg/cm2. heterogeneity) and the connection
Release the pressure in the annulus. Observe the efficiency of the well to the reservoir (skin
well for flow through 16/64‖ choke. . factors)
o Final reservoir pressure may be observed
Note: if any of the above operations in the plan differs, to check for reservoir depletion.
the programme will be reviewed at base in consultation
with all the concerned groups. PERIOD 5 ADDITIONAL FLOW PERIOD
o Take downhole fluid samples to measure
The sequence of well test after the well is perforated in definitive fluid properties.
the desired interval after ensuring the proper cement
through the log CBL-VDL is explained in the below PERIOD 6 ADDITIONAL FLOW PERIODS
figure2.6 AT DIFFERENT RATES.
o Determine flow rate dependency of skin
factor, sand production, and calibrate well
hydraulics model.

PRODUCTIVITY WELL TESTS VERSUS

DESCRIPTIVE RESERVOIR TESTS

The interpretation of well tests is one of the most

widespread sources of dynamic reservoir data. Tests on
oil and gas wells are performed at various stages of
drilling, completion and production. The test objectives
range from simple measurements of reservoir pressure
to characterization of complex reservoir features. Well
tests can be classified either as single-well productivity
tests or descriptive reservoir tests.
Figure 2.6 Single-well productivity tests are conducted to
– determine well deliverability
PERIOD 1 CLEANUP – characterize formation damage and other sources of
skin
Remove perforating debris and completion – identify produced fluids and determine their respective
fluid from the well bore volume ratios
Determine basic fluid properties and action
– measure reservoir pressure and temperature
any changes to test procedures.
– obtain representative fluid samples suitable for PVT
PERIOD 2 INITIAL BUILDUP analysis
– evaluate completion efficiency
Measure initial reservoir pressure &
– evaluate workover or stimulation treatments
temperature
Restore pressure equilibrium before starting Descriptive reservoir tests are conducted to
main test – assess reservoir extent and geometry
– determine hydraulic communication between wells
PERIOD 3 MAIN DRAWDOWN – characterize reservoir heterogeneities
o Measure well productivity index – evaluate reservoir parameters.
o A preliminary estimate of reservoir
properties can be made from pressure 2. 3 WELL TESTING APPLICATIONS:
analysis techniques provided rate changes There are many applications of well testing, but they are
are not too significant. grouped into four fundamental classes.
o Measure contribution to flow from
different sands to determine permeability FORMATION PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
contrasts between layers. (this would This class of application uses the direct static formation
require the use of multilayer test or PLT pressure measurement. It includes
tool. Take surface fluid samples and
Static pressure measurement and depletion
measure fluid contaminants.
determination
12
 determination of the inflow performance and 2) Descriptive/Reservoir Test.
productivity index (PI) of the reservoir and, in
gas wells,
the absolute open flow (AOF) potential of the PERIODIC PRODUCTION TESTS
reservoir.
determination of reservoir fluid density from Production tests are done routinely to physically
gradients measure oil, gas and water produced by a particular well
determination of reservoir fluid contacts under normal producing conditions.
identification of reservoir vertical permeability • Test results may then be used to allocate total field
barriers. or lease production between wells where individual
Identification of vertical flow through layered well production is not monitored continuously.
sequences in developed reservoirs. • From the standpoint of well and reservoir
operation, this test provide periodic physical
PERMEABILITY AND SKIN
evidence of well conditions.
The pressure and associated measurements (e.g., • Unexpected changes, such as extraneous water or
downhole flow) are interpreted to yield reservoir gas production may signal well or reservoir
dynamic parameters relevant to fluid flow, such as problems.
formation permeability, and any occurrence of skin
(e.g., formation damage) that would impair the flow.
• Abnormal production declines may mean artificial
lift problems, sand fill up in the casing, scale
The measurements will help determine
buildup in the perforations, etc.
reservoir permeability
well deliverability • For oil wells results are usually reported as:
a damaged or stimulated well condition  Oil production rate,
vertical rock permeability  Gas oil ratio (GOR) and
the efficiency of stimulation treatments.  Water oil ratio (WOR) percentage of water in
the total liquid stream.
FORMATION FLUID CHARACTERIZATION • Test equipment can consist of a gas-oil separator
The essence of formation testing is flowing the well, and a stock tank, with appropriate measuring
which presents the unique opportunity to recover devices such as an orifice meter for gas and a hand
samples of the reservoir fluid. It enables tape for oil and water with the appropriate tank
collecting representative reservoir samples strapping data.
characterizing the fluid composition, its phase
behavior and its pressure-volume-temperature
• For gas wells routine production tests are less
common, since gas production is often metered
(PVT) properties.
continuously from individual wells.
RESERVOIR CHARACTERIZATION
The pressure response during a well test provides the PRODUCTIVITY OR DELIVERABILITY TESTS
characteristic signature of reservoir fluid flow events
Productivity or deliverability tests represent the second
that will be interpreted in terms of boundaries,
degree of sophistication in oil or gas well production
heterogeneities and reservoir volume. It enables
testing.
determining the total reservoir pore volume
connected to the tested well • This test involves a physical or empirical
determining the average reservoir pressure determination of produced fluid flow versus
Determining reservoir boundary conditions such as bottom hole pressure drawdown.
impermeable barriers and constant pressure
conditions characterizing reservoir heterogeneities
• With a limited number of measurements it permits
prediction of what the well should produce at other
such as layered systems and natural fracture. pressure drawdown.
Quantifying vertical and horizontal reservoir
communications. • This test does not rely on a mathematical
description of the flow process.
2.4 WELL TEST CLASSIFICATION AND TYPES • This is a successfully applied to non-darcy, below
OF WELL PRODUCTION TEST: the bubble point flow conditions, even though fluid
Generally oil or gas well production tests may be properties and relative permeabilities are not
classified as: constant around the wellbore.
 Periodic production test • It does not permit calculation of formation
 Productivity and deliverability test permeability or the degree of abnormal flow
 Transient pressure test restriction (formation damage) near the wellbore.
Types of Well Tests
1) Productivity Well Test and • Deliverability tests represent stabilized producing
conditions.
13
• It involves the measurement of bottomhole static
test, recording production rate and corresponding
bottomhole pressures provide a reasonable value
and flowing pressure, as well as fluid rates
for production rate at any other flowing bottom
produced to the surface.
hole pressure.
• Commonly used deliverability tests for oil wells
• In conducting the test a key point is to insure that
may be classified as:
stabilized flow conditions are established in all
case.
 Productivity index
 Inflow performance • The various tests on flowing oil wells can be
 Flow after flow ( back pressure test) summarized as follows:
 Isochronal or modified isochronal  Flow after flow test
 Modified Isochronal
Gas well deliverability tests are designed to establish the  DST (Drill Stem test)
"absolute open flow potential", or the production rate if  Pressure builds up test
flowing bottom hole pressure could be reduced to zero.  Special test:
Termed multipoint backpressures tests, or backpressure - Interference test
tests are classified as Flow after flow and Isochronal or - Pulse test vertical interference
modified isochronal tests. - Injection and fall off test

PRODUCTIVITY INDEX (PI): The productivity FLOW AFTER FLOW

index test is the simple form of deliverability tests.
Backpressures tests have been used for empirical
It consists of measurement of shut-in bottom hole
determination of gas well capability for many years.
pressure; and, at one stabilized producing
conditions which includes, measurement of the • Gas well deliverability testing technique requires
flowing bottom bole pressure and the careful measurement of flow rates and surface
corresponding rate of liquids produced to the pressures at four stabilized flow conditions and a
surface. Productivity index is calculated as: surface shut-in pressure.

PI J
q
(1) • Surface pressure is then converted to bottom hole
pi pw f pressures by calculation procedures.
• A log log plot of flow rate vs.(pi2-pwf2) should
q = Total liquids stb/d defined a straight line which can be extended to
pi = Shut-in bottomhole pressure, psi determine the flow rate at zero bottom hole
Pwf = Flowing bottomhole pressure, psi pressure( or maximum drawdown) which is termed
Pi - pwf = Pressure drawdown, psi the absolute open flow potential of the well. .
• The method again is particularly useful for
Specific PI accounts for the length of the producing section: reservoirs producing below the bubble point where
mathematical description is impractical.
 Specific PI = Productivity index / Length of
producing zone • Some rates where permeabilities are very low and
stabilization impractical have standardized short-
• Productivity index declines during the life of a term tests for gas wells.
well due to following factors:
 Changes in reservoir pressure, ISOCHRONAL TESTS
 Composition and properties of produced
fluids, • This test measures the transient deliverability of a
 Relative permeabilities changes, and well in a lower-transmissibility reservoir.
 Flow restriction or formation damage near the
wellbore. • Correct application requires that each and every
flow period begin from an originally-static
INFLOW PERFORMANCE TEST reservoir condition.
The simple concept of productivity index attempts to • Therefore, intermediate shut-in periods must be of
represent the inflow performance relation of a well as a sufficient duration for pressure buildups to reach
straight-line function. original static reservoir pressure at gauge depth.
• An inflow-performance test consists of PI tests at • In low- or very-low-transmissibility gas reservoirs,
several production rates in order to provide a it may require days, or even weeks, for
better representation of the true inflow intermediate pressure buildups to reach original
performance relation of the well. static reservoir pressure, even after relatively short
• Primary advantage of the Vogel relation is that flow periods.
with a value for static reservoir pressure, one well

14
The isochronal test procedure does provide a way to
handle transient flow of gas wells, but it fails to solve
the problem of required extended test time brought into
play by the inherently low transmissibility of some
reservoirs as shown in fig.2.7

Fig.2.8

TRANSIENT PRESSURE TEST

If we consider that only one well is completed in a

reservoir and is kept shut-in until complete
stabilization. Again this well is put on production,
Fig.2.7 The well is initially shut in until the static pressure, and pressure is reduced in the wellbore, a wave of
reduced pressure gradually moves outward into the
, stabilizes reservoir which establish a pressure gradient or sink
toward the well.
The well is opened to production at the first rate,
qsc,(quantity of gas) flowed for a predetermined With continued fluid withdrawals from the
and fixed period of time, and the bottom hole wellbore, the pressure wave moves further outward.
pressure is measured. Each point passed by the wave experiences a
Initial steps are repeated two or three additional continuing pressure decline.
times at different flow rates. The duration of each
flow period should be equal and the pressure after At a particular time, the maximum distance the
each flow period must build up to its original static wave has traveled is called the drainage radius of
value. The duration of buildup, then, will not the well.
normally be equal to that for the flowing periods. When the wave front reaches a closed boundary,
Finally, after the last flow period, one flow test is pressure at each point within the boundary
conducted for a time period long enough to attain continues to decline, but at a more rapid rate.
stabilized flow conditions. This period is usually
called an extended or stabilized flow period. The If the wave front encounters a boundary, which
rate of flow during this last flow test need not be supplies fluid at a rate sufficient to maintain a
equal to that of the fourth isochronal rate, and, in constant pressure at the boundary, pressure at any
fact, is often less. The time required to reach point within the drainage radius will continue to
stabilized pressure will depend on the properties of decline, but at a slower rate.
the formation and the fluids. With either the closed boundary, or the constant
pressure boundary, the pressure gradient toward the
MODIFIED ISOCHRONAL TEST well tends to stabilize after a sufficient time.
o To reduce testing time the gas well isochronal Pressure level at a particular point may continue to
test procedure has also been adapted to oil decline.
wells.
o The test is run with a series of relatively short Changes in production rate or production from
equal time flow and shut in periods, and one other wells will cause additional pressure wave
final flow period where flowing pressure is movements, which affect pressure decline and
permitted to stabilize. pressure gradients at every point within the
o Four to six hours is sufficient duration for the drainage radius of the first well.
equal flow or shut in period as shown at fig.2.8
Observation of pressure changes that cause change
in fluid withdrawal or injection rate and combining
of these observation with flow process (Darcy‘s
relation), makes the basis of transient pressure
analysis.

15
 Pressure transients are subject to all of the normal shut-in period. The resulting pressure buildup curve
well completion problems of communication is then analyzed for reservoir properties and
behind casing, partial or ineffective perforations, or wellbore condition.
partial penetration of the producing zone. Factors that affect the shape of the pressure buildup
test are:
Proper analysis must consider all available clues.
Production tests, details of perforating and well  Well bore storage effects
completion or workover operations, flow profiles or  Formation damage
other production logging data may be helpful.  Partial penetration
Damage ratio is the inverse of flow efficiency. Skin  Hydraulic fractures
factor, flow efficiency, or damage ratio can be  Unstabilized flow conditions
determined from most of the transient pressure  Fluid and rock interfaces-water-oil and gas-oil
techniques that follow. contacts
 Rock heterogeneities.
The transient pressure tests is classified as below:
There are two basic types of pressure transient tests: Practical problems such as a leaking pump or
lubricator or a bottomhole pressure gauge or
Pressure buildup tests are performed after the well reading device in poor condition, may provide
has flowed for a period sufficient to establish a erroneous results.
radial flow regime. The well is closed while the
pressure (and optionally the rate) change is PRESSURE DRAWDOWN TESTING
observed at the sand face. Pressure draw down tests have two advantages over
Pressure drawdown tests are performed after the pressure buildup tests shown graph at fig.2.10
well has been shut in for a period sufficient to
establish static pressure conditions.
 Pressure buildup
 Pressure drawdown
 Multiple rate
 Injection buildup or fall-off
 Multiple well interference

PRESSURE BUILDUP TESTING

Fig.2.10

 Production continues during the test period.

 In addition to formation permeability and
formation damage, this test estimates the
reservoir volume in communication with the
wellbore.

Fig.2.9 Thus, the reservoir limits test can be used to

estimate if there is sufficient oil – or gas (if a dry
This testing is the most familiar transient well gas reservoir) – in place to justify additional wells
testing technique as shown in fig.2.9 in a new reservoir.
The well is produced at constant rate for long
duration so that a stabilized pressure distribution In this technique the manometer is lowered to the
occurs, and then the well is shut-in. bottom of closed well and kept closed for a longer
period for recording of static pressure.
In this technique well stabilization is important;
otherwise erroneous data will be calculated. If
stabilization is impossible, other techniques, such as The well is then produced at constant flow rate with
variable rate testing must be used. constant monitoring of bottomhole pressure
Pressure is measured immediately before shut in,
 This test gives:
and is recorded as a function of time during the
16
  Skin factors
 Reservoir permeability Injection well testing has its application in
 Well bore storage coefficient and water flooding, pressure maintenance by water
 Reservoir limit testing or gas injection, gas recycling and enhanced oil
recovery (EOR) operations.
MULTIPLE RATE TESTING The success of water flooding projects depends
largely on adequate prediction of the reservoir
response.
In a water injection well test, three main
features can be identified after the wellbore
storage effects have disappeared:
 The pressure response is identical to
single-phase flow and is governed by the
rock and fluid properties of the water
bank.
 The second identifiable response occurs
when the transient travels through the
transition bank.
 The third feature is observed as the
transient penetrates deeper into the
Fig.2.11 reservoir and the flow becomes controlled
by the properties of the oil bank.

Pressure buildup and drawdown tests require a constant MULTIPLE WELL TESTING:
flow rate, which is sometimes impossible or impractical
In multiple-well testing, the flow rate is changed in
to maintain for a sufficiently long period and shown in one well and the pressure response is monitored in
sketch as at fig.2.11 another.
Multiple rate analysis can be applied to several well These tests are conducted to investigate the
flow situations: presence or lack of hydraulic communication within
 For example uncontrolled variable rates; a reservoir region.
 A series of constant rates; or They are also used to estimate internal reservoir
 Constant bottomhole pressure with continually transmissivity.
changing flow rate. Multiple-well tests are more sensitive to reservoir
Multiple rate tests have the advantage of providing horizontal anisotropy than single-well tests.
transient test data without the requirement of well Therefore, multiple-well tests are typically
shut in. conducted to describe the reservoir anisotropy
They minimize wellbore storage effects and phase based on directional permeabilities.
segregation effects, sometimes provide good results The two main types of multiple-well testing are:
where buildup or drawdown tests would not.  Interference tests and
Variations of multiple well testing are flow after  Pulse tests.
flow or isochronal test
This technique provides: Interference Tests:
 Reservoir permeabilities 1. Create signal at producing well
 Skin 2. Measure the signal at both wells
 Reservoir limit
Observation well:
INJECTION-WELL TESTING 1. The signal will be received with a delay
2. The response is smaller
Injection well transient pressure testing is
basically simple as long as the mobility ration In this technique, a long duration rate change in one
between the injected and in-situ fluids is about well creates a pressure change in an observation
unity, injection is analogous to production. well that can be related to reservoir characteristics.
The associated pressure disturbance recorded in the
An injectivity test parallels a drawdown test, observation well yields valuable information
and a pressure fall off test parallels a pressure regarding the degree of hydraulic communication
buildup test. Calculation of reservoir within the inter-well region.
characteristics is similar. If single-phase conditions prevail within the
investigated region of the reservoir, the pressure
A step rate injectivity testis normally used to response can be analyzed to estimate inter well
estimate fracture pressure in an injection well. reservoir properties.
17
 The well is first put on production or injection
VERTICAL INTERFERENCE TESTING: for 3 to 4 min. before being shut in for a period
of 6 to 20 times the length of the production or
Interference tests determine the value of injection period.
vertical permeability of the reservoir rock.
Only a small amount of fluid is removed from
Vertical permeability is an important or injected into the formation during the short
parameter, particularly for completion impulse period of production or injection, so
decisions in thick or layered reservoirs. It is the associated pressure disturbances are small.
even more critical for working with secondary
or enhanced recovery processes. Therefore, high-resolution pressure gauges are
required to accurately study the small changes
These tests are also conducted to determine in the reservoir‘s pressure response during the
cross flow between two layers separated by a shut-in period.
low-permeability layer and to detect leaks
behind the casing. The depth of investigation of an impulse test is
relatively small in comparison with
PULSE TESTING conventional well tests.
Pulse testing is a special form of multiple-well
testing that may last from a few hours to a few This is due to the short duration of the impulse
days. and shut-in periods as well as the small
A pulse test is an interference test that provides pressure changes developed during the test.
similar data by changing production rate in a
cyclic manner to produce short term pressure Impulse testing is most appropriate for the
pulses. detection of near-well features.

The pressure response to the pulses is PUMPING WELLS TESTING

measured at one or more observation wells. Sucker-rod pumping wells present special well
testing problems.
The technique uses a series of short rate The first difficulty relates to mechanical
perturbations at the active well. constraints resulting from the presence of the
rods inside the tubing string. This configuration
Pulses are created by alternating periods of precludes the running in hole of pressure
production or injection and shut-in. gauges—unless the rods and pump are pulled
out of the hole or there is enough room in the
Because the pulses are of short duration, the annular space for a gauge.
pressure responses are small.
The second problem is associated with the long
High-resolution gauges are usually required to duration of the wellbore storage period during
measure the small variations in pressure. shut-in.
The low reservoir energy and low productivity
The advantages of pulse testing compared with associated with pumping wells is compounded
interference testing derive from the relatively by high fluid compressibility in the wellbore
short pulse length; reservoir pressure trends that cause these long storage periods. Both
and noise are removed with appropriate problems, however, can be overcome.
analysis techniques. Testing pumping wells by removing the pump
from the hole is quite expensive. Workover or
IMPULSE TESTING pulling rigs are needed twice—to extract the
The impulse testing procedure is an easy and pump and rods and then to rerun them after the
extremely quick form of well testing. test is completed.
Quick and simple, impulse testing is Furthermore, the bottomhole flowing pressure
particularly useful for wells that do not flow to before shut-in and the early time data cannot be
the surface, wells in which extended flow may recorded in these tests because of the nature of
not be desirable and extremely tight formations the operation, which leaves the values of skin
where wireline formation testers fail to and the productivity index undetermined.
perform.
2.5 WELL ACTIVATION
Impulse testing can also be used to detect and Activation of well refers to establishing fluids that
evaluate near wellbore heterogeneity in the come from reservoir to the wellbore and then to
reservoir. surface so that the fluid that is produced can be

18
estimated like type of fluid, water, oil, gas etc. from pores. If the well shows no sign of activity then
the particular horizon or object that is perforated. corrective operations are carried out to stimulate
Each object will have various methods and different the formation. In case of unconsolidated
drawdowns procedures as per its reservoir pressure. formation, movement of sand may take place due
Methods that are commonly for well activation are to sudden high drawdown, In such eases it is
explained. preferred to increase the drawdown progressively
If the well is perforated under balanced, through by first applying compressor at lower pressures
tubing or tubing conveyed perforating, the well may and then at higher pressures in stages.
become active depending upon the drawdown and One serious shortcoming in compressor
application method is the possibility of formation
the formation potential. Thus in such cases,
of explosive mixtures between hydrocarbons
'activation' step is eliminated.
(well fluids) and air. However, it is still in
In wells which are perforated over balanced, the practice largely due to its cheapness and ease of
next step is always activation to bring the well in operation, in comparison to other methods.
production.
Activation methods are Displacement, Compressor WELL BECOMES ACTIVE – FLOWING
application and or Application of Nitrogen, Use of CONTINUOUSLY
artificial lifts. If the well becomes active; allow well to clean-
up through 16/64‖ choke. Check water salinity
DISPLACEMENT at regular interval. If hydrocarbon surfaces,
In this process, the kill fluid in the well, mud or flow well to pit FTHP and BS&W has
brine, is displaced with lighter fluid. If the kill fluid stabilized.
has high specific gravity (say·1.5 to 1.8 or more), it Run in reservoir manometer & temperature
should not be changed. over directly to lighter fluid gauge on wire line. Keep manometer about
like water or oil, but should be displaced by a 50m above tubing shoe.
lighter fluid (sp. gravity 0.2 to 0.3 less than that of Divert well through separator and, carryout
kill fluid) in the first cycle of displacement. In
reservoir studies as per reservoir plan while
subsequent displacement cycles, specific gravity
recording stabilized rate of oil, gas and water,
of the displacing fluid is to be gradually reduced
to around 1.2 to 1.3. Thereafter displacing fluid if any. If liquid flow is feeble divert flow to
can be water and if needed, water can be gauge tank and record flow rates. (Record
displaced with oil. Objective of this process is to stabilized flow rate through each choke of
reduce the hydrostatic head so as to create around 3 hours)
drawdown at the formation, thereby inducing it to After flow studies close well at choke manifold
flow, Normally, the pay zones having sufficient for build-up studies. Record Shut in Tubing
formation pressure, sufficient clean flow paths in Pressure at regular interval. Build-up studies
the wellbore, start producing formation fluid after duration will vary between 18 to 24 hrs.
displacement itself. In many cases, this does not Pull out manometer recording gradient and run
happen and other activation methods are Bottom-hole sampler.
undertaken. Open well through 8/64‖ choke and trap bottom
sample and pullout.
COMPRESSOR APPLICATION
Kill the well and pullout.
When the compressed air is injected into the
annular space, the water in the annular space is 'U' WELL IS ACTIVE – FLOW
tubed in the tubing, from where an equivalent INTERMITTENTLY
quantity of water is displaced at the surface. As a
result of this displacement, the liquid level in the Divert flow to gauge tank and record liquid
well falls after the compressed air is released. The flow rate while observing well behavior.
air from the annulus should. be released under Apply compressor/nitrogen through annulus up
controlled conditions (thru a bean). If the to 100 kg/cm2 in stages and measure return in
decreased pressure at the bottom hole is less than gauge tank. Check nature of return fluid.
the formation pressure, then the formation fluid Release annulus pressure, observe well for
will enter the bottom hole. activity.
If well continues to flow intermittently,
Sometimes, a well which has become active may measure flow rate by diverting to gauge tank.
stop flowing after sometime. This may be due to Close the well at choke manifold after lowering
less drawdown or by plugging of pore channels by manometer & temperature gauge for buildup
foreign materials or Solid particles. At this stage, study. Record surface pressure and
repetitive compressor applications (i.e. repeatedly temperature.
providing adequate drawdown to the formation) Pull out manometer recording gradient. Run
may induce the formation fluid to flow into the bottom-hole sampler.
well bore overcoming the resistance to flow in the
19
 Open well through 8/64 choke and trap bottom
sample and pullout.
Reverse circulate with brine. Collect bottom
sample.

WELL NOT ACTIVE – NO FLOW

Observe well for activity for 6 hours.
Apply compressor/nitrogen through annulus up
to 100 kg/cm2 in stages and measure return in
gauge tank. Check nature of return fluid for
hydrocarbon.
Release annulus pressure, observe well for
activity.
If not active again apply compressor / nitrogen
up to maximum depth (pressure) in annulus ie
for giving more drawdown. Check the influx
return, starting pressure of flow and
calculate volume of influx. Fig.2.12
If no activity, close the well at choke manifold
after lowering manometer & temperature gauge
for buildup study. Record surface pressure and Circulation of N2 down the annulus with returns
temperature. from tubing is the most effective method of
Pull out manometer recording gradient. displacing fluids from a well. N2 pumping can be
Reverse circulate and collect bottom interrupted without changing the total volume
sample, if no hydrocarbon traces call off requirements.
testing.
If hydrocarbon traces are found plan for Maximum surface pressure during circulation is
further retesting with exploration team. reached when the annulus is completely displaced to
Note: N2 and the N2 ―turns the corner ―. N2 pumping can
 Make waste pit/flare pit ready for well be discontinued at this overbalance point. Sufficient
activation purpose.it should be made 90 N2 pressure and volume should be available from
meters from the cellar pit. Deploy fire unit. the annulus to continue to unload the well.
 Cementing unit may be deployed for
carrying out hermetical test of the casing. Circulation of well to N 2 (N2 down tubing):
 Prepare more than one well volume of Circulation of N2 down the tubing with returns from
brine of specific gravity equal to mud annulus is sometimes preferred because less n2
weight in a separate tank. volume is required. A fast uninterrupted circulation
 X-mass tree valves shall be tested on rate is important with little or no back pressure at
surface up to the hermetical test pressure. the surface.
 It is preferred to carryout hermetical test of
casing with x-mass tree in place on the Although maximum surface pressure is reached
well head instead of BOP. when N2 is at the bottom of the tubing N 2 pumping
must be continued until the fluid is chased about
APPLICATION OF NITROGEN half way up the annulus. The overbalance point is
The main advantage of this method is ·that the not reached until the volume occupied by N 2 equals
the volume occupied by the remaining fluid. If N2
testing time is drastically reduced in view of the injection is stopped before the overbalance point is
availability of gaseous nitrogen at 350 kglcm 2 reached, the N2 in annulus would rise through the
pressure; it is possible to empty the well fluid upto fluid and be lost while the remaining fluid would
3500 meters; drawdown can be controlled at any drop to the bottom. Additional n2 would be required
required value. In this technique liquid nitrogen, in this case to resume circulation.
which has a boiling point of - 196°C is first.
Basics:
Pumped by a cryogenic pump to a vaporizer where
gaseous nitrogen is released through a manifold into 1) 1 m3 of liquid N2 = 694 m3 of gas N2
the well. In case a well is having production packer, 2) 1 MPA = 145 psi
coiled tubing unit (CTU) along with nitrogen is 3) 20% additional requirement to compensate for
used for activation purpose. cool downs & transfer losses.

Nitrogen application: Circulation of well to N2 ( N2

down annulus): as shown by fig.2.12

20
Ex: what volume of N2would be required to  Every precaution must be taken to avoid leaks that
displace 2000 m of annular volume of water for a allow gas to enter tubing / casing annulus.
combination of 7‖ casing and 3 ½ drill pipe.  When surface pressures are high, it is often difficult
A) N2 application down the annulus. to run wireline tools into the well due to the drag
B) N2 application down the tubing force on wire line tool. This may make it
Answer: impossible to open the sliding sleeve or to
A) Ref to the N2 data sheet N2 down the annulus perforate the tubing string.
for 7‖ / 3 ½ combination (i.e 177.8/ 88.9 mm)
and 2000 m depth The third alternative is to run 1 inch OD coiled tubing
the N2 gas consumption will be 4447 m 3. into the well and to circulate the tubing contents out
add 20% to compensate losses 4447 x 1.2 = of the well. The problem with this operation is that
5336.4 m3 gas N2 , quantity of liquid N2 reqd : special equipment and units requires for HP-HT
5336.4 / 694 = 7. 69 m3 applications are not readily available and are highly
B) ref to the data sheet N2 down the tubing. Req: costly.
(2320 x 1.2) / 694 = 4 m3 LN2 The fourth alternative killing operation would require
This method is now extensively used for activation snubbing unit to be installed to allow the tubing to be
of wells. The main advantage of this method is pulled under pressure until the seal assembly is
·that the testing time is drastically reduced in view located above the packer. This operation is highly
of the availability of gaseous nitrogen at 350 dangerous and may cause loss of control of the well.
kglcm2 pressure; it is possible to empty the well
fluid upto 3500 meters; drawdown can be 2.6 TESTING OF SELF FLOW PAY ZONE
controlled at any required value. In this technique
liquid nitrogen, which has a boiling point of -
This operation is undertaken when the pay zone
196°C is first. Pumped by a cryogenic pump to a
starts flowing by self while displacing with lighter
vaporizer where gaseous nitrogen is released
fluids with water from mud and knocking of water
through a manifold into the well. with compressor or nitrogen application (.i.e
during well activation.
MAIN ADVANTAGES OF NITROGEN CUSHION ARE:
The well is first allowed to clean out. The cleaning
Compressibility of gas is far greater than that of operation includes flowing the well through larger
liquid. Adjustable choke will bleed off WHP very bean sizes for period ranging from few to several
slowly and apply progressive ∆p to the formation.
hours depending upon the advent of production of
It is very helpful in a tight formation that does not
clean formation fluids,
equalize bottom hole pressure fast
It is easier to produce a nitrogen cushion at a very The well, is then allowed to stabilize its production
low rate. through a specific surface choke/bean, Surface
indications of well stabilization shall be
KILLING OPERATION:
Constant wellhead flowing pressure, Constant fluid
When a single string of tubing is used to complete a production rate, constant fluid production rate
well, killing the well can be done by either of the
following: The reason for stabilizing flow is to ensure that the
The kill fluid be pumped down the tubing string data obtained is representative of actual well
displacing the fluid inside the tubing string into the
performance. The period required for stabilization
formation. This operation is often difficult in low
will vary from well to well depending on the
permeability reservoirs.
formation permeability, etc, (higher the
The fluid cannot be pumped into the formation permeability, faster is the stabilization.
without surface pressure exceeding the working
There should not be any adjustment of equipment
pressure of the wellhead equipment.
during the stabilizing and production test. Any
The second alternative is to establish communication adjustment of equipment that causes a change in
between the inside of the tubing string and the tubing/ pressure upstream of the choke in a flowing well,
can result in erroneous data. The most common
casing annulus to displace the well fluid with kill fluid.
changes are adjustment of choke size and shutdown
 This communication is created by opening a sliding time. The stabilizing period should be started all
sleeve with wire lines tools or perforating the over again after such a change as proper
tubing string with a tubing perforation run on wire stabilization of a well is imperative for good and
line. reliable data .After achieving stabilized flow, the
 Sliding sleeve is a weak point in the tubing string well stream is passed through the surface testing.
and may develop leaks.
Equipment and flow rates of oil, water and gas are
21
measured. Bottomhole pressure, temperature and Basics: for 1 kg/cm2 of compressor application 10
surface pressure, temperature are recorded, for m of annular volume of water is displaced. When
flowing as well as static conditions besides there is no surface activity --- to know the
collection of fluid samples, After completion of one formation liquid influx, draw-down is created by
compressor application. Instead of waiting for
bean study, it is repeated for two or more bean
liquid to surface. Second compressor application is
sizes. One bean study period including made after waiting for sufficient time.
stabilizastion and flow test ranges from about 12 During second comp application, depending upon
hours to 24 hours depending upon the need. This the pressure at which returns started we can
multi bean study (abo referred to as deliverability calculate the influx. if during the second comp
test) is used to predict the inflow performance application , no tubing returns are observed even
(IPR) of a well. after reaching the max pressure of first comp
application --- no influx
TESTING OF PAY ZONE NOT HAVING SELF
FLOW Ex: 7‖ casing and 3 ½‖ drill pipe. First compressor
application upto 100 kg/cm2.Second compressor
In case the formation does not have self-flow even application after 18 hrs. Tubing returns started
after stimulation treatment and repeated activation after reaching a pressure of 80 kg/cm2. Calculate
attempts, its influx is determined. the Influx?
Effective influx is 100-80 = 20 kg/cm2 i.e. 20
The influx study includes; kg/cm2 is equivalent to 20 x 10= 200 m of annular
Reducing hydrostatic head in the well, upto the volume 200 m (appr.)of is 200 x 13.172 = 2. 634
desired level, by applying the compressor or m3/ 18 hrs
carrying out nitrogen job. Allowing the well to Influx rate: ( 2. 634/18 ) x 24 =3. 512 m3/day
produce formation fluid against the reduced
hydrostatic head for at least 24 hours with or Ex: 7‖ casing and 3 ½‖ drill pipe. Well depth:
without bottom hole manometer inside the well. 2000 m. 900 m of annular volume is displaced by
application of compressor upto 90 kg/cm 2. What
Measuring the fluid level and quantity of will be the level of fluid after u-tube effect.
formation fluid produced at the end of the period
by bottomhole manometer and or subsequent Ans: 900 m of annular volume = 900 / 1.294 =
compressor application. 695.5 m of well volume.
After bleeding of comp air and u-tube effect the
level of fluid from the top will be : 695.5 m
The results of these measurements are used to
the level of fluid from the bottom=2000-
decide to put the well on production, by artificial
695.5=1304.5 m.
lift or the zone may be abandoned by isolation
with bridge plug/cement plug, and other zones
To have an idea the flow rate through different
may be taken up for testing.
tubing sizes is given under in the table and the
normal well completion of a well with packer is
COMPRESSOR APPLICATION shown in fig.2.13 i.e. Casing is set, cemented through
Influx calculation has been explained with the pay zone and then perforated. A packer is set above
example is given below. the producing zone in the string. The flow rate range
with of different tubing diameter sizes and grades

Tubing Size Tubing weight Tubing ID Range of oil Range of Gas flow
(inches) (PPF) (inches) flow rate (M3/day) rate (KM3/day)
2.375 4.6 1.995 < 150 < 50
2.875 6.4 2.441 150-500 50-250
3.5 9.2 2.992 300-1000 80-400
4.5 12.6 3.958 500-1600 180-1000

Table 2 Flow rate range as a function of the tubing diameter

22
Fig.2.13 Conventional well completion with packer.

is given at table 2 to have an approximate estimate of flow rate . The advantages and disadvantages for different
bottomhole completion techniques for open hole, slotted liner, cased and cemented wells are provided in table no.3
below for comparing purpose in a nutshell or at glance to have an idea.

Table 3 Bottom Hole Completion Techniques - Advantages and Disadvantages

2.7 GAS WELL TESTING expansion takes place across choke, restriction or
valve.
Gas well testing is similar to that of an oil well.
However the problems in gas well testing
include
gas expansion (hydrate problem),
erosion.
GAS EXPANSION
Gas expansion leads to a sudden drop in temperature
and hydrate problems may occur. Major gas
23
 Ethylene glycol 62.07 2200
Propylene glycol 76.10 3590
Diethylene glycol (DEG) 106.10 4367
Triethylene glycol (TEG 150.18 4400

In normal practice glycol is injected at the

upstream of the choke manifold during testing
of high pressure gas wells, if conditions are
favorable for hydrate formation.
To check when hydrate formation may occur,
the following procedure is followed:
Take wellhead pressure and temperature of gas.
Assume/calculate pressure drops through each
choke and restriction from wellhead to the
separator.
Fig.2.14 Hydrate forming condition for natural gas Determine corresponding temperature drops
(after Katz) (Fig. 2.15 gives temperature drop due to gas
expansion)
Check when hydrate formation may occur (Fig.
Chart shown in Fig. 2.14 is used for prediction of
2.16 gives permissible expansion).
conditions which will result in hydrate formation in
natural gases of various specific gravities. Erosion
The cooling effect through a choke is ·more Erosion problems expected during gas well testing
severe for downstream pressures below limit the flow rate which can be produced through a
5000 psi. Above this pressure cooling effect flowline of given internal diameter (ID). The critical
is low due to the thermodynamic behaviour velocity through a pipe is the maximum velocity
of high pressure gases. above which erosion problem is expected and
Hydrate problem occurs during testing and defined as
during production of high pressure gases.
Hydrate problem occurs during testing and
during production of high pressure gases.
Hydrate formation is prevented by
Staged pressure reduction using subsurface
chokes or additional surface chokes/regulators.
using heaters,
Using glycol injection, etc.

Presence and increasing content of H2S and C02

increases the temperature (or hydrate formation in
sour gases appreciably above the data published for
sweet gas.
Glycol injection changes the dew point of gas (i.e,
hydrate forming temperature is depressed). The
quantity of glycol to be injected is given by:
Fig.2.15 temperature drop of natural gas resulting
from expansion
W=100MΔt/K+Δt
M = molecular weight of the glycol.
K= coefficient depending on type of glycol used
ΔT= changes in dew point temperature,
W = weight percentage of glycol in the produced
water.

The molecular weight and coefficient for alcoholic

chemicals are:

Inhibitor Molecular- Coefficient

Weight
Methanol 32.04 2835
Ethanol 46.07 2335
Isopropanol 60.10 2335
Ammonia 17 .0 2335

24
 holes. Uncased hole testing is generally done in
exploratory wells.

TESTING IN UNCASED HOLES

During drilling of a well, some information about

the formation characteristics is obtained from
Oil/gas shows,
Open hole logs,
Drill cuttings,
Coring and its analysis, etc.
To obtain additional information in open (un
cased) holes, other testing methods include
Repeat formation test (RFT)
Open hole drill stem test (DST)
A DST is generally run in the early life of a well in
an open or cased hole, using a boftomhole shut in
tool, while RFT is generally used when positive
signs of findings of oil and gas are noticed.

Wells can be tested using wireline-conveyed tools,

either in casing or open-hole. These tools typically are
run to the desired depth before actuating levers or other
devices to seal them against the side of the wellbore.
Most commonly used tools are:
1. Repeat formation tester
2. Multiple dynamic tester

REPEAT FORMATION TEST TOOL (RFT)

Fig.2.16 Permissible expansion of 0.7 gravity natural gas This is basically a logging tool lowered on wireline. A
Without hydrate formation limited formation test can be done with this tool.
Fig.2.17 refers the schematic diagram of RFT tool. The
The minimum cross » sectional flow area (A) (in square major results include:
inches per 1000 bbls) required to avoid fluids erosion is  Effective thickness.
calculated as  Permeability and porosity
 Water saturation
 Oil water and gas oil contacts
 Pressure gradient
 Temperature gradients
2.8 WELL TESTING OPERATIONS  Flow rates

Well testing could comprise of: The RFT can perform a very limited transient flow
and build up test at various depths.
Single zone testing
In exploratory and delineation wells, assuming that
Multizone testing.
the depletion has not yet effected the original
Multiple zone testing may be controlled by the pressure distribution, the pressure depletion is
expected zone of final completion. Multiple zone interpreted in terms of fluid withdrawal and
testing is undertaken to test the zones from bottom associated density from RFT study.
to top, as a better choice on the consideration that: ADVANTAGES:
Bottom zone can be easily isolated when testing is The RFT tool provides an estimate of formation
being done in higher zone without possible permeability and formation damage.
interference.
The tool can be set as many times as desired under
No major damage to the tested zone is anticipated normal operating conditions.
during isolation.
Testing is carried out in uncased as well as cased

25
 The tool is capable of obtaining very accurate
pressure measurements and can retrieved two fluid
samples per trip in the hole.
OPERATION:
A probe with an isolated packer is forced against
the formation wall every time the tool is set.
Two pretest chambers open automatically and
collect formation fluid each.
The lower pretest chamber withdraws fluid about 2-
1/2 times faster than the upper chamber.
Fluid sample can be obtained and saved in the
sampling chambers.
The size of the upper and lower sampling chambers
are 1.0 to 2-3/4 gallons respectively.
A strained gauge pressure transducer located in the
flow line, monitors the pressure during the test.
Drawdown and buildup pressure data for each Fig.2.18 Multiple dynamic tester
pretest is continuously recorded at the surface in
both analog form and digital form. MDT: (MULTIPLE DYNAMIC TESTER)
The tool is generally run in hole with diameters ranging
from 6 to 14-3/4‖ and has a pressure and temperature The above shown fig.2.18, The MDT tool offers
0
limitation of 20000 psi and 350 C multiple sampling during a single wireline run and
rapid pressure measurement using a new-generation
quartz gauge that stabilizes quickly to accurately
measure formation pressure. Figure-4 refers the
multiple dynamic tester.
Improved electro hydraulic control more easily
minimizes the drawdown pressure drop, enhancing
delicate sampling operations.
A variable drawdown volume improves
permeability measurement, especially in tight
formations.
Further, the tool can be configured to provide a
range of options not previously available from a
wire line tester. For example, by monitoring the
fluid resistivity as it is drawn into the tool and
rejecting contaminated fluid, the
Operator can ensure that only uncontaminated
formation fluid samples are collected or by
measuring pressure interference during drawdown,
horizontal and vertical permeability can be
Fig.2.17 The tool can be run in hole with diameters
determined.
ranging from 6‖ to 14 ¾‖ and has a pressure and
temperature limitation of 20000 psi and 3500 F The MDT system comprises four modules:

The main limitation of the RFT is that its shallow depth ELECTRICAL MODULE: This module provides the
of investigation on the order limits its accuracy if inches power to drive all the down hole electronics and a1-
in compare to DST, which can be hundreds to thousands kilowatt supply for the electro-hydraulic system.
of feet. The RFT measurements serves as a kind of first
approximation and check which are valuable for HYDRAULIC POWER MODULE: This provides
determining the presence and extent of hydraulic hydraulic power to the probe modules.
connection between various intervals in multiple well.
SINGLE-PROBE MODULE
This module establishes pressure and fluid
communication between the tool and the formation.

26
A hydraulically-operated retractable probe embedded in The main advantages of cased hole DST
a circular rubber packer is forced through the mud cake include:
to make a seal with the formation.
The facility to close the string at bottom
• Two opposing backup pistons on the other side of by the tester valve
the tool push the probe against the formation and String cushion can be adjusted for any
help maintain a good seal. differential pressure on the formation
• The pistons also center the tool body in the well, Wellbore storage effects are minimized.
reducing the risk of differential pressure sticking. In low productivity zones, reservoir effluent
• MDT probe can be set up to three times faster than may not reach the surface, in some cases,
safety considerations may make it necessary to
RFT testers.
stop the test before effluent reaches the
• After hydraulic connection is made, formation surface. In both the cases, it is possible to trap
pressure can be measured by either a strain gauge a sample of the formation fluid.
or the highly accurate CQG (Combinable Quartz The advantages of conventional production test are
Gauge). Christmas tree is installed and tested.
• To ensure that a good seal has been established Hydraulic safety valve at the wellhead
between probe and formation, a ‗pretest‘ is carried allows remote well closure.
out, which yields a drawdown pressure transient. SCSSV –surface controlled sub surface
safety valve(if used) is safety backup in
• Formation fluid is drawn into a chamber at a rate case of any Christmas tree problem.
and volume controlled from surface. In a development well, in most cases, only one
• Up to 20 milliliters (ml) can be extracted against a zone is to be tested and the well completed
differential between the mud weight and the therein. It is preferred to carry out production test
flowing formation pressure of up to 20,000 psi. after the downhole completion equipment has
• An unlimited number of pretests may be carried been lowered and Christmas tree is flanged up.
out using different drawdown rates and volumes to
optimize the transient. PERFORATION OF OIL& GAS FORMATION
• The temperature of the fluid entering the tool may
be measured and the fluid‘s nature assessed. The object of perforating is to achieve
• Inside the MDT probe module‘s flowline, communication between wellbore
producing formation. This will help in:
and
electrodes measure fluid resistivity.
Isolation of certain zones by cement
SAMPLE CHAMBER MODULES squeeze or polymers like IPT seal
Evaluation of producing intervals.
• Any combination of sample chambers with Optimizing injection
capacities of 1 and 2.75 gal [3.8 and 10.4 liters]
Since perforating is an irreveraible process, an
can be assembled.
advance planning is required which is based on
• The samples chambers can be located above the
probe module, allowing sampling to take place just The environment in which perforating is to
0.53 m [21 in.] from the bottom of the well. take place.
TESTING IN CASED HOLES: The resources available for specific
The basic well tests in cased hole include: completion or workover.
The constraints and advantages of available
Conventional production tests, perforating systems.
Drill stem tests (DST). Perforations must penetrate the casing beyond
Each of the basic well tests is further categorised cement, into the hydrocarbon bearing formation.
by logistical location: The perforations should be clean and of uniform size
Onshore testing. and depth. The perforating operation should not
Offshore testing. damage casing or the cement bond.
The well test can also be classified as Perforating methods are:
Non-hazardous fluid (sweet gas) tests, Casing gun perforation,
Hazardous fluid (sour gas) tests. Thru tubing perforation,
The selection of one type of test or the other will Tubing conveyed perforating (TCP)
depend on reservoir engineering requirements, Perforating operation can be carried out:
safety considerations and status of the well Over balanced (with reference to formation
(exploratory or development) pressure)
Under balanced - Through tubing guns /
Tubing conveyed guns.
27
 In over balanced perforation, well is
perforated keeping a weighted fluid (clean,
• It should not rest on loose debris in the hole,
because, the failure of the anchor shoe (or pipe)
non damaging) with safety fittings like
will cause the packer to slip, resulting in test
blowout preventors, perforation gate valve etc.
failure.
Perforating gun is lowered on wireline and
after doing the operation, it is pulled out and • The anchor pipe is also be used when the test is
then the completion string is lowered. This run far above the hole bottom, as is the case in
involves lot of time and during this period; straddle DST.
there are chances of filtrate I solid invasion
into formation, well getting active before
• It is also possible in such cases to use a set of dogs
(or slip) below the lower packer.
completion string and surface facilities like
Christmas tree etc. are in place. • These slips provide enough support to set the
In under balanced Perforation, drawdown is packers. An equalizing line is used to connect the
provided beforehand to the formation thereby· mud column above and below the packer. Figure-3
enabling it to flow into the wellbore as soon as refers the cased hole and open hole DST
the well is perforated. The main advantages configuration.
are minimum formation damage and better
cleaning of perforation, which results in higher PRESSURE RECORDERS
productivity
The bottom hole pressure recorder s are sophisticated
version of the Bourdon type or the spring piston type of
DRILL STEM TEST pressure gauges. The variation of pressure with time
• Used in both oil and gas wells, in cased or uncased may be digitally recorded at the surface, or on
wells A Drill Stem Test (DST) is still the fastest cylindrical charts. The recorders are generally placed
and safest method to properly evaluate a newly inside a recorder carrier to protect them in the wellbore.
discovered hydrocarbon-bearing formation in an
exploration or appraisal well. In order to safeguard against failure and for comparison
purposes, it is necessary to use at least two pressure
• A drill stem test is a temporary completion recorders. Generally the following are use:
whereby the desired section of the open hole is Below straddle recorder:
isolated, relieved of the mud column pressure, and
allowed to produce through the drill pipe. This recorder, placed below the bottom packer, can
indicate whether the packer has effectively sealed
• It can be used: the bottom section of the well bore from the
1. To determine the static reservoir pressure formation being evaluated.
2. To determine formation parameters like
If the bottom packer holds, their recorder will show
average permeability and extent of
hydrostatic pressure of the mud column above it.
permeability damage around the well bore
due to drilling. If the bottom packer does not hold, this recorder
3. Fluid (oil and water), and gas recovery from will indicate almost the same pressure as the
formation recorders placed in the potential production zone.
Inside and outside recorders in the producing interval:
THE BASIC DST TEST TOOL CONSISTS OF
Anchor shoe: the anchor shoe supports the weight of the The outside recorders are exposed directly to the
drill stem and the mud column. It is generally made formation pressure.
from heavy drill collar stock and thus has a greater wall Usually two such recorders are used in the test
thickness. interval to safeguard against failure and also for
checking and comparing the results.
PERFORATED ANCHOR PIPE
Pressure reported by the outside recorders are also
• The perforated anchor pipe supports the weight of compared to those recoded by the inside recorder,
the drill stem and mud column. which is placed above.
• It aids in setting the packer by holding the bottom
When the formation fluids enter the perforations
and flow up inside the test tool assembly (through,
part stationary, while weight is applied to the the packer, safety joint, hydraulic jars, and past the
upper part of the packer. inside recorder on their way up to the drill stem),
• The anchor pipe also serves as a flow passage and the inside recorder is exposed to the formation
allows the drill fluid communication through the pressure minus the hydrostatic fluid head between
perforations between the open hole and the inside the formation and the inside recorder.
of the drill pipe. It is made from the same material A comparison between the pressure recorded by the
as the anchor shoe. inside and outside recorders can thus reveal
• The anchor shoe attached to the bottom of the
plugging or flow restriction.
perforated anchor pipe, should rest on the actual
PACKERS:
hole bottom.
28
Packers serve as sealing devices. A rubber-packing At the end of the pre-flow period the tool is closed
element or packer, which can be expanded against the and the pressure below the packer is allowed to
hole to segregate the annular sections above and below build up. This is called the initial shut-in pressure
the element. (ISIP).

TESTER VALVE The purpose of the initial shut-in period is to record

the reservoir pressure before any production has
a. Control flow into the drill pipe, occurred. It is important to have an initial shut-in
b. Allow pressure equalizations across the period long enough to extrapolate a maximum
packer (s) after completion of the flow test. reservoir pressure. Many times it is too short to
determine a reliable extrapolated reservoir pressure.
EQUALIZING VALVE: This can make it more difficult to determine if the
reservoir is of limited areal extent.
The purpose of equalizing valve, which is normally
open, is to allow drilling fluid to bypass the packer When the initial shut-in period is complete, the tool
through the inside of the drill pipe. It is closed only is again opened. The purpose of this second flowing
during the test when the tester valve is opened. period (Main Flow) is to allow reservoir fluid and
gas to enter the drill string. Analysis of the final
By opening the equalizing valve, the pressure above flow data will help determine the flowing
and below the packer is equalized. capabilities of the tested reservoir. Depending on
conditions, when the tool is opened the pressure
This valve also relieves the pressuring action when
will drop from reservoir pressure to the pre-flow
the packer is run into the hole and the swabbing pressure and will record the weight of the formation
action when it is pulled out. fluid entering the drill string. If gas is present the
CIRCULATING VALVE: flowing pressure will reflect the upstream pressure
of the gas flow.
Used to reverse out tubing contents to remove
hydrocarbons and debris, change fluid weights The duration of the final flow period (Main Flow)
including spotting nitrogen and efficiently spot should be about 60 to 180 minutes, depending on
viscous pills. conditions and estimated permeability. The air blow
at the surface will indicate whether formation fluid
SLIP JOINTS: or gas is entering the drill string. If gas flows to the
Allows the string to contract and expand with surface a stabilized measured rate is desirable for
temperature without affecting the internal pressure or proper reservoir evaluation.
volume.
When the final flow period is concluded the tool is
A typical DST test tree sketch is shown at fig.2.22 in again closed for a second shut-in period (Final
page 26 Shut-in Period) which stops the flow of fluid and
gas into the drill string. The pressure below the
As the DST tool is lowered down the hole, the packer is then allowed to build. The duration of the
hydrostatic tool measures the increasing weight of Final Shut-In Period should be about 1.5 to 2 times
the water/mud column in pounds per square foot as long as the Main Flow (second flowing period),
(PSI). After the tool reaches either total depth (TD) depending again on conditions and estimated
or the desired depth of the test it is opened to permeability. In low permeable zones, longer shut-
atmospheric pressure and a pressure drop is in times are necessary for proper reservoir
recorded almost instantaneously. This is done to evaluation.
relieve the hydrostatic pressure from the annular
space within the tested interval. The purpose of this second shut-in period (Final
Shut-in Period) is to once again measure the
The length of the pre-flow (sometimes called initial reservoir pressure after a certain amount of
flow) is determined by the surface blow monitored production has occurred. Remember, during this
on the drill floor according to the following test period, fluid and/or is not being recovered.
observations: Only pressure is being measured. Proper evaluation
About 5 minutes in duration if the permeability is of the second shut-in data will help determine if the
estimated to be > 15 md. tested reservoir is of limited areal extent. Skin
damage, permeability, radius of investigation, and
About 10 minutes in duration if the permeability is other reservoir parameters can also be determined.
estimated to be > 15 md.
At the end of the Final Shut-in Period, the packer is
If the pre-flow period is too short the hydrostatic released which allows the drilling fluid to flow from the
pressure will not be dissipated and the following borehole annulus and into the test zone. Hydrostatic
shut-in period may be under the influence of pressure is then recorded for a second time. Because the
hydrostatic pressure. pressure should be equalized (sometimes the packer gets

29
stuck), the packer can be easily be unseated from
against the borehole walls so the tool can be recovered.

Conventional DST recorder Fig.2.20

Fig.2.19 DST tool Sequence

The sketch showing details of DST tool sequence,

recorder, flow, shut in period along with tripping are
provided as mentioned below in fig.2.19, 2.20, and 2.21

Fig.2.21

.
Fig-2.22 DST test tree Fig.2.23 Typical x-mas tree
Fig.2.24 Choke manifold

CHOKE MANIFOLD testing flow rate and flow path of fluids. It is major
control junction for initial test. The flow from the well is
Choke Manifold: as shown above in fig.2.24 Choke directed through the choke manifold via the test tree/ x –
manifold is required for testing of wells, which are not mass tree during the testing operations.
connected to permanent process facility (group It comprised of:
gathering station). The choke manifold controls the
30
 • Adjustable choke assembly
2.9 HIGH PRESSURE /HIGH TEMPERATURE
• Positive or fixed choke assembly. TESTING
• High-pressure valves.
The definition of HP-HT well as per UK Department of
• Low-pressure valves. Energy:
• Various ½‖ outlet nipples ―Wells where the undisturbed bottom hole temperature
• Low pressure outlet flanges at prospective reservoir depth or total depth is greater
than 300 O F and either the maximum anticipated pore
 The choke size is normally selected to induce pressure of any porous formation to be drilled through
critical flow, which will prevent fluctuations exceeds a hydrostatic gradient of 0.8 psi/ft or pressure
due to downstream operating pressure. Critical control equipment in excess of 10,000 psi is
flow is guaranteed if the upstream pressure is required.‖i.e.A HP/HT well is one that has bottom hole
at least twice the downstream pressure. condition of at least 3000F and 10000 psi.

 During critical flow the flow velocity of the Planning and preparation for drilling, casing &
fluid in the choke exceed the sonic velocity of cementation and testing a HP-HT exploration well
the fluid , thus downstream pressure changes requires consideration of new potential problems in
are not transmitted upstream affecting the addition to dealing with problems associated with
flow rate. normal well conditions.
Initial plans will minimize costs while obtaining the
 The size of the choke is reported in 64th of desired results.
an inch, therefore a 32/64‖ choke is ½ Contingency plans should minimize the impact on
inch. It is also reported in millimeter. the remainder of the well program if the initial plan
has to be aborted. Both initial and contingency
 Kill and return lines are used to kill and plans must satisfy the test objectives mechanically,
circulate kill fluid before and after qualitatively and quantitatively.
completion of testing and during
Testing in HPHT wells is taken up in any of following
emergency.
areas:
CHRISTMAS TREE ASSEMBLY  Exploratory
 Exploratory cum development
A X-mas tree is an assembly of valves and fittings used  Development
to control production and provide access to the
producing tubing string. It includes all equipment above the various conditions for hp,ht wells category for
the tubing head flange (fig.2.23) hp/ht,extreme and ultra for the temperature and pressure
ranges of reservoir and the fields that are in ongc
operating area are shown below fig.2.25-2.28 and in
Full opening must be used in the vertical run of the
table 4
X-mas tree assembly to provide access to the
tubing.
Restricted opening valves are sometimes used as
wing valves, without loss of efficiency and utility to
affect an economic savings. Valves could be
flanged, threaded type or mono block forged.
Flanges are available from 1 3/16‖ to 7 1/16‖ with
working pressure from 2000 psi to 20000 psi.
The size of the vertical run – 2-1/16‖ to 4-1/16―
Outlet of the wing valve should be sufficient size to
handle the production requirements without undue
restriction Sizes are vary from 1-13/16‖ to 4- 1/16 ―

MONOBLOCK TREE is preferred in the following areas:

 High-pressure temperature gas/ oil well Fig.2.25

completion in onshore and offshore.
 Sour oil/ gas well completion where small
leak can endanger human life.
 Where platform space constraint (in offshore)
restrict the use of conventional X-mass trees.
31
 FLUID USED DURING TESTING
In HPHT wells, down hole fluid has to be of higher
specific gravity (1.5 to 2.2) with minimum solid
settlement in static conditions.
Depending on the test to be undertaken (DST or
production test), the choice could be to use the last
drilling fluid or a special fluid (high gravity brine)
The drilling fluid can be treated to raise the
viscosity if required, to avoid the risk of
sedimentation of barite in top of the packer.
The DST with annulus pressure operated tools
requires clean fluid as these tools are sensitive to
high solid content annulus fluids.
Fig.2.26
SEALING MATERIALS

Metal to metal seals are highly desirable in high-

pressure situations.
As reliable dynamic metal-to-metal seals are not yet
available, organic polymer material seals are
required where movement between metallic
components is possible.
Seal materials (elastomer thermoplastic or
thermosetting plastics) are now available which
have maximum temperature range up to 450 Deg
F). Many seal system have been developed, like V-
type chevron seal.
Selection of the sealing materials would depend on
the range of pressure and temperature likely to be
Fig.2.27 encountered during testing.

COMPLETION FLUIDS FOR DST TOOLS

Choosing fluid medium for pressure activated or a

pressure responsive DST tool is very important.
Tools are more likely to work for the desired length
of time, at optimum performance levels, when the
down hole fluid environment is friendly.
The ideal fluid is a solids free, no corrosive liquid.
However, this is not always feasible or available in
a HP-HT case and a suitable substitute must be
Table 4 found.

PERFORATING SYSTEM:

Tubing Conveyed Perforating (TCP) systems will

permit the perforation of long intervals as well as
achieving deeper penetrations.
The performance of charges at high temperatures
should be considered for selection of charges for
maximum effectiveness.

PRESSURE CONTROL EQUIPMENT

High surface pressures, combined with high

Fig2.28 flowing temperatures, pose problems for the flow
control head, the connections above BOP, the

32
 upstream flow line, the data header and the choke  There should be a well temperature/thermo
manifold. coupling. Nothing should be welded or
Gas tight sealing is difficult to maintain when high connected by pipe threads to the data header.
temperatures make elastomers soft enough to flow. A double valve assembly must be used to
provide backup to the main valve when
Metal to metal seals are susceptible to leaks sampling from the data header.
because different alloys expand at different rates as
the temperature increases.  The choke manifold should be rated for
continuous service at 15 K working pressure
Flanges may expand and over stress clamps and and 250O F.
bolts at high temperatures.
 The choke manifold and data header should
Some of the factors that make use of temporary match together and be pressure tested using
completion equipment such as control head either nitrogen gas for 30 minutes.
unsafe or restrict the well test program are: -
HEAT EXCHANGER
 Extremely high H2S contents, in addition to
HP-HT, make a temporary completion either  The heat exchanger can play a dual role in
very expensive or unsafe. HP-HT well testing.
 Typical BOP temperature limits are 250OF.  It is used as a heater at the start of a test
Keeping the BOP below this temperature may program to prevent hydrates from forming
reduce the test production rate or the duration during the cleanup and low rate phases.
for which the well can be flowed and make
 Later in the test, the role is changed and it is
test objectives difficult to obtain.
used to absorb the heat and reduce the
 High pressures (above 10 K) and high flow temperature of the effluent going to the
rates are more difficult to control with control separator.
head.
 HP-HT well tests may require high enough
flow rates to get a significant draw down at
CONSIDERATIONS FOR SELECTION OF
the sand face.
PRESSURE CONTROL EQUIPMENT FOR TESTING
HP-HT WELL ARE  Increasing the rate will drop the wellhead
pressure due to higher tubing friction losses
 Testing a hostile environment well, and lesser choke backpressure.
particularly gas wells, requires a fail-safe type  This will increase the temperature of the
valve in the string below the Christmas tree or effluent.
control head such as surface controlled sub-  The temperature will have to be reduced
surface safety valve or Sub Sea Test tree. below the maximum operating temperature of
 The tubular connections should have premium the separator.
connections.  Two or three heat exchangers may be required
 The landing string should also have premium to reach the optimum temperature.
connections and be strong enough to support
its weight plus the weight of 15 K control PRE-REQUISITES FOR HP-HT WELL TESTING
head that is very large and heavy to avoid its
The pre-requisites for undertaking the productions testing of HP-
cooling or buckling in the riser.
HT wells are as mentioned below: -
 The control head should be rated for
continuous service at 15 K working pressure a) Before the well is taken-up for production testing,
and 250O F the hermeticity of the production casing must be
 The flow line should have a minimum ID of tested at maximum anticipated surface pressure
2.5‖ and be rated for continuous service at 15 in seawater.
K working pressure and 250O F. The flow b) BOP stack, wellhead, kill and choke manifold must
lines should have flanged connections. be hydrostatically tested at their rated working
Provision for temperature expansion and pressure or at least 1000 psi more than the
contraction should be made when rigging up maximum anticipated surface pressure.
solid flanged lines. c) Cementing unit and the line to the rig floor and the
 Data headers should be made in one piece cementing manifold must also be tested at
body rated for continuous service at 15 K maximum rated working pressure or at a pressure
working pressure and 250O F. Valves for the required during killing operation.
openings should mate to the data header with d) At least double the well volume of kill mud must be
stub acme threads sealed with O-ring and available onboard rig during production testing.
back-up seal or with a flange.
e) Appropriate DST tools must be available to safely
test the objects.
33
f) Electro logging wire line tubing puncturing tool, Test objectives can best be met by using tools and
tubing cutter and wellhead pressure control instrumentation such as DST tools that meet
equipment of appropriate pressure rating must be specifications for HP-HT work.
available on board during testing A full range of HP-HT compatible DST tools is
g) All degassers and de-sanders must be in good available in sizes suitable for use in 7‖ or larger
working condition. casing.

DESIGN OF DOWN HOLE TEST STRING FOR HP- ELASTOMER SELECTION

HT APPLICATION
 The importance of the seals in the operation of
 HP-HT testing is planned around use of permanent down hole tools is easily recognized.
packer system along with DST tools for well  Seals must perform their intended function in a
safety. All the 15 K DST tool systems are variety of pressure, chemical and temperature
compatible with the use of a permanent packer with environments for the tools to function properly.
seal bore extension and a floating seal assembly.  Elastomers used in the DST tools are most
The seal bore extension and long floating sensitive to changes in environment and hence
assemblies help by eliminating the need for slip it is essential to match the elastomer to the
joints to compensate for tubing movement. application.
Other minimum down hole tool requirements are  High temperatures reduce the tensile strength
primary and secondary circulating systems, gauge of O-rings and can cause severe degradation of
carriers with EMRs and a tester valve. some compounds.
There may be a need for compatible tubing  Nitrile compounds degrade rapidly and should
conveyed perforating system. It may save time to not be used in temperatures above 280 O F
fill the tubing through a tubing pressure tester valve except for short periods.
so the tubing can be pressure tested while running  Viton and Aflas stand up well at higher
in the hole. temperatures. Back up rings should be used in
The sampler tools, TCP systems, shock absorbers most situations when using these seals.
and other tools can be added to the string to meet  Temperature effects on elastomers can be
specific test objectives. severe enough to limit the time for which the
They must use high temperature sealed parts (high test tools can be expected to function at
temperature plastic backup rings) for static or bottom.
dynamic seals.  A combination of high temperature backup
rings and special elastomers can keep systems
Stand-alone O-ring seals will not consistently seal
working in temperatures up to 400O F for many
over 300 O F.
days.
Elastomers will be softened to the extent that they
 When temperatures exceed 400OF, test
will flow and extrude into the areas that the o-ring
durations need to be short to ensure proper
is supposed to seal. O-rings are relatively
functioning of the down hole tools.
ineffective without backup rings at high
temperatures.
SELECTION OF TUBULARS
The perforations should be carried out using wire
line guns in high-density conventional barites based The weak points of tubulars are even more vulnerable
mud. during a high-pressure test as shown fig.2.29 The high-
The EZ valve is used in the string portion between pressure differential across the tubulars may be due to:
the control head and BOP stack to take care of well External high pressure (formation pressure)
safety in case of any leak in this portion of the
Annular high pressure due to heavy mud
string, which could have been catastrophic.
High pressure builds up in tubing.
Additionally Pump thru type flapper safety valve
was used in between the two circulating valves to In high formation pressure and low flowing well
provide emergency well closure at bottom as well head and bottomhole pressure should not be
as well killing through bulldozing. allowed, to avoid collapse of the production casing
in front of the non-perforated zones.
GUIDELINES FOR EQUIPMENT SELECTION & The range of tubing and annular pressures and
OPERATION DESIGN tension compressions expected should be
CASING PROGRAM determined, to keep within allowable stresses of the
Casing programs affect the testing of HP-HT well. casing and tubing grade and weight. The tubing
stresses under various conditions are shown Fig
2.31,2.32 and 2.33

34
 The sealing surfaces both at wellhead and
downhole should be metal to metal as far as
possible.
Tubings with premium connection have to be
considered for applications in HPHT wells.

Fig 2.30 Mechanical Stress On Packers

Fig.2.29 Weak Points Of Tubular

MECHANICAL STRESSES AT PACKER

Differential pressure exerted by the fluid on packer

is shown in fig.2.30.Depending on operating
conditions, differential pressure can change quite
suddenly.
It is essential to monitor wellhead pressure and
bottom hole flowing pressure so that prohibitive
differential pressure on packer is avoided.
High differential pressure packers, rated upto 15000
psi are available. Proper packer selection is very
essential for such applications.
During testing tubing movement takes place due to
changes in pressure in temperature- tubing may
elongate or contract (depending upon the operating Fig.2.31 the Tubing Stress Top Of String Gas Production
condition) thereby inducing compressive or tensile Fig.2.32 Tubing Stress Bottom Of String Surface Bleed Off
forces on the packer.
The tubing movement is caused due to piston
ballooning, temperature and helical buckling
effects. These effects are more pronounced in high-
pressure high temperature situations.
It is essential to calculate the length changes/forces
acting on the packer for various anticipated operating
conditions, so that expansion joints of necessary stroke
length or seal assembly of necessary length (in case of
permanent packer) can be incorporated, if required, in
the test string to account for the length changes, thereby
minimizing forces acting on the packer.

35
 Localized Corrosion
Galvanic Corrosion

The environmental factors affecting the material

selection for down hole hook-up are concentrations
of CO2, H2S and chlorides besides temperature and
pH.
While CO2 can cause extreme weight loss corrosion
& localized corrosion, H2S can cause Sulfide Stress
Cracking and corrosion. Chlorides at high
temperatures can cause stress corrosion cracking
and pitting of metals, while low pH in general
increase the corrosion rate.
Fig.2.33 TUBING STRESS TOP OF STRING ANNULUS In order to counter the presence of only H2S,
PRESSURE TEST tubings and down hole tools of L-80 grade are
sufficient for handling any concentrations of H2S.
2.91 TESTING OF SOUR WELLS The same holds true even in the presence of CO2
and chlorides along with H2S in case the envisaged
EFFECTS OF HYDROGEN SULFIDE (H2S) duration/ life span of the field is less (up to about
PRESENCE IN THE FORMATION FLUIDS 03 years).
In case of prolonged production life is anticipated
H2S is a colorless and highly toxic gas and is heavier and the formation fluids contain H2S, CO2 and
than air. It is a flammable gas and produces SO2 on chlorides, then tubings and down hole tools made
burning which is also toxic. In addition, H2S in of Incoloy will be required to be used.
concentrations of more than 5 % (50,000 ppm) in air During exploratory well testing operations,
forms an explosive mixture. although H2S concentrations ranging from 05 ppm
to in excess of 40,000 ppm have been encountered,
Also, H2S is soluble in water and on being CO2 is not found in general.
dissolved in water results in hydrogen
embrittlement and sudden failure of tubulars as well Since, the production testing of exploratory wells is
as corrosion. for short duration of 5 to 6 days only, the use of L-
80 grade tubings and down hole tools is expected to
The properties of H2S and its effects on health and take care of effects due to various corrosion
safety are shown in Tables 1 and 2. mechanisms.
According to National Association of Corrosion
ELASTOMER SELECTION FOR SOUR WELLS
Engineers (NACE) Standard MR-01-75, if the total
pressure of a system containing H2S is greater than Various elastomeric components are used in down hole
65 psia and the partial pressure of H2S in the gas is tools and surface equipment to provide sealing. The
greater than 0.05 psia, then the system is to be rubber seals used must perform their intended functions
considered as sour environment. in a wide variety of down hole chemical and
However, for the purposes of testing of exploratory temperature environments for the tools to function
wells, any concentration of H2S beyond 20 ppm, calls properly.
for special precautions and arrangements during testing
operations. Exposure of different elastomers to certain
chemicals, particularly at high temperatures, will
MATERIAL SELECTION FOR SOUR WELLS have degrading effect on the mechanical properties
of the elastomer.
The corrosive nature of the hydrogen sulfide gas and its
role in causing material failure are major factors that This is usually caused by additional cross linking of
need to be considered while selecting appropriate the polymer chains or scission of the molecular
materials for down hole hook-up and surface equipment bonds.
used during production testing. The rubber seals are normally made of nitriles.
However, when nitriles are exposed to H2S, cross-
The various corrosion mechanisms that occur due linking occurs since sulphur is a cross linking
to the presence of H2S in the formation fluids are chemical for these polymers. This action makes
listed below: - nitriles brittle on account of which failure occurs.
In case sour environment is expected, then seals
Sulfide Stress Cracking made of fluorocarbon (Viton) or Aflas are used.
Stress Corrosion Cracking Despite this handicap, many sour wells were tested
Weight Loss Corrosion conventionally during the period 1990-95 where
36
 H2S concentrations during testing varied from as  The range of bean studies are limited only in
low as 5 ppm to 38,000 ppm. the event formation water also flows since this
However, there was no fixed policy as far as the will affect the complete burning of H2S
extent of reservoir studies was concerned. thereby resulting in presence of H2S.
Taking into consideration the safety aspects, the  In addition, it is ensured that the rig is
extent of reservoir studies varied from mainly study completely equipped with H2S handling &
through only one bean to flow studies through safety systems prior to taking-up testing at the
several beans. rig.
The extent of flow studies was arbitrary and mainly
depended on the preparedness of the rig to handle INTERNATIONAL PRACTICES FOR TESTING
H2S and confidence level of the rig crew to face any SOUR WELLS
exigencies.
The practices followed by two internationally reputed
GUIDELINES testing equipment & services providers viz.
M/s Schlumberger and M/s Halliburton, who with
The guidelines for testing of sour wells, which consisted world-wide operations, are well acquainted with the
of: various factors that affect the design of down hole string
& surface testing equipment with specific emphasis on
 Pre-requisites for taking-up testing of sour
safety aspects, their material specification, reservoir
wells
study plan- mode & extent of studies & flow during
 Requirement of various H2S handling systems night etc. for testing sour wells are detailed below: -
on board the rig during testing,
The minimum equipment requirement as per
 Training of personnel, internal worldwide standard Pressure Operation
 Contingency plan, Manual (POM) is required to be strictly adhered to
 Equipment selection aspects, which states that during testing of sour wells the
use of following safety devices is mandatory.
 Testing only through DST tools and dos &
don‘ts during testing. All the down hole tools and surface equipment &
lines must be suitable for sour service as per NACE
THESE PRE-REQUISITES ARE LISTED BELOW: - MR-01-75.
The well testing can be continued in the night as
 H2S sensors with alarm system must be
long as the necessary control / safety measures as
provided at all critical areas like rig floor, bell
stated above are taken -up at all.
nipple, shale shaker, and separator, choke
manifold etc. Operations to H2S handling & safety devices using
 Bug blowers are to be provided at rig floor, Self Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA).
separator and choke manifold. The properties of H2S and its toxicity with respect to
 Windsocks should be available at rig floor. concentration are provided in below Table-5&6 in order
 All working personnel are required to be to have an idea to take care of safety precautions.
provided with work packs for H2S handling
and continuous air supply must be ensured Properties of H2S
through air cascading system with compressor. Properties Description
Colour None
 All personnel onboard must be provided with
SCBA - ―Self Contained Breathing Apparatus Odour Extremely offensive, often
characterized as ―rotten eggs‖
―(Escape air packs).
Density 1.189, heavier than air
PRESENT TESTING METHODOLOGY FOR SOUR Explosive limits 4.3 % to 46 %
WELLS Ignition 500 O F
temperature
Since 1997, all the sour exploratory wells are being Water solubility Four volumes of gas in one volume
tested using DST tools for providing additional down of water at 32 O F
hole safety. The use of DST tools has enabled Table 5-properties of H2S
conclusive/complete testing of sour objects wherein the
well is flowed for sufficiently long period to ensure Special precautions need to be taken while sampling at
stabilized pressures & flow rates. Normally flow studies choke manifold, separator and transferring.
through 3 beans are carried out. H2S toxicity
 However, the flow studies are limited to H2S Toxic effects
daytime only and the well is kept closed in the concentrat
nighttime to safeguard personnel against ion
consequences resulting from surface leaks. 1 ppm H2S can be smelled. In case, the

37
(0.0001 %) concentration exceeds ,1 ppm,  Explosives should be handled by persons
immediately leave the area or use authorized for the purpose. The persons should
personal ,protective equipment undergo an instruction program in handling
(breathing apparatus) and use of explosives, before they are so
10 ppm Maximum 8 hour work period allowed authorized.
(0.001 %)  Explosives should be primed with detonators
100 ppm Odour disappears in 3 to 15 minutes as only at the well site, at a place earlier assigned
(0.01 %) sense of smell is deadened; eyes and for the purpose. The place should be clean, dry
throat burn. and free from flammable materials. It should
200 ppm Odour disappears quickly; eyes and also be ensured that there is no danger due to
(0.02 %) throat burn falling materials.
500 ppm Sense of reasoning and balance lost;  Explosive should not be primed under
(0.05 %) respiratory problems develop within 2 to conditions of lightning and thunder.
15 minutes; prompt resuscitation
required  The explosives should be suitable for the
temperature expected at the bottom of the hole.
700 ppm Loss of consciousness occurs quickly
(0.07 %) and breathing stops; death occurs unless Earthling bonds should be laid between the firing unit,
the affected person is removed and rig and casing through voltage monitor and the voltage
immediately resuscitated should not be more than 0.25 volts.
1000 ppm Immediate loss of consciousness-
(0.1 %) permanent brain damage or death results PRECAUTIONS AGAINST BLOWOUT
unless the affected person is removed  A double ram i.e. a set of blind & pipe ram
and immediately resuscitated blowout preventers should be tested to the
Table 6- H2S toxicity expected bottom hole pressures and installed
on wellhead. In addition, a master gate valve
GENERAL OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENT with tubing head and short length of tubing
should be pre-assembled and kept readily
The pressure relief system from all relief devices available at the site so that it can be used to
shall be routed to relief headers for high and low control the well in case any sign of activity in
pressure relief. The relief system is suitably sized the well is noticed after perforation or while
to discharge the maximum gas and / or liquid Run-in (R/I) / lowering of tubing in well.
design flow rate. The discharge shall be directed to
the flare stack.  The blowout preventer should be equipped for
All piping shall be securely anchored and grouted. remote operation with the control wheel
When the piping installation has a change of located at distance of not less than 10 meters
pressure rating, the lower rated pipe shall be from the well. The control wheel should be
adequately protected against overpressure. provided with a suitable guard screen for safe
operation. Instructions for operating the control
Burning of hydrocarbons shall take place without
wheel should be prominently displayed near it.
any pollution to atmosphere. All effort shall be
made to minimize smoke to air.  When perforation is being done through the
tubing, a wire line blowout preventer should
PERFORATION also be installed so that in case of a kick, the
well can be closed with the perforation wire
 The casing in the well is perforated by firing line tool in the hole, otherwise it may have to
explosive charges at appropriate horizon by be snapped and allowed to drop in the well if
means of a ‗perforation gun‘ so that oil under the wire line tool cannot be pulled out of the
reservoir pressure can flow through the hole in time; the master gate valve can then be
perforations into the well and then to surface. operated to close the well.
In this operation, the hazard is that of blowout
if the formation fluids entering the well are not  Every person employed on a perforation job
kept under control with hydrostatic pressure and well testing has a clear understanding of
and pressure control equipment. the warning sign of a kick and of the blowout
prevention equipment and be able to operate
 Explosives meant for use in well perforation the controls for blowout prevention.
should be stored in magazines constructed in
accordance with the Indian Explosives Act, 2.92 SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
1888. Explosive cartridges and detonators AND RECOMMENDED PRACTICES
should be kept separately in suitable
containers, duly locked and transported in All well test jobs, especially in offshore
vehicles duly licensed by the competent environment, are required to be planned and
authority. performed with major emphasis on safety and
environmental protection. This is most essential

38
since exploratory well testing operations are  Pressure tests are carried out using only
almost always carried out, through temporary water as testing medium.
completions, under conditions of unknown  The entire system is flushed rapidly to
pressures & temperatures with well flowing eliminate trapped air/ gas in high spots/
highly inflammable and sometimes corrosive elbows.
and poisonous/ toxic fluids. Taking into
consideration all these aspects, it is pertinent RECOMMENDED PRACTICES
that the following guidelines be strictly adhered
to: - The regulatory authorities "Environment, Health
All the personnel must be well trained for the and Safety Policy" should be followed at all times,
job. Unless anticipated and prepared for, if H2S levels
All equipment, both down hole & surface, must exceed l0ppm in the gas stream,
be specifically designed, manufactured, Well should be shut-in and proper safety equipment
maintained & tested for the job. sent out to the location before continuation with the
The testing operation must be carried out as per test.
the prevalent applicable safety standards. The initial flow of hydrocarbons to surface should
A perfect understanding of all the operations, whenever possible be timed to coincide with
possible hazards, a contingency plan is most daylight hours.
essential and these procedures must be
discussed with all the concerned personnel DAY LIGHT/HIGH VISIBILITY WORKING
before the job.
Advanced planning for safe well test Some operations undertaken during the course of a well
operations must be done taking in to test will require good visibility in order to be carried out
consideration the various safety hazards, safely. Moreover, some operations which could be
anticipated pressures & temperatures, expected carried out without problems on offshore rigs, may not
formation fluids, likely production of H2S, CO2 be possible on onshore rig sites where the overall site
& sand, need for special chemicals for hydrate lighting may not be so good. Whenever possible,
control, paraffin deposition control etc. additional explosion proof lighting should be installed at
onshore well sites for testing operations.
Appropriate distances between the various
Generally the following activities will become
pieces of equipment must be maintained as per
considerably more hazardous if carried out under low
recommended practices.
light conditions:
It must be ensured that the various
• Acidising and fracturing.
responsibilities of the crewmembers are clearly
defined prior to the onset of operations and the • Coiled tubing work.
crew is aware/ conversant with their respective • High pressure pumping.
responsibilities. • Igniting flares.
The onsite safety meetings with rig & test Initial perforating and flowing the well.
crews must be held to review all operational
• Slickline and electric wireline work.
steps, potential safety hazards etc.
• Well kill
All personnel must be made familiar with
emergency procedures, including fire drills, Where possible these activities should be avoided
abandon ship drills, H2S drills etc. during the hours of darkness. In certain circumstances
some of the operations listed above will be required
Appropriate safety equipment such as safety during the hours of darkness. In these cases it is
boots, gloves, hardhat, life jacket (while imperative that adequate lighting is provided and that
working over water) and harness (when personnel involved in this phase of the test are alert and
working at heights) must be worn. aware of any increased hazards. Restrictions on work
Pressure tests must be performed only after all requiring daylight or high visibility should be indicated
the equipment has been connected. During within the detailed well testing programme.
pressure testing of the equipment, it must be
ensured that: - WELL TEST OPERATIONS
 Unnecessary personnel are removed
/restricted from the area. 1. Critical flow should be maintained across the choke
if possible.
 People are made aware that pressure-
testing operations are in progress. 2. The well should be opened on a small (e.g. 16/64")
choke and then beaned up no faster than 4/64"
 All flow lines and relief lines are properly
every 5 minutes to a moderate choke size of about
secured.
28/64" depending on well conditions then change to
a fixed choke. The cushion should then be unloaded
39
 and the well monitored for sand production, checks should be requested from each service company. This
on equipment integrity should take place, prior to will be also required for the supply boat cargo manifest
beaning up further. when sending equipment to offshore locations.
3. The well should be shut-in at the tester valve first
then at the choke manifold. OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR
EQUIPMENT LAYOUT
4. The separator flow meters should be calibrated
prior to the test.
The layout of well test equipment will to a large extent
5. For offshore tests the weather forecast (including be dictated by the location of the well, offshore or
wind direction) should be checked prior to igniting onshore. The following guidelines should however help
the flare to ensure that the flow is directed to the to ensure the safety of operations with regard to the
correct side of the rig. A good weather window is layout of surface test equipment.
particularly important for operations from floating
vessels, to ensure that the test can be carried out Whenever possible the equipment should be located in a
with the minimum of interruption. * quiet' area of the deck, or well site. This means away
6. Prior to flaring, the relevant authorities should be from areas that are frequently used for temporary
informed of the impending flaring Operations. equipment storage and over which equipment is
7. Portable air compressors must always be used for frequently lifted. The location should be well ventilated
the oil burners, where fitted. The rig air system and away from *dead air' areas, and sub floor levels.
must not be used under any circumstances.
In practice often the only area available on many
EQUIPMENT CHECKING offshore rigs is the pipe deck and this will require a
great deal of back loading of drilling equipment before
Tests must he planned well in advance. This may the test equipment can be picked up and spotted.
include identification of the equipment that will be used However, some semi-submersible rigs have dedicated
for a particular test at the service company yard and well test areas on the aft end with permanent piping to
allocation of that equipment for the test. If possible, the drill floor and burner booms and this area should be
pressure testing of this equipment should be witnessed utilised when available.
at the yard as well as a check made on the equipment
certification. When positioning equipment, consideration should also
be given to the distances separating individual pieces of
The following is a guideline to what should be checked: equipment from possible ignition sources. When
considering the placement of equipment all available
• Traceability of components. space should be utilised to allow good access to both
• Data books - inspected. sides of the equipment. The equipment should also be
• Service records - inspected. located to make the best use of the available lighting,
• Instrument calibration. especially around instruments and controllers. The
lighting available on offshore rigs in not always ideal
• Safety valves calibrated and certified. for testing purposes but will usually suffice. On onshore
• Piping threads - inspected. locations the lighting is generally portable lighting will
• Elastomers rated for service. be required. The lights to illuminate the well test area
will normally be on telescopic masts located at the
Checks should also be made that adequate back-up perimeter of the site although explosion proof lighting
equipment will be sent out to the rig. This is especially will also be required near to the test separator area.
important in remote areas where spare parts may take a
number of days to reach the well site in the event of Any temporary lighting installed at a well site should be
equipment failure. Once the test equipment arrives at the approved for the particular zone or area of operations. In
rig, serial numbers should be checked to ensure that the addition the installation of lighting or any other
equipment sent is the same as was allocated at the yard. electrical equipment must be carried out with the
In order to facilitate equipment checking, a load out list assistance of the rig electrician.
with serial numbers, weights and dimensions should be
requested from each service company. This will be also The test equipment should also be located so that
required for the supply boat cargo manifest when coverage by the rig or well site firefighting equipment is
sending equipment to offshore locations. adequate. Lines of sight from the rig floor to the test
separator, and from the separator, and rig floor to the
OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR flare is important especially when opening up or
EQUIPMENT LAYOUT shutting in the well. If this is not possible then VHF
radios will be required.
The layout of well test equipment will to a large extent
be dictated by the location of the well, offshore or All flare lines should be tied down across elbows and
onshore. The following guidelines should however help along pipe lengths if possible. This is especially
to ensure with serial numbers, weights and dimensions
40
important when opening up wells, for wells which slug generally attributed to air in the lines and the pressure
badly and for high pressure tests. might need to be "bumped up" a number of times before
an adequate test is achieved.
In laying out pipe runs, possible trip hazards should be
considered especially in areas where access is likely to Each part of the system should be pressure tested to a
be frequent. Where a trip hazards cannot be avoided pressure in excess of the maximum expected pressure
high visibility paint or tape should be applied to the that the equipment will experience during the test, but
pipework and safety signs should be posted. must not exceed the pressure rating of the particular
Alternatively steps over pipe runs can be constructed piece of equipment.
but this will normally only be undertaken when
extended tests are planned. Care should be taken when pressure testing lubricators
with water in wells which will potentially flow gas or
Instrument control lines and electrical cables should be gas condensate wells. After pressure testing the water
supported and protected to avoid mechanical damage. In will enter the test string and could possibly form a
many cases this will mean having the cables slung hydrates. Using a glycol/water mix will help prevent
overhead although consideration for possible crane this.
movements will have to be considered.
RUNNING THE TEST TUBING OR DRILL PIPE
FLOWMETER CALIBRATION
When running the test tubing or drill pipe some general
Calibrations of the flow meters on the test separator precautions should be taken. The tubing joints should be
should have been carried out in the testing contractors torqued up to the manufacturers recommended values.
yard. At the well site, the flow meter calibration should To ensure that the tubing is correctly made up it may be
be checked using the rig pumps, cement unit or transfer prudent to have JAM (Joint Analysis Make-up)
pump by flowing water through the meters to the gauge specified with the power tongs. The JAM equipment
tank. will provide a strip chart showing the makeup torque of
every joint in the string and an audible alarm can be set
If possible a number of different rates should be to indicate when the tubing has been correctly torqued
checked using 10-20 barrels volume per calibration rate. up.
Should significant differences exist between the site
check and the main calibration, a full re-calibration The correct API pipe dope must be applied during
should be undertaken over the range of flow rates makeup of the string. If possible, pipe dope should be
expected during the test. The meter tolerance should be applied sparingly to the pin ends only on the tubing or
better than 5% of the maximum reading. Moreover, the drill pipe, to reduce the amount of excess getting into
meters should be correctly sized for the test, which is the pipe, which may cause problems with the TCP
can be a problem on low liquid production wells. perforating systems. However, in some cases limited
doping, that is none on the box, may lead to galling
PRESSURE TESTING problems. In the event that galling occurs, dope should
be applied to a least the sealing surface of the box and
All pressure vessels and pipe work needs to be pressure make up retried. If galling continues dope will have to
tested prior to use. A pressure chart recorder should be be applied as required to both the pin and box ends.
used when carrying out pressure tests and the witness
should sign off on the chart after each test, with the Any pipe (including drill collars) should be cleaned
chart being kept as a record. before the test if possible. The recommended method is
Tests should show "stabilised" pressure for at least 15 to rattle the pipe with a length of chain. This will
minutes duration. When pressure testing the DST tools remove any debris from the inside of the pipe, which
these should be tested against a closed valve below the again may cause problems for the operation of the
tools and then again at regular intervals whilst running downhole tools or TCP.
in the hole with the tubing string. If a diesel cushion is
used in the test string the actual pressure test (usually If it is not possible to clean up the string beforehand, it
with the cement unit) should not be carried out using is good practice to run in with the string to TD with a
diesel but with a glycol/water mix, since diesel and air tubing test valve on the end and pressure cycle the string
can be explosive under high pressure. a number of times, a so called flex trip. The tubing test
valve can be sheared open after flexing the tubing and
The main problem which occurs during pressure testing rapid circulation through the pipe can be undertaken.
is the time that it takes to stabilise a reading - especially
where large volumes are involved. This problem is

41
CHAPTER 3

WELL COMPLETION

WELL COMPLETION The completion engineer should aim for “ safety ,

operabilityand simplicity” within the requirements
3.1 Basic Design Considerations dictated by the optimum (cost VIS recovery)
development of the field.
The well is the only communication channel with the
reservoir in the development of oil and gas fields. It Major factors which influence design are:
influences not only its own cost but also operations,
production/recovery and economics of exploitation of  Reservoir parameters: Fluid volumes,
reservoir as a whole. Therefore every care and effort depth, .lithology of· formation, sand
is directed to achieve the optimum well design. consolidation, number of zones, pressure,
temperatures, stimulation requirements,
Well completion is the technique of installing etc.
equipment in a well to produce hydrocarbon from  Operating requirements:
reservoir to surface, to achieve optimum production Producers/injectors, secondary recovery,
for entire life of the well. Typical packer completion artificial lift etc.
is as shown in fig: 3.1  Operating fluid conditions: Surface
pressure/ temperature, corrosion, scale,
paraffin, sand etc.
 Work over method and frequency : Major
work over , minor repair etc

 Environmental : Onshore, offshore,

subsea, hilly terrain, thickly populated, river
bed or slushy land locations.
 Government legislation: Requirement for
specific safety measures, etc.
 Throughput of surface process plant :
Particularly important in offshore

Production capability:

It is important to design for optimum well

production (or injection) rate throughout the
expected well life. If more reservoirs are to be
produced simultaneously then multiple completions
is possible, using single, dual or triple strings of
Fig: 3.1 packer completed well
tubing and one or more packers. Thechoice will
depend on ;
42
  to contain stationary fluids for well
Production rates,
protection or monitoring of subsurface
Reservoir control requirements, conditions,
Work over possibilities,  to control production from
Artificial lift requirements, reservoirs,
Costs and standardization,  to protect well from exposure to high
Other factors particular to the area of operation. pressure, corrosion, erosion etc.

Corrosion: The main flow conduits are one or more in a well.

These must continue to function safely and
 Corrosion in oil and gas wells generally economically, usually for the life of the well.
involves carbon dioxide (C02) or hydrogen Therefore, care must be taken in 'their selection and
sulphide (H2S), both in the presence of protection.
water. The problems associated with both
sweet corrosion (C02) and. sour corrosion Tubing size selection requires evaluation of
pressure losses in vertical flow, for a range of
(H2S )can be minimized through the present and future inflow conditions. In gas wells,
correct selection of corrosion resistant the erosional velocity is often a critical parameter.
materials and/or the circulation of Water loading rates are also to be calculated for
corrosion inhibiting chemicals in the well. tubing flow.
 Corrosion can be compounded through
excessive gas or liquid velocities i.e. Annulus / Tubing Seals -
erosion. Also fines movement with high
velocity in corrosive environment will  Apart from the tubing head and the integrity of
increase the corrosion. the tubing and tubing connections, sealing
between annulus and tubing rests with the
Safety: packer and the sealing elements in such
equipment as anchor seals, locator seals,
 It is essential to select the correct equipment telescopic! swivel/travel joints,· tubing seal
to satisfy well and environment safety receptacles and sliding sleeves.
requirements.
 Seal elements can be in the form of 'O'~
 Where it is possible, the equipment with
rings, moulded elastomer seals or
fail-safe capability should be specified.
chevron seals ('V'-packing). They must
 The well must be capable of being
be ' selected for their suitability
controlled at all times during its operational
regarding resistance to well fluids,
life, using wellhead equipment, kill systems
temperature and pressure, their wear rate
and/or subsurface safety valves.
and ageing characteristics.
The basic completion feature : The presence of a packer can increase the pressure
on the production casing in the event of a tubing
 In essence, the configuration of a well after leak (Fig. 3.2).
completion can be seen as a number of
conduits, tubular or annular, isolated from
each other by seals at surface and
subsurface, with provisions for selective
inter-communication and safety shut-off.
 Conduits (casing and tubing)

The purposes of the conduits in awell could be:

 to convey the production from the

reservoir to the surface,
 !to convey injection fluids from the
surface to the reservoir,
 to circulate fluids from the surface
through a subsurface facility,

43
 3.2 Completion methods
There are three basic ways to complete a well;

 Open-hole,
 Cased and perforated,
 Liner completion.

In the open-hole type of completion, casing is

set only to the top of or slightly into the
completion interval (Fig. 3.3).

Fig.- 3.2Increase of pressure on casing in event of a

tubing leak

Safety Valves-

 Safety valves can be used in various Fig: 3.3open hole completion

locations on/in a well depending upon the
well site requirements. Advantages of the open-hole completion are :
 In case of wells located in offshore or slushy land,
a river bed or densely populated land, the  Casing set at the top of the pay allows for
subsurface safety valve is used as· third level special drilling techniques which minimize
of safety on the well. Surface safety valve on formation damage.
well flow lines is used as fourth level of safety.  Full-hole diameter available to flow.
 No perforation is required (open-hole
The safety valve provides final control of the well perforating is sometimes used in cases of
when all other controls have ceased to function. severe wellbore damage).
 Hole -is easily deepened or converted to a liner
Since it is the most important control device, the
completion.
designer must select the best valve for the well.  High productivity maintained when gravel
Circulation and Communication Devices - packed for sand. control.
 Facilitates ultra short radius multiple radial
 The capability to establish tubing/ completion.
annulus communication in order to Disadvantages of the open-hole completion are;
equalize pressures and circulate fluids,
is an important feature of any  No way to regulate fluid flow from or into
completion design. This also allows wellbore.
inhibitors to be introduced for  Cannot control gas or water production
counteracting wax, scales, corrosion and effectively. No selective gas or water shut
introduction of gas for gas lift. off job is possible.
Circulation and. communication devices  Casing is set "in the dark". Formation top
include sliding sleeves, side pocket is generally picked from drill cuttings.
mandrels and ported nipples.  Difficult to selectively stimulate producing
intervals (however, open-hole packers
 In some cases communication for killing may available are used sometimes).
be obtained by perforating the tubing by wire  Wellbore may require periodic c1eanout.
line methods Formation collapse is more common.
44
  Requires more drilling rig time when In a liner completion casing run is to the top of the
completed. pay and a liner is set across the producing
 Subsequent cased completion will restrict formation,
wellbore and completion string diameter.
 The liner may bear may not be cemented as
Because the open-hole completion relies on the strength shown in Fig. ·3.5. The cemented liner is
of the rock itself to support the 'wall of the hole, it has perforated whereas un-cemented liner is
greater application in carbonate and basement slotted.
formations. In the cased and perforated completion,  This type.ofcompletion is primarily applied
casing is set through the producing formation and to sand control, but could be used to control
cemented. The casing is then perforated to provide a sloughing formation.
communication between' the wellbore and  Completions using cemented liners to-
formation (Fig 3.4). reduce casing costs are essentially
considered cased and perforated
completions.
 The advantages and disadvantages of the
un-cemented liner completion are the same
as the open-hole completion.

Fig: 3.4 cased and perforated completion

.Advantage of the cased and perforated complete :

 Ease of selective completion and work

overoperation in the producing intervals.
 Can effectively control ga5 and water
producing by. Selectivelyperforating and Fig 3.5Uncemented slotted liner completion
isolating.
 Can effectively control and monitor zonal 3.2.1 Tubing and casing configurations
fluid production.
 Permits multiple completions, Several arrangements of tubing and casing are
 Can "stimulate selectively, applicable to the completion methods.
 DST5, logs and formation samples provide
information on casing setting depth. • Tubing less completion
 Can be adopted to sand control, both as pre-
pack gravel pack or conventional gravel  The tubingless completion method does
pack. not use tubing except possibly to work
over the well (Fig. 3.6). This is the most
The disadvantages of the cased and perforated simple tubular arrangement and may be
completion are few: used in high-rate oil or gas wells where
pressures and corrosive fluids are not
 Long interval perforation can be expensive. detrimental to the casing.
 Effective wellbore diameter and  Often tubing less completions involve
productivity .may be reduced.
 Good cement job through production cementing several strings of tubing in a
intervals required. single borehole.
 More expensive than open-hole.

45
 Casing with suspended tubing completion:

Conventionally, wells are often produced with the

tubing freely suspended in the well-bore, The
completion with tubing is needed to -

 Permit work over kill fluid circulation.

 Prevent casing being subjected to paraffin
and corrosive fluids.
 Provide controlled flow .path for
producing/injection fluid.
 Application of artificial lift becomes
feasible.

3.2.2 Tubing and packer configurations

3.5 Fig •. 3.6Tubing less completion Wells completed with a tubing and packer permit a
number of tubing and casing configurations. Use of
This application is used for developing fields with a packer increases Completion costs, adds
several reservoirs and is not limited to developing complexity to the system and decreases reliability.
marginal producing properties. Packers are usually run for the following reasons:

Advantages of tubing less completions are ;

 To isolate the casing from corrosive fluids
 Simplest completion operations. and/or high pressure (extra safety in the
 Individual zone control and completion are completion)
separately done.  To stabilize and control flow from pay zones
 Well work over operations do not require  In conjunction with a artificial lift system
shut in of other producing intervals, (isolation and control)
 N0o need for large casing through  Most flexible foe well control using packer
producing intervals. and subsurface safety valve
  Selective stimulation possible
tubing less completions have the following  Wire line and down hole operations
becomes feasible
disadvantages:
A typical single zone completion utilizing tubingand
 Casing is subjected to
packer as shown in fig: 3.7
pressure&temperature fluctuations resulting
in frequent stress changes.
 Excellent cement job
required.
 Difficult and expensive
procedures (gun
orientation).
 CTU required for killing and
circulation during work
over.
 Possibility of losing entire production from
one zone in light of repeated workover
operations.
 Reduced flow capacity due to smaller
.casing/tubing.
 Reduced production rates when put on
artificial lift.
 Paraffin and corrosive fluids are serious
problems.

46
  Contrast in producing characteristics of
different zones renders this simplest method
nonviable.

This type of completion has the following advantage :

 More than one zone is produced or injection

is done through a single well.
 In some cases, one zone could help in the
lifting of the other zone.
 Wax deposition problem of one zone's
production may be mitigated/reduced by
mixing it with other wax-free zones)
 Light fluid of one zone could be used to
mitigate heavy oil production problem.

The disadvantages are:

 Layer wise production monitoring,

Fig: 3.7 Tubing packer single completion accounting difficulty and surface monitoring
yields only commingled stream data.
A variety of single zone completions are possible to  Selective killing, selective stimulation is
meet many production requirements like putting the very difficult.
well on pump, gas lift, chemical injection, etc.  Re-perforation of upper zone is not
possible without pulling out the string.
For multiple zone completions, numerous  For routine testing of one zone, other
configurations are possible utilizing single or zone{s) has to be closed:
multiple strings of tubing.  Pressure matching of the zones at the
commingling point in the tubing string is
Single String - Single Packer: very difficult due to dynamic change in
pressure and flow rates and frequent
One pay zone is flowed through tubing and other changes of down hole chokes size have to
pay zone through annulus. Its disadvantages are: bemade.
 The deterioration in the performance of
 Upper zone can't be produced through one zone adversely affects the
tubing unless lower zone is blanked off or performance of other zones).
commingled or production is reversed.  Production of sediments from the upper
 Casing is subjected to pressure, paraffin and zone may lead to. the sticking of
corrosion. packers/string,
 Only one zone can be artificially lifted.  Cross flow between the zones is always a
 Upper zone sand production may stick possibility.
tubing/cause packer unsetting problem
Multiple string completions:
Commingled completion:
 Dual completion (two packers and two
 In this multiple completion method, all
tubing strings), and triple completion (two or
zones produce through single tubing string.
three packers and tubing strings) are shown
Two zones 'commingled' completion would
in Figs 3.8 Well can be completed as triple
consist of single tubing string and one or
completion also with three packers.
two packers. Lower zone will be below the
(lower) packer and upper zone will be
between the two packers or open to annulus These have the following advantages :
(in case of single packer installation),
 Proration of flows amongst different layers  Possible to produce from/inject into
is made possible by installation of downhole more than one production/injection zone
choke devices. through a single well, thereby reducing
overall development costs.

47
  Selective zone well control is the packer and wellhead Jbecause these
possible. length changes are kept from occurring.
 Use of natural energy (gas) from one
zone to artificially produce another zone,  Calculating the tubing length
is possible. changes/forces generated. due to these
effects, is therefore very essential in a
Disadvantages: completion design.

 The large amount of equipment down 3.3.1Temperature effect

hole creates problems.
 Expensive and more complicated Thermal expansion or contraction causes the major
completion and work over techniques. length change in the tubing
 Possible loss of production in zone due to
mechanical problems and formation ∆Lt= 8.82 (10-5 ) Lt .∆T
damage during work over.
∆Lt : change in tubing length in tubing length, ft.

∆T : change in average temperature

Lt : tubing length ft

AT is the difference between the average

temperatures of any two subsequent operating
modes.

If the motion is constrained, forces will be induced

as a result of the temperature change. The
temperature-induced force is :

F= 207 Atw∆T

F: force (tensile or compressive, depending on

direction of tubing ),lbf

Fig. -3.8Dual completion (Two packers and Atw: cross-sectional area of the tubing wall, sq in.
two tubing strings)
In most cases, the temperature effect provides the
3.3 Tubing length and force change major length or force change when changing from
one operational mode to another.
 In tubing-packer installation, tubing length
3.32 piston effect
changes take place with the change in
temperature and pressures inside and The length change or force induced by the piston
outside the tubing, due to the change in effect is caused by pressure changes inside the
operating conditions (for example from annulus and tubing at the packer, acting on different
initial condition (shut-in) to production; areas (Fig. 3.9).
initial condition to stimulation, etc),
The force and length changes can be calculated as
 The two major factors which tend to follows:
lengthen 01' shorten the string
(movement permitted) are = ∆Pt (Api - Ati) tubing - ∆Pan (Api - Ato)annulus
 Temperature effects,
 Pressure effects • piston, ∆Lt - 12 Lt / E Atw (∆Pt(Api - Ati) - ∆Pan (Api –
ballooning, and buckling effects. Ato)(pressure acting on differential area)

 If the tubing ie not permitted to move (i.e

.. latched at the packer)," forces (tension or
compression forces) are generated on both
48
 and F= 0.6 (∆PtAti - ∆ Pan.Ato )

∆Pt: change in average tubing pressure from one

mode to another, psi,
Fig.-3.9 Tubing and packer system, illustrating
various areas and pressures necessary for ∆Pan: change in average annulus pressure from one
movement or force calculations. mode to another, psi,
Where: Foi: ratio of tubing OD to ID.
Api ;area of packer ID, sq. in., 3.34 Buckling effect

Tubing strings tend to buckle only when tubing

pressure is greater than annulus preeeure, The result
Ati :area of tubing ID, sq. in., ( fig: 3.9) is a shortening of the tubing; the force exerted is
negligible.
Ato; area of tubing OD, sq in,

∆Pt: change in tubing pressure at packer, psi, . The tubing length change is calculated using
∆Pan: change in annulus pressure at packer, psi .

E: modulus of elasticity, psi 30X 10 6 for steel], r 2. Api 2.( Pt Pan)2

8 EI (Wt Wft Wfd )
∆Lt =

 The piston force is the sum of two pressures Where:

acting on two areas - one for the tubing and
one for the annulus. Fig 3. 8a shows that for r = radial clearance between tubing OD ,dto
a large bore packer, annulus. pressure and casing ID dci (in inches)
causes downward force while tubing
pressure causes an upward force. = (dci –dto)/2

 For a small bore packer this situation is I = moment of inertia of tubing about its
reversed (Fig. 3. 8b). The force greatest in diameter inch4
magnitude will determine the resulting
direction of action. = (π/64 ) (dto4 - dti 4 )

Wt = wt of tubing ,lbm/inch
 An accurate schematic of the tubing and
packer bore for each operating case should Wft = weight of fluid in tubing lbm/in
be prepared for proper determination of
areas, forces, and the resulting direction of Wfd = eight of displaced fluid ,lbm/inch
action.
Buckling only shortens the tubing and in most wells
it will be the smallest constraint. For use with the
3.3.3 Ballooning and reverse ballooning radial and inertia calculations, values for Ato, Ati,
Atw , I , Foi and (Wt + Wft. - Wfd) can be found ,
High internal pressure swells and balloons the from tubing data tables.
tubing and causes it to shorten.
Other forces:
Likewise, pressure in the annulus squeezes the
tubing, causing it to elongate. This effect is called  In addition to the above mentioned basic
"reverse ballooning". effect a created by pressure and temperature
changes, any mechanically applied length or
The ballooning and reverse ballooning length force change must also be considered.
change and force are given by; These mechanically applied forces are
created by either pulling tension into the
∆Lt = 2.4 (10 – 7 ) Lt (∆Pt – Foi2 ∆Pan) /Foi2 -1 tubing or slacking off tubing weight onto
the packer.

49
  Since the mechanical forces are applied  Mechanically applied tension and slack off
when the packer is set or the seals installed, forces are used not only to set packers but
either the length change or force change is also to compensate for both, the pressure
known. If one watches both the weight and the temperature effects which will
indicator and the tubing as these forces are occur as the well conditions vary.
applied, both the force changes and length
changes due to the mechanical forces will For instance :
be known.
 In case of acidization, as the temperature  Since pressure and bending creates stresses
drops in the well due to injection of cold at both the inner tubing wall and outer
fluids. Tubing will try to contract. If slack tubing wall , both the inner fiber stresses
off weight .has been applied on the packer, and outer fiber stresses must be calculated.
it will compensate. to an extent, for the  Slacking off weight onto the packer will
tubing contraction effect. thus the also create a large stress (So slack off) at
movement of the locator seal assembly (in the tubing outer wall which must be
case of a permanent packer) or the tension determined.
force generated (in case of latched tubing in  The tubing fiberstresses can be calculated
a permanent /retrievable packer) will be formulae from tubing data table.
minimized.  If the quantity Api (∆Pt –∆Pan ) + Fp
(tubing to packer force ) is equal to or less
 In case of well under production, tubing than zero ( negative value) there is no
will tend to elongate due to increase in buckling or bending in the tubing stress
temperature because of flow of hot reservoir will be equal to zero.
fluid up the tubing.  If either of the fiber stresses (So slack off ,
or Si) is larger than the safety factor times
Wt+wft–wfd can be obtained from tubing data table tubing yield strength , the tubing become
permanently damaged.
 If the tubing is kept under tension (with  For setting the maximum allowable stress
tubing latched to packer), it will limits, the following rules may be used :-
compensate, to an extent, for the tubing  Never exceed 80% of tubing yield
expansion effect, thus compressive force strength
generated on the packer will be minimized.  For continuous loads ,never exceed
75% of tubing yield strength
 The net or overall length 'change (or force)
 For tubing load that continuously
is the sum of length changes (or forces)
fluctuates , try not to exceed 50% of the
caused by the basic effects plus
tubing yield strength if possible and
mechanically applied force
never exceed 75% of the tubing yield
The direction of the length change for each effect strength
(or action of the force) must be considered when
summing them. 3.36 Top joint tension

For a change in operating conditions, the motion (or  The top joint is the most critical joint of
force) created by one effect can be offset, 01' tubing since it must carrry the forces
enhanced, by the motion (or force) developed by generated between the packer and the
some other effect. tubing. plus the weight of the tubing below
it.
3.35 Tubing Fiber Stresses
 The top joint tension is determined by
 The lower end of the tubing string will combining the following three forces:
always be subjected to stresses acting in the
tubing as a result of pressure and bending.  The force due to the weight of the
 Pressures acting alone will create the tubing string in air;
greatest stresses at the inner wall of the
 The force due to pressure acting on the
tubing , while bending acting along will
end of the tubing (Fa.);
produce the greatest stresses at the outer
wall.  The packer-to-tubing force (F p) as
seen from the top joint.
50
  When adding these forces together,. It is If the tubing length changes/forces generated are
absolutely necessary to keep track of the excessive, options to compensate for them will be:
direction of the forces acting.
 Landing the tubing in tension compression
 The force due to the tubing weight will (in case of retrievable packer; permanent
always act down. The other two forces can packer with tubing anchored to it).
act in either direction.  Use of expansion joint in the tubing string
(in case of retrievable packer which is an
 If the packer-to-tubing force (Fp)tis a integral part of the string),
tension force. it will increase the top joint
tension; if it (Fp) is a compressive force, it  Use of locator tubing seal assembly (in case
will decrease the top joint tension. of permanent packer).

 The top joint tension should not exceed the If the length changes/forces generated are not
safety factor times the joint yield strength. excessive, use .of tubing string and retrievable
packer without any provision to compensate for
3.37 General selection Guidelines length changes/forces generated (i.e. no expansion
joint, etc) may be considered, provided:
Once the above calculations are carried out and
length changes/forces generated. top joint tension,  The tension force generated (due to tubing
contraction during stimulation) is not in
fiber stresses are determined, for various operating
excess of 50% of the shear value of the
conditions, it is then possible to select the tubing of packer,
required strength, after also taking into consideration
the burst &collapse parameters, and the most  Compressive force generated (due to tubing
optimum method for tubing to packer hook up. expansion during production) is not
excessive,
 Fiber stresses and top joint tension are Blast Joints:
within the limits, for the selected tubing.
Extension of blast joints beyond the perforations
3.4 Completion Equipment should never be less than 8 ftdownstream and 5 ft
upstream of the flow direction.
 Most. Installation, operational and maintenance
difficulties can be overcome by anticipating
Sliding Sleeves:
problems, defining problem areas, and planning
the completion design accordingly. Do not install sliding sleeves opposite the
perforations unless it unavoidable.
 Some common problems and recommended
remedies in well completion design have been The general rules for minimum distance
included. between down hole equipments are as under :-
 Certain basic criteria given below should be  Between blast joint and sliding sleeve: 6ft
noted during well completion:  Between sliding sleeve &packer setting
sleeve: one joint of tubing or 30 ft
Wing Guide Subs:  Between two sliding sleeves : one joint, of
tubing or 30 ft
Used to centralize blast joints in casing, particularly'
 Between blast joint and packer setting
in deviated wells. They should be installed at least
sleeve: 6 ft
every 40 ft(or part of 40 ft;) of the blast joint length.
 Between sliding sleeve and no-go nipple 6
ft
Perforations :
The magnitude of depth discrepancies that. can
The closest distance between perforations of occur between actual and theoretical depths of
adjacent pay zones should preferably be more than tubing and accessories due to tubing stretch are:
30 ft to allow for packer, packer accessories and
Depth ft Shallower ft Deeper ft
blast joint positioning.
7000 2 7

51
 8000 2½ 9½ The disadvantages of this type of packer are:

9000 3½ 11 ½  Pulling may swab the well in if packer is not

fully released.
10000 4 13  They have lower differential pressure rating
unless otherwise called for
11000 5 15  Equalization of pressure across the packer
may be difficult.
12000 5 17
 Sand or other deposits above the packer, may
Where extremities' of blast joints and/or positions' of make it difficult to retrieve. Inclusion of a
packers relative to perforations fall within the safety joint to counter this, introduces aweak
maximum discrepancies listed above, 'it is point in the tubing string and an additional
recommended to run a gamma - ray casing collar possible leak source.
locator to ascertain the precise position of equipment
Rotational release should be avoided in highly
relative to zones.
deviated wells, as it can be difficult to get
The minimum recommended distance between therotational torque transmitted to the packer and
landing nipples is: can damage the control line for the SC-SSV.

 Depths upto 10000ft : 15 ft While stimulating the well with cold fluids,
excessive contraction of the tubing may shear the
 Depths between 10000to15000 ft : 25 ft. packer release studs, of straight pun release type
packers. ifthe hold down buttons are not holding .
(when expansion joint has not been provided. in the
3.4.1 Packers
string to take care of tubing. length changes).
 There are many packers to choose from, for both
Permanent packer
conventional and specialized applications. There
are many factors to be taken into account for  This type of packer once set, can be
selection of packers for a particular well (fig: 'regarded as part of the casing and can only
3.10) belremoved destructively by milling.
 The packers can be of single, dual or triple bore  Tubing can be released from, and run back
and are mainly classified as: and sealed into, this type of packer.
 Retrievable  Permanent packers can be set mechanically,
 Permanent hydraulically or electrically (wire line or
 Permanent – retrievable explosive set) is required.
Retrievable packers
They are recommended for use where:
They are run in an integral part of the tubing string.
They are set either mechanically or hydraulically and  Long term completion (i, e. retrievabilityis
can he released by pulling or rotating the tubing. less possible) is required.

The advantages of retrievable packers are:  High pressure differential is required.

 Tubing can be landed and the Christmas  Maximum dependability is required.

tree installed.
 The packer does not have to be milled out if  Large packer bore is required.
it becomes necessary to remove it, thus
saving rig time.  Exact location of the packer is critical and
 Packer can be reused in other applications wire line set is used.
 Mechanical retrievable packers can be·
reused in the same well without redressing. Bottom extension below the packer is required to
accommodate down hole tools for isolation of the
Most of testing and completion packers are bottom producing formation incase of tubing
retrievable type. retrieval, wellhead damage or casing leak. The
bottom extension should include the following:

52
 A landing nipple to land a plug or safety sufficient tension is applied, resulting in
valve. easier wire line work. Because there is no
movement between packer and tubing, the
 A flow coupling directly above the landing risk of leakage is reduced.
nipple to safeguard against erosion failure
from turbulence caused by the safety valve.  There are several methods of latching the
tubing (collet, rotation, sleeve), but all of
 A tubing section to enable the tail pipe to be
cutoff, should a plug become stuck in the them can produce problems in tubing
landing nipple. recovery, especially:

 A packer milling extension of approximately  in deviated holes ,in corrosive wells

six feet to provide space for the catch sleeve and in wells where a zone produces
of the milling tool above the packer
 when solids have settled out in an
 The locator tubing seal assembly is designed annulus containing 'weighted' fluid.
with external seals which pack off in the
polished bore .of the permanent packer to
seal off theannulus at the packer. Basic seal If packer fluid is to be used with latched tubing,
units include two seal stacks, but any care must be taken to specify a solid-free fluid.
number or seal units can be screwed together
to increase the length of the assembly.
Packer Forces :
 It is not recommended to use a long
continuous series of seals in a seal bore/seal There are two main forces acting on a packer:
bore extension because of excessive seal
friction and possible concentricity problem  The hydraulic pressure forces that act
of packer bore and seal bore extension. directly on the packer and the tubing to
Spacer type seal units should be considered
packer forces.
in these cases.
 The hydraulic force is usually in the form
 When locator spacer seal assemblies are
of differential pressure acting from above
used, it is recommended that a seal bore
or below. This is determined by the
extension or seal protector be included
difference between well pressure acting
between the packer and milling extension to
upward and annular pressure acting
confine the seals when tubing movements
downward.
occur.
 One of the factors to be taken into account
 The tubing seal assembly does not look into
when selecting a packer is the kind of force
the packer. Because it is free to move. it
it will be required to resist to prevent
does not allow the tubing string to be landed
unseating
in tension except that ·of its own weight.
A:Jthe top collar of the assembly seats on the  Permanent packers can withstand pressure
top of the packer body, the tubing can be differentials from above or below. The
landed withset down weight. differential pressure rating for retrievable
packers depends on whether they are
 Tubing contraction, caused by well shut-in compression, tension or
or injection of cold fluids, should be tension/compression types.
carefully calculated to ensure that with
maximum shortening of the tubing," the  Compression packers will not become
seals still remain in the packer bore. Tubing
unseated by a downward force applied either
expansion hove the original design estimate
15 liable to cause buckling. by tubing weight or annular pressure from
above. This type therefore resists a
 The anchor tubing seal assembly is latched downward pressure differential
to the packer, enabling the tubing string to
be landed in tension in order to counter  Tension packers are the reverse of the
expansion during production. This has the compression type and cannot be unseated
advantage of preventing helical buckling if by an upward pressure differential exerted
53
 by tubing tension or by pressure from tubing pressure :
below. 1000 lb/inch2

 Tension /compression packers will not tubing weight : 1000 lb

become unseated by pressure from -either
direction and can withstand a differential packer setting depth 8000 ft
from above or below.
9.5 lb/gal salt water : 0.493 psi/ft
 To determine whether weight-set or
tension-set packers will become unseated 7.3lb/gal crude oil : 0.379 psi/ft
under given operational conditions, a
simple force-balance calculation should be id area of 6-1/2 in casing
adequate (Fig. 3.9a).
: 18.8 inch 2
 In a high pressure well, differential pressure
across the packer can be reduced by loading od area of 2-3/8 in 4.7ppf tubing
the annulus with fluid of the correct weight.
: 4.43 inch2
It should be noted that for design purposes the tubing
to packer forces need to be calculated for the id area of 2"3/8 tubing
various operating conditions.
: 3.13 inch 2
Annular pressure force
8000 x 0.493 = 3944 psi
Annular Pressure Force
= 3944 x ( 18.8- 4.43 )
= 56700 lb

Tubing bottom pressure

= 8000 x 0.3794 + 1000

= 4035 psi

Tubing pressure force

= 4035 x (18.8 - 3.13 )

=63200 lb

Tubing weight : 10000 lb

Net force

= 56700 + 10000– 63200

Fig: 3.10 Mechanical , Hydraulic and Permanent = 3500 lb down

packer

Packer force calculations shown in fig: 3.11

Fig.- 3.11Packer force - balance calculation

3.4.2 Subsurface control equipment

Subsurface control is executed by a number of

devices-

 Safety valves
54
  Bottom hole chokes and regulators  Where high production rates require
 Injection safety valves maximum flow area through the valve.
Subsurface controlled subsurface safety valves  Down hole wire line requirements are not
(SSCSV) achievable.

These are of two types - The pressure actuated valves are pre-charged with
a set dome pressure and held open by well
Differential pressure or velocity type which is pressure. When the flowing pressure of the well
spring operated and normally open, drops. The valve closes to shut-in the well. When
tubing pressure is equalized with dome pressure it
The pressure actuated type, which is dome pressure will open the valve automatically. ..
operated and normally closed until acted upon by
pressure greater than the pre-set dome pressure.  These valves have limitations similar- to
those of the pressure-differential type
The differential pressure design valve shuts in the valves.
well automatically when abnormal production flow
Surface controlled subsurface safety valves (SC-
results in higher pressure differential than the
SSV)
valve's spring setting. This situation would arise if a
rupture has occurred in the surface equipment. . There are two main categories of SC-SSV :
 These valves are usually wire line set,
Wire line retrievable and Tubing
therefore; reduces flow area through the valve,
This may be detrimental to down hole wire line retrievable.
jobs and to higher flow rates.
 Both these valves are controlled from the
 These valves are reopened either by application surface by hydraulic pressure through
of tubing pressure or by wire line. external control lines.

 As a guideline it is recommended that closing  The valves are normally - closed type and
differential be selected at least 75 pei below the are held open against spring pressure by
expected emergency differential. maintaining hydraulic pressure. The loss of
hydraulic pressure will cause the valve to
There are two main designs of this type 1) valve a- close and shut-in the well. .
dn Valve and seat and 2) Rotating ball.
 Surface control units, which supply the
hydraulic pressure, also monitor any
The ball-type valves have two advantages:
abnormal increase or decrease in flow line
pressure.
 Through-conduit flow has less turbulence and
permits higher flow rates, There main advantages of SC-SSC are ;
 The metal to metal ball and seat are protected
from erosion in the operating condition.  Operation of the valve is controlled
from surface, avoiding the dependence
Since pressure-differential type valves are on subsurface uncertain flow
designed to shut-in a well under predetermined
conditions, i.e. excess flow, they are not suitable  Valves are designed to close regardless
for use: of tubing pressures

 When the increased flow rate necessary to  They are independent of well , being
shut the valve cannot be obtained due to incentive to pressures and fluid surges
smaller tubing size" in high volume wells.
 Most types have a larger bore and
 If well conditions change to the extent that therefore permits high flow rates
the well is not capable of producing the
flow rate for which the valve is set, so that However, if they are tubing retrievable type,
the valve can never" close: would require tubing pulling for repairs, This
involves costly work over.

55
 The tubing retrievable valves incorporate  Commingled' completions to control
alanding nipple which can receive a wire line fluid flow from each zone. .
retrievable valve (insert valve); to take over
tlle duties of a failed valve, thus enabling the  In high pressure wells to reduce wellhead
pulling of tubing to be postponed until pressures.
convenient.
 Regulators usually consist of a valve and
 The wire line retrievable insert valve is spring-loaded seat. The spring tension is
usually controlled by the same hydraulic selected according to the amount of pressure
system as the tubing integral valve. Obviously, differential required. When this differential is
if the malfunction is in the control line. then reached. the seat moves away from the valve
the insert valve must be a subsurface and the well is allowed to flow.
controlled type valve.
Chokes and regulators are normally wireline
 An alternative redundant back-up system for retrievable.
greater safety includes a separate safety valve
landing nipple, or a separate tubing retrievable Injection safety valves :
valve with its own independent control line (i,e,
dual SC-SSV design). instead of a landing  These are used in injection wells to
nipple incorporated in the tubing integral safety automatically shut-in the tubing in the event
valve itself. Such a system ensures that a failed of injection stoppage or ' flow reversal.
tubing retrievable type valve can always be
locked out and its safety role replaced by  They are wlreline run/retrieved and can be
another surface controlled valve and tubing ball flapper or stem and seat type valves.
pulling is not required.
3.43 Circulating devices
 Subsurface control valves must be selected
designed, manufactured and tested to Side Pocket Mandrels:
withstand the expected producing conditions.
 Side pocket mandrel has a polished
 API RP 14A and 14B on the selection of receptacle/pocket at one side which
safety valves; and the manufacturing and test receives down hole tools lowered by wire
requirements for safety valves should be line.
referred to for this purpose.
 Side pocket mandrels are fitted anywhere in
 The well completion and test data constitute the tubing string where it is necessary to:
major input to valve selection and design.
Presently, accurate computer solutions are  Install a gas lift valve
available for its design and evaluation for
changing reservoir parameters. variations in  Install chemical injection valves
wellhead pressures and different emergency
conditions. It also helps in evaluating the  Install downhole choke
problem of premature closure.
 Install water injection flow regulators
Bottom hole chokes and regulators:
 Complete the well dually or in multiple
 The fixed type choke or the spring-loaded zones
regulator has a calibrated orifice, restricting
fluid flow to :  Test or treat selectively

 Provide communication between tubing
 Prevent hydrate formation and annulus

 Prolong the self flowing life of a well by Either a working or dummy valve, tool or
maintaining bottomhole pressure. regulators can be installed in mandrel

Sliding sleeves
 Control water encroachment.
 Sliding sleeves are part of tubing string
 Bottom hole chokes are used in and provide communication between
tubing and annulus
56
  They also used for following 3.45 Safety Joints
applications
 These are used between packers in
 Displacing fluids completions dual completions and selective
completions using single string packers
 Selective testing
 The shear pin safety joint is a device that
 Killing by circulation enables stuck tubing to be sheared off. But
because it introduces a weak joint, its use
 Pressure equalizing should be restricted wherever possible
 Using the tubing to kick off the second  Tubing cutters can be used to cut the tubing
string in a dual completion at any desired depth in most wells , but
when sanding problem is there , then safety
 Install valve or choked or flow joint is preferred
regulator
3.46 Landing Nipples
Methods of operating sliding sleeve include
 Landing nipple in a tubing string enable the
 By wire line jarring up/down to open /close installation of various control equipments
with wire line
 By pressure to open and close
 The landing nipples, with their variety of
 Jar up to open sleeves, as opposed jar down to profiles , allow the incorporation of a
open, has the advantage that a greater force unlimited number in a tubing string , with
can usually be exerted by upward jarring using complete selectivity for setting and locking
hydraulic jars. Down ward jarring force, of the appropriate mandrels .
especially in deviated wells is limited to stem
weight.  With certain makes of selective landing
nipple, it is important that they are installed
 Where a large differential pressure , annulus to in a particular order from bottom to top
tubing , is expected , jar down to open sleeves
may be preferable  The wells may have at least one landing
nipple in the tubing string if wire line
 Any number of sliding sleeves may be facility is available. This is usually a no-go
incorporated in a tubing string if they are the nipple at the bottom of the string. It
wire line operated type and they my all perform a dual function:
opened/closed by one wire line trip.
 It prevents wire lone tools larger than
 Selective opening /closing of individual no-go dimension to run below
sleeves also possible.
 It permits recocking of hydraulic jars
 The use of pressure operated type is best when trying to open/close sleeves
restricted to only one sleeve (jarring upwards)
 Most sliding sleeves incorporate landing  It is important to ensure that the no-go
profiles , enabling a selection of control nipple selected is compatible with
devices , including straddle tools to isolate a equipment installed higher in the tubing
leaking sleeve , to be looked in string and will permit passage of any
equipment intended to be run below it

 Ported landing nipples are with addition of

3.44 Expansion joints ports/opening foe tubing/annulus
communication. The flow path through the
 Expansion joints are designed to be used in ports is determined by sleeves landed and
single and multistring completions when locked in the nipple, this will do the same
tubing movement is expected because of function of sliding sleeve.
temperature /pressure changes during
treatment or production

 These are available with various stroke lengths 3.47 Polished bore receptable
Opening and closing strokes are as per the
operating requirements in a particular wells

57
 Polished bore receptacle are used in liner Lowermost casing hanger
completion and run as part of liner above or
below the liner hanger. A seal mandrel  It seats in a bowl of a lowermost casing
packs off in the PBR.
head or an intermediate casing head to
3.48 Blast joint and flow coupling suspend the next smaller casing
securely and provide a seal between the
 The flow coupling minimize erosion due to suspended casing and the casing bowl.
velocity impact and turbulence of fluid
flowing inside tubing , where as blast joint
minimizes erosion due to flow impact of  It usually consists of a set of slips and a
fluid on outside of tubing string sealing mechanism. It is latched around
the casing and dropped through the
 Flow couplings are used in the tubing string
BOP's to the casing bowl.
of a flowing well to protect the tubing ,
above and below such turbulence inducing
Intermediate casing heads -
equipments safety valves from abrasive
action.  An intermecliate calling head is a spool
type unit or housing attached to the top
 A flow coupling is a length of tubing with flange of the underlying casing head, _
higher wall thickness , the inner surface is to provide a means of supporting the
hardened next smaller casing string and sealing the
annular space between the two casing
 Length of flow coupling is normally 20 strings.
times inside diameter or 36 inches is
recommended  It is composed of

 Blast joints are used in the tubing string  a lower flange (counter bored with a
opposite the perforations in producing recess to accommodate a removable
zones to reduce the erosion due to jetting bit guide. or a bit guide and secondary
of fluid seal assembly ),
 one or two side outlets.
 A blast joint is also a length of tubing with
enhanced wall thickness , manufactured  A top flange with an internal engaging
from alloys hanger bowl.
Intermediate casing hangers
3.5 Wellhead equipment
 These are identical in every respect to casing
 Wellhead equipment are attached to the top hangers used in lowermost casing heads and
of the tubing goods used in well –to support are used to suspend the next smaller casing
for tubing strings , hang them, provide seals string in the intermediate casing head.
between strings and control production
from the well.

 These equipments are covered by

specifications API -6A

3.5.1 Wellheadassembly

 The lowermost casing head is a unit or

housing attached to the top end of the
surface pipe to provide a means for
supporting the other etrings of pipe, and
sealing - the annular space between the two
strings of casing.

 It is composed of a casing hanger bowl to

receive the casing hanger for attaching
blow out preventers(BOP's), or other
intermediate casing heads or tubing heads
Fig: 3.12 well head assembly
and a lower connection (a female or male
thread or a slip-on socket for welding).
58
Tubing head  It is used to provide a seal between the
tubing and the tubing head, or to support
 It is a spool- type unit or housing attached the tubing and to seal between the tubing
to the top flange of the uppermost casing and tubing head.
head to provide a support for the tubing
string and to seal annular space between  Several types of tubing hangers are
the tubing string and production casing available and each has a particular
string. application. More commonly used types
 It also provides access to the casing I are wrap-around, polished-joint, ball-
tubing annulus through side outlets weevil and stripper rubber.
(threaded, studded or extended flanged).
 The most popular is wrap-around type. It
 It is composed of a lower flange (or could
is composed of two hinged halves, which
have threaded bottom which screws
include a resilient sealing element
directly on the production. Casing string),
between two steel mandrels 01' plates.
one or two' side outlets and a top flange
The hanger can be latched around the
with an internal hanger bowl.
tubing, dropped into the tubing-head
 On the double-flanged type, in the lower
bowl, and secured in place by the tubing-
flange a recess is provided to accommodate a
bit guide or a bit guide and secondary seal. head lock screws. .
Lock screws normally are included in the top
 The lock screws force the top steel
flange to hold the tubing hanger in place and/or
mandrel or plate down to compress the
to compress the tubing hanger seal, which seals
the annular space between the tubing and the sealing element and form a seal between
casing. the tubing and tubing head.
 In selecting a tubing head, the following  Full tubing weight can be temporarily
factors should be considered to maintain supported on the tubing hanger, but
Positive control over the well at all times: permanent support is provided by
threading the top tubing thread into the
adapter flange on top of the tubing head.
 The lower flange must be of the proper size and The hanger then acts as a seal only.
working pressure to fit the uppermost flange on  In selecting a tubing hanger, it should be I
the casing head below or the crossover flange ensured that the hanger will provide an
adequate seal between the tubing and
attached to the casing head flange, if one is
tubing head for the particular well
used. conditions (metal to metal seals are desired
 The bit guide, or bit guide and .secondary- in most cases) and that it is of standard
sealassembly must be sized to fit the size, suitable for lowering through full
production casing string. . opening drilling equipment.
 The side outlets must be of the proper Adaptor
design, size and working pressure.
 The working pressure of the unit must be It is used to connect two flanges of different
equal to or greater than the anticipated dimensions or connect a flange to a threaded end.
shut-in surface pressure. Crossover flange -
 The top flange must be sized to receive the A crossover flange is an intermediate flange used
required tubing hanger, and of the correct to connect flanges of different working pressures.
working pressure to fit the adapter flange These are usually available in two types:
on the Christmas tree assembly. Lock
screws should also be included in the top LA double-studded crossover flange is studded and
flange. grooved on one side for one working pressure, and
 The tubing head should be full opening to studded and I grooved on the other side for the next
provide full-sized access to the production higher-working-pressure rating.' The flange must
casing string below and be adaptable to also include a seal around the inner string of pipe
future remedial operations as well as to to prevent pressure from the higher-working
artificial lift, pressure side reaching the lower working-pressure
side. The seal may be of the resilient type, plastic-
Tubing hanger packed type or welded type.

Another type of crossover flange includes a

59
restricted-ring groove in the top side of the
flange to fit a corresponding restricted-ring Safety shut-in system
groove in the mating head. The restricted-ring  Since the consequences of uncontrolled well
groove and the seal between the flange and the flow are so severe, especially in offshore,
inner .casing string act to restrict the pressure to a automatic well shut-in safety systems are
smaller area, thereby allowing a higher pressure incorporated, particularly in offshore I
rating. installations. Safety systems must be, failsafe.
Failure of the energy source or any component
must cause the system to go to the safe mode.
3.5.2 Christmas tree Assembly Usually safe mode means the wells are shut in
at one or more points. .
 A Christmas tree is an assembly of valves  Safety .valves may be located in the tubing
and fittings used to control production and string (subsurface . safety valve), on the
provide access to the producing tubing Christmas tree. or downstream of the well in
string. It includes' all .equipment above the 'the surface flow line (surface safety valve).
tubing-head top flange. A typical Christmas Most safety valves are controlled with
tree ia shown in Fig. 3.13. externally applied fluid pressure. Release of the
 Many variations in arrangement of wellhead control pressure allows the valve to close.
and Christmas tree assemblies are available
 A surface safety valve (SSV) on a Christmas tree
to satisfy the needs of any particular is usually the second valve in the flow stream.
application. Hence, it is the second master valve, if it is in
 Full-opening valves must be used in the the vertical run, otherwise it is a wing valve.
vertical run of the Christmas tree assembly
to provide access to the tubing.  Most. SSV’s are reverse-acting productiongate
 Restricted-opening valves are sometimes valves with piston-type actuators. Large-ratio
used as wing valves, without loss of pneumatic actuators',' are generally used
efficiency or utility. to effect an economic because the large ratio permits use of lower
saving, control pressure. I Low-ratio hydraulic actuators
 Valves could be flanged or ·threaded type or are used where the SSV is to be controlled
mono block forged. bythe same system that controls the sub-surface
 Flanged .valveeare preferred on applications safety valve orwherelimited space is available
of 3000 psi working pressure and above.
on the Christmas tree.
Flanged valves are available in sizes from
1~3/16 through 7-lJ16 in. with working
pressure rating from 2000 to 20000 psi.
Christmas tree fitting- Other Christmas tree
fittings include tees, crosses and other
connections' necessary to provide the most 3.5.3 Multiple well completion equipments
desirable arrangement for the particular
application, Multiple completions or multiple-tubing string
 The size of the vertical run may vary from completions require the same wellhead assembly as
21/16 to 41/16 in. but must be consistent single tubing string completions, with one
with the master-valve and tubing-head
adapter-flange size to give. full-opening exception. The tubing-head bowl must be designed
access to the tubing for wire line tools and and sized to accommodate the required size and
instruments. number of tubing strings and provide a means for
 The outlet in the tee or cross and wing properly orienting the tubing strings.
assembly must be of sufficient size to
handle the production requirements without
undue restriction. Outlets vary in size from
1-13/16 to 4 -1/16 inches.
 All Christmas tree assemblies should be
assembled, pressure-tested to hydrostatic
test pressure, and checked with a drift
mandrel to ensure full opening
installation.

60
 internals. A typical mono block Christmas tree
is shown in Fig. 3.14.
 The advantages are:
 The number of leak paths is reduced
(due to less number of flanged joints),
hence leakage possibilities are
minimized.
 Compact design facilitates operations.
 a Installation/removal time is reduced.
 Made by forging process, therefore
has better corrosion resistance.

3.13 Typical x-mas tree with casing head

Common available types of multiple tubing hangers are;

 Multiple –bore mandrel

 Multiple segment
 Combination mandrel and Ball-Weevil Fig .• 3.14 mono block x-mas tree
 Tension type
The disadvantage is :
In selecting a multiple-completion tubing hanger, the
following factors should be considered:  Repair of mono block Christmas
tree may be difficult.
 Seal on the individual hangers should not be Mono block Christmas trees are usually preferred in the
exposed to damage by sueceasive running of following areas:
remaining tubing strings.
 Positive packoff elements or seals should  High pressure and temperature gas/oil well
be provided. completions in onshore and offshore.
 Design should allow passage of gas-lift
valves if needed.  Sour oil/gss well completions where small leaks can
 The hanger should he constructed for endanger human life.
accurate, dependable pressure testing after
tubing strings have been landed and sealed.  Where platform space constraint (in offshore)
 The Christmas tree assembly for a restricts the use of conventional Christmas trees.
multiple-parallel-string wellhead includes
all fittings above the tubing-head flange.  Gas/high GOR wells in a cluster where the
Christmas trees are in close proximity.
 Threaded, welded, independently flanged
and integrally flanged Christmas tree
assemblies are available. 3.55 Corrosion control of wellhead equipment
Internal corrosion
3.54 Monoblock Christmas tree
Wellhead protection methods for weight loss
 In unitized (mono block) Christmas trees, the corrosion are:
component valves are integrated into one  An effective inhibitor, protective coating or
block. These tree are typically manufactured special alloy "equipment is generally required
from solid forged steel bodies by machining the when the C02 partial pressure, at bottom hole
61
 conditions, exceeds 30 psi.
 Special-alloy equipment is generally required  The functions of casing may be summarized as:
when the CO;!partial pressure, at bottomhole
conditions, exceeds 100 psi.  To keep the hole open and to provide a
support for weak or fractured formation.
Sulfide or Chloride stress cracking corrosion  To isolate porous media with different
wellhead protection methods are: fluids / pressure regimes from
 Special alloy equipment is generally required contaminating the pay zone. This is in
when pressures exceed 65 psia and the partial conjunction with cementation.
pressure of H2S exceeds 0.05 psia.  To prevent contamination of near surface
 Proper injection of an effective inhibitor. fresh water zones.
 Carbon and low alloy steels that are used,  To provide passage for hydrocarbon fluid.
should not exceed a hardness level of HRC 22.
 Valves v vith body and bonnet of low alloy  To provide connections for wellhead equipment,
steels and cladding with inconel 410 or 625 BOP etc.
provide cost effective material for adverse
corrosive environment.  To facilitate running in of completion tools with
 An extreme sour condition exists when both C02 respect to their known diameter.
and H2S are present in the well fluids. In general,
stainless steels, or other nonferrous materials may be  It is most ideal to drill a hole and run a single
required for this service. API Spec. 6A refers to calling string to target depth (TO). Due to
NACE standard MR-Ol-75 as the governing presence of high pressured zones at different
standard for materials to resist sulfide stress depths, presence of weak unconsolidated
cracking. formations, sloughing shale zones ete.,
 Use of composite materials/low alloy steels with completion with a single string is usually
cladding of high alloy must be explored. impossible. Generally, a number of casing
strings are run to eliminate problematic zones
External corrosion of well head equipment before the target depth is reached and final
Wellhead protection methods for oxygen completion casing string is lowered.
corrosion are:  The different types of casing used are
summarized as under.
 Use of special alloy equipment. Stove pipe:
 Application of effective external protective The stove pipe or Marine conductor (or
coatings of metallic or nonmetallicmaterials. foundation pile for offshore drilling) is run to:
Use of cathodic protection for the underwater
zone.  prevent washout of 50ft soil near
surface (unconsolidated formation),
Wellhead protection methods for electrochemical  provide a circulating system for
corrosion are: . ·drilling mud and to ensure stability of
the ground surface upon which rig is
 Use of properly applied and maintained catholic operated.
protection. These pipes· do not carry any wellhead equipment
 Application of effective external surface and can be driven into the ground with a pile driver.
coatings. Conductor pipe:
 Avoiding use of dissimilar metals.
It is run to some shallower depth to
 Use of electrical insulation of surface lines from  protect surface unconsolidated formation
wellhead assembly. and to seaI off shallow water depth
 provide protection against shallow gas
Table 3.3, presented at the end of this chapter, shows the flow.
general accepted materials for various wellhead services.  One or more BOP may be mounted on this
casing.
3.6 Casing and tubing  The size ranges from 36 in. to 14-3/4 in.
 It supports subsequent casing or is simply cut at
3.61 Functions and types of casing surface after setting surface casing.
62
  Leak across the hanger is a common problem.
Surface casing:
 This casing is set on compact rock such as  Difficulty in achieving good primary cement job.
hard limestone. This eliminates the caving
of weak formation at shallow depth and There are different types of Liners .
safeguards formation from fracturing at
higher hydrostatic pressure of mud (which  Production liner: These are run instead of full
may be used at greater depths). This also
production casing to provide isolation across
protects against shallow blowouts.
 It ranges from 20" to 14-3/4" in diameter. producing or injecting zone.

Intermediate casing:  Tie-Back liner: It is the section of casing

extending upward from top of e~isting liner to
This is set in transition zone below .01' above an over the surface or wellhead.
pressured zone or is run to seal off severe fluid 10515
zone or to protect against \ problematic formation such as  Scab liner: It is the section of casing that does
salt section or caving shale. not reach the surface. It is used to repair
damaged casing. It is normally sealed with
Good cementation must be ensured behind this casing. packer at top and bottom andin some cases is
Multi stage cementing may be used to cement long also cemented.
strings of intermediate casing. The most common size is
9-5/8" to 14 inch.  Scab tie-back liner : It issection of casing
extending from top of· an existing liner but it
does not reach surface. It is usually cemented
in place.
3.6.2 Strength Properties of casing

Casing strength properties are specified as

 Yield strength for pipe body and
coupling
 Collapse strength
 Burst strength
Casing is specified by
 Outside diameter and wall thickness
Fig: 3. 15 tubing head 3.16 Casing spool
 Weight per unit length
 Type of coupling/thread type
Production casing:  Length (range)
 Grade of steel
 This is the last casing run to target zone.  Special fluid handling.
Thispermits single or selective production in
rnultizone completions. Tensile force:
 It is generally of 7" or 5 ½ “size. In offshore,  Tensile force in casing originates from casing
9.5/8" is also common. weight, bending forces and shock loading. In
casing design the uppermost joint of the string is
Liner casing: the weakest in tension as it has to carry the 'total
 It isa casing string which is supported with the weight of. the casing string.
help of a liner hanger intermediate casing  Selection.is normally based on safety factor of
string, somewhere near its bottom. 1.6 to 1.8 for the top joint.
 Advantage is in cost saving. Also length of the
reduced diameter casing is less, therefore larger Collapse pressure:
dia tools or tubular can be used in the upper  Mud column acts on the side of casing.
portion of the well. The maximum hydrostatic head is on the
bottom most pipe. The design should
Disadvantages associated with liner hanger are: ensure that the collapse pressure never
63
 exceeds the collapse resistance of the The hydrostatic or hermetical testing of casing is
casing. The casing collapse resistance is carried out by applying hydraulic pressure upto
taken as the load at which the internal predetermined level (normally, 1.5 times the
diameter of casing yields. maximum working pressure or shut in pressure of
 In designing for collapse, the casing is well).
assumed empty.
3.64 Functions of tubing
Burst pressure:
 This criterion is based on maximum The functions of tubing are summarized as under:
formation pressure that can be encountered  It is essential for well killing, circulation and
during drilling the next hole section as it is work over.
assumed that in the event of a kick, the influx  Tubing provides optimized flow channel to
fluids will displace the entire. drilling fluid, produce optimum/maximum efficient rate from
thereby subjecting the entire casing to the a well.
bursting effect of the formation preaeure, The  Tubing is used to isolate casing from effect of
burst pressure is highest at the top and least at high pressure, high temperature and corrosive
the shoe. fluids.
 In production casing, the burst preesure will be  It facilitates completion, production and
highest at the shoe and least at the top, when the control of flow in multiple commingled or
production tubing leaks gas to the casing. parallel completion.
 It is essential for most common artificial lift
Other loads operations.
 It facilitates the installation of common wire
line operated down whole tools.
 A compression load arises in casing due to
carrying or hanging of inner string.
3.6.5 Selection of tubing
 Other problems/loading that may develop in The tubing size for a well should be selected to
casing are-
 Handlepresentoptimummaximum possible
 bending due to tong during making production from the well.
up
 pull out of joint and slip crushing  handle future production rate from wells and to
 corrosion and fatigue failure avoid any future need for changeover of
 pipe wear due to running of wire line completion tubing even during artificial lift
tools applications. .
 treatment operation such as cement
squeezing, hydraulic fracturing and  enhance the self flow life of a well.
acidisation
 Special functions &fluid handling conditions
Mostly, tensile force, collapse pressure, burst must be clearly specified and evaluated for
pressure and compressive load are considered in tubing selection.
casing design. .
 In case of high pressure-high temperature
Safety factors generally considered are: well, the tubing size may be selected to
give maximum pressure loss in the tubing
(since handling of high pressures at
Collapse: 0.85 -1.125 , Burst : 1-1.1 and tensile : 1.6- 'surface, presents more problems).
1.8 However it should be able to handle
maximum desired flow rate from the well.
Casing selection" for harsh environments like i high
pressure, high temperature, H2S, may call for use of  While selecting tubing size, the reservoir
higher grade, premium joint, Nickel based alloy performance including reservoir pressure,
material instead of carbon steels, etc drive mechanism, wells' performance
predictions with time, the type of artificial
lift to be installed in future, the type of
3.6.3 Tension of casing workover jobs anticipated, etc. should be
considered and evaluated.
64
 All the projected operating conditions must tubing is not circular then the difference
be analysed using tubing intake curves and between major and minor axis of cross
inflow performance curves. section should be minimal within
allowable
 Special types of maintenance  limits for wire line and through tubing jobs.
methodology such as through flow line  In case of new tubings the burrs should be
(TFL), wire line jobs, coiled tubing unit removed from ends.
(CTU) jobs etc must be kept in view  The tubing cross section for installation of
while selecting tubing size. sucker rod pumps/screw pump should be
go-gauged with proper size of go-gauge.
 In all types of production strings, the
 The grade and type of tubing must be
minimum clearances between the internal
selected keeping in view the operating
diameter of production casing and the conditions envisaged such as corrosive
external diameter of tubing coupling and fluids, high pressure, high temperature,
other downhole equipment are fixed on the steam injection, insitu combustion,
basis of local conditions. However, as a stimulation! fracturing, etc. and complete
general rule, the clearance between casing stress analysis.
drift diameter and tubing coupling/other
 The commonly available tubing sizes, their
downhole tools' OD should not be less than
performance data limiting lowering depths
8 mm. This is referred to as metal to I
and checklist for use in casing sizes for
metal radial clearance through out well
single or dual completion are given in
length. When there is possibility of sand
Appendix-E.
production and tubing's external sand
clearing or fishing is considered a  It is recommended that tubing grade.
requirement, the metal to metal clearance threads and size for any field and for each
should be over 12 rom keeping in view the well must be analyzed and selected by
wash-over diameters. qualified personnel at least during initial
stages of field development.
 The drift diameter profile of tubing along
with all down hole completion equipment 3.6.6 Tubing tripping operations
should be selected keeping in view the
wire line tools to be lowered in the well.  While running in and pulling out, the laid
The minimum metal to metal radial down safety rules should be strictly
clearance should be about 5 mm for followed.
internal wire line and through tubing jobs.  Before tripping in operations, the length of
tubing and down hole equipment should be
 The top joint tension should be less than measured with the help of metallic
80% tensile strength of tubing joint. measuring tape and tubing tally should be
prepared. The final tubing tally should be
 The burst and collapse pressures due to signed by shift in charge and rig in charge
internal and external applied pressure and should form a permanent well
either during work over, stimulation or document, to be preserved.
during normal production should be
checked. It should not exceed 80% of  While tripping in tubings along with
pressure specified in the tubing packer, check the limiting speed as
performance data. I follows:
 The threaded connections/joints should be  2-7/8 inch tubing in 5-1/2 inch casing or
fully tight, strong and leak proof. In case 4-1/2 inch tubing in 7 inch casing do not
of' high pressure-high temperature well i exceed running in speed of 60 feet
completions, the joints should be prepared stand in 12 seconds.
using sealing fluids/Teflon tapes to  4·1/2 inch tubing in 7-5/8 or 9-5/8 inch
prevent leakage; premium connections casing do not exceed running in speed
may be required in such completions. of 60 feet stand in 10 sec to avoid
premature packer set and to maintain
 As far as possible, use of oval or specified flow rate outside packer.
deformed tubings (which normally  For deviated holes use a safety factor,
happens at places of high stress/failures) 0.70. While running in tubing without
should be avoided. If the cross section of
65
 packer in deviated/crooked hole. for a stable formation that remains stable throughout the
Donotexceed running in speed of 60 life of the well and has low to medium permeability.
feet stand-in 10 seconds. This completion ideally suits the formations having very
little zonal isolation requirement for water and gas
Horizontal and multilateral well completions breakthrough. One major advantage, other than the cost
itself, is that the formation has little damage from the
Horizontal well drilling and production have gained completion because of the absence of cementation.
increasing importance in recent years due to the potential Absence of a casing in open hole, however, severely
increase in oil and gas production from horizontal and limits stimulation and remedial options including
multilateral wells and comparatively high reduction in control either in injection or production throughout the
drilling and completion costs. Developments in life
technologies to tackle the problems of well bore stability
and formation damage have made horizontal wells more of the well. For stimulating wells, having open hole
attractive. The thrust on horizontal and multilateral wells completion effectively, diversion techniques assisted
has diverse reasons such as productivity increase, with CTU, retrievable inflatable open hole packers etc
production from low permeability formations, are required.
connecting vertical fissures, staying away from OGC &
OWC contacts, producing thin reservoirs, injecting
steam, increasing injectivity, increasing sweep
efficiency, controlling sand, producing gas from coal
seams, etc.

The horizontal / multilateral wells are drilled for

providing more productivity from single well with
more zone exposure, and reducing slots required to reach
a given number of targets there by reducing drilling time,
platform size , weight and cost. The evolution of
multilateral technology has created a large variation in
completion styles of multilateral wells. Many of the
methods are simple and basic while others are much
more complex These Complex completions allow the
use of multilaterals in a much wider range of well
scenarios. The reservoir and production parameters that
influence the final multilateral completion choice will be
considered.

3.7 Horizontal well Completion

Selection of completion method has a significant
influence on life of well, its performance and Figure 3.17 Completion Options for Horizontal wells
intervention requirement in future. A completion option
may look expensive at the time of well completion but in
the long term it may be very cost effective. Various
factors such as potential of the reservoir, reservoir 3.7.2 Slotted liner Completion:
characteristics, geology, rock and formation type, nature The only difference between open hole and a slotted liner
of fluid to be produced and exploitation strategy play completion is the addition of a slotted liner having
very important role in well completion. narrow longitudinal slots/ holes in the open hole section
of the well. This slotted liner gives additional stability to
Based on these considerations, the following four types open hole section without adding substantial cost or
of completion options (Figure: 3.17) are available for complexity over the open hole completion and provides a
horizontal wells: convenient path for entry of various CTU and tractor
assisted down hole tools for remedial and diagnostic
3.7.1 Open hole Completion: works.
In open hole completion, the horizontal segment of the
well bore is kept open without any casing or liner. This The major disadvantage of slotted liner completion is
type of completion is very inexpensive and is well suited that it still does not offer selective layer stimulation and

66
control since no zonal isolation is used in between the 4 Main bore & Lateral
layers.(3) Slotted liner Completion for Cased & Cemented
Both bores cemented at
3.7.3 zonal isolation /segmented completion:
the junction
This type of completion is an improvement over the
Drop-off liners inside
conventional slotted liner completion that makes use of
External Casing Packer (ECP) to provide selective zonal
5 Pressure Integrity at the
isolation and stimulation.
Junction
Achieved with the
completion, i.e. straddle
packers; (may or may
L1 Open / Unsupported not be cemented)
Junction

Barefoot main bore & 6 Pressure Integrity at the

lateral or slotted liner Junction Achieved with
hung off in either bore sealed casing (cement
alone is not sufficient)

full diameter splitters

that require larger
diameter well bores

expandable technology

Figures -3.18 multilateral junctions level -1 to level-6

2 Main bore Cased & Inflatable External Casing Packers are installed out side
Cemented, Lateral the slotted liner in open hole to divide a long horizontal
Open section into several producing sections. Limited zone
Lateral either barefoot isolation can be achieved by using ported subs or sliding
sleeves, bridge plugs, packers or straddles. If unwanted
or with slotted liner
fluids break through from a particular horizontal section
hung off in open hole then production from that section is isolated using ECPs .
The production from the remaining well length remains
unaffected.

This type of completion provides limited zone isolation

for stimulation and production control along the well
bore at lesser cost and risk than cemented & perforated
completion but its use in reservoirs having corrosive and
scaling environment may pose problems owing to
inability to operate ECP, sleeves after a period of time.
3 Main bore Cased &
Cemented, Lateral liner 3.7.4 Cemented& Perforated liner completion:
anchored to main bore In this type of completion (figure 3.17), the horizontal /
but not cemented at drain hole section is covered with casing/ liner, cemented
junction and then perforated in hydrocarbon bearing sections. The
completion offers effective means of zonal isolation with
the help of retrievable or permanent bridge plugs and
packers.

This completion is relatively expensive and hence used

67
only when the other completion methods, as discussed its use to stable formation only at the cost of no
above, are likely to be ineffective such as in formations production control of individual layers. The
having low permeability that requires transverse or production must be commingled.
longitudinal hydraulic fractures for adequate drainage &
deliverability and thin oil column reservoirs with top gas Level- 2 multilateral well:
or lower water layers that require frequent isolation for
shutting off unwanted gas and water production.
Level-2 multilateral system has a cased parent
Multilateral well Completion
bore while open or simple (slotted liners, pre-
packed screens) lateral bores. The parent bore is
Multilateral well technology involves drilling and cased & cemented, and an orientation packer is set
production from various layers drilled from a single slot below the proposed junction kick-off point. A
or mother bore. It provides cost reduction in terms of whip stock is then landed into the packer and
increased production, increased reserves for exploitation oriented in the desired kick-off direction.
and slot conservation. Subsequently, the casing is milled away and a
lateral is drilled to the target length. After drilling
Reservoir characteristics and completion variables such the lateral section, the whip stock is retrieved and
as sand or debris control, water production, draw down the hole is completed in a variety of ways with
requirement, lifting mechanism, various completion various completion hard wares depending on
designs and production control help in determining the requirements of the well.
most appropriate multilateral system for any given
reservoir. A low cost option of multilateral completion
system that provides both parent-bore support and
3.8 Multilateral well classification: production control, not found in level –1, is to
incorporate a sliding sleeve between the
The difference between the various multilateral systems orientation packer & a second packer placed above
is basically a matter of the completion itself. The most the casing exit so that production from both the
simple multilateral from a drilling standpoint is not laterals can be commingled. Production isolation
much different from drilling of a very complex of either lateral is possible in this arrangement. In
multilateral. But the completion hard wares between the case bottom zone begins to deplete or produce
two systems will vary widely and the risk involved will water, a plug can be placed in the lower packer to
also vary drastically. shut off production from lower bore. In case the
An oil industry forum on the Technical Advancement of upper lateral production needs to be shut off then
Multilaterals (TAML) has been created to develop the same can be done by closing the sliding
multilateral classification matrix and foster a better sleeves.
understanding of multilateral well application,
capabilities and equipment’s. The major oil & service Level – 3 well completions:
companies all over the world are its members. Table
/figures- 3.18 shows TAML classification from level-1 The next level of completion in terms of risk &
to level -6 complexity is Level –3 that has its main bore cased
& cemented and laterals cased b ut not cemented.
In order to properly categorize the various multilateral Lateral liner is anchored with main bore but not
systems, TAML group has classified the systems into cemented. The well can be completed with a
levels as a function of increasing risk and complexity. lateral re-entry system or a sliding sleeve in same
manner as in Level -2 completion. Quality of
mechanical support at the junction is achieved by
anchoring the lateral liner but still hydraulic
Level-1 multilateral well:
support is not available at the junction. Cement
sheath in main bore at junction is not capable of
This type of multilateral is drilled from an open withstanding even a small pressure differential and
hole main bore (parent-bore) and no mechanical can fail over a period of time if draw down
support or hydraulic isolation at junction is becomes substantial. Due to this reason this system
provided. These are the simplest multilateral is not useful for wells with unconsolidated
systems and utilize multiple drainage legs from formations expected with higher draw down
parent open hole bore. The advantages of this during production period.
system are its low cost and simplicity. There is no
milling required, no whip stocks to retrieve, no Level-4 system
liners to cement and no production control
equipment to install. Lack of casing support limits
68
A level 4 system is one in which both the lateral expanded to include pressure integrity through the
and main bore are cased and cemented. These use of tubulars and isolation packers in the main
junctions have mechanical integrity but are bore and lateral. Junction has pressure integrity,
assumed to have no pressure integrity. If the usually using some type of completion at the
formation at the lateral junction is unconsolidated expense of inner diameter through the junction.
and a pressure differential at the junction is
anticipated, then the well should be completed as a Level 6system
level 4 system which allows the lateral junction to
be completed sealed off from the production
In this case full pressure integrity is achieved with
string.
the main casing string. The development in the
expandable metal system is used . In this case a
Level 5 completion junction is manufactured at the surface,
compressed, positioned down hole in a under
Level 5 junctions is one which the level 4 is reamed section of the hole and then reformed.

Well completion design problems

Notes for minimizing well completion design problems given in table 3.1

Equipment in Problem anticipated Recommendations

operation

1.Unproven  use can lead to problems even if  follow development reports closely.
equipment researched carefully.
 use proven equipment to avoid expensive repair
 certain types of equipment, such as activities.
packer & tubing string components  use field-proven equipment from approved
which require wireline re-entry. manufacturers, the alternative equipment from
other manufacturers should be regarded as
 if new equipment fails, cost can cancel unproven.
out any advantage and cost much more.

2.Corrosion of  hydrogen sulphide cracking of

 refer NACE Standard MR-Ol~75, latest edition.
equipment metals
 select cost of effective equipment materials
 difficulty in ordering equipment compatible with use in corrosive wells.

 Co2 corrosion  design. for inhibition of well/use of special-alloy

equipment/cladding.
 Erosion
 Review sizing vis-a-vis fluid gas velocity. where
where information on factors

 governing corrosion is insufficient and an estimate

has to be made. Assume a more serious level than
estimated in I order to err on the safe side,
especially when H;lS is anticipated.

3.Packer fluid  Casing burst

 remember to design for combined pressure at
bottom of column in case tubing leaks into
annulus.

 avoid use of high density packer fluids even for

69
 wells with abnormal buttonhole pressures.

4.Location of  Deviated well access by wire line

 DO NOT locate landing nipples sections on bends or
equipment /string on highly deviated sections of wells where
insufficient jarring action can be obtained.

 set all equipment in vertical or near vertical

sections, remember that wireline entry may be
difficult in deviated wells

 ensure that tubing movement compensation

equipment IS located where it can move.

5. Kill system availability design a kill system 50 that it is always available for use
during operations on the well.

6. Design with wire lining in  poor design can create wire lining  ensure that design and selection
mind problems of equipment gives clear wireline
access.
 'bottle' design where tubing
widens at lower depths.  ensure that equipment and tubing
berea remains conetant or
diminish progressively: 'bottle'
designs create wire lining
locations problems, hut cannot
always be avoided, e.g. mill-out
extensions,

 fishing a broken wire line is

difficult in 'bottle'shaped strings.

 avoid extreme changes of size:

use long swages or more than one
if necessary.

 utilize streamlined wireline re-

entry guides and tubing shoes.

7. Wire lining in deep wells  running of tools where wax and  at lower end of string, run a few
scale problems are anticipated lengths of smaller diameter
tubing. This facilitates easier
running of tools through main
string and landing nipples,
sleeves etc. can be incorporated in
smaller tubing.

 compatibility
check that bore sizes of all equipment
8.Bore sizes In string are compatible with any wire
line equipment that may have to be
used.

9.Tubing collapse  tubing collapse where bottom design for pressure differential
safety valve fitted and packer between packer fluid column pressure
fluid used. on outside and zero pressure on inside
of tubing. Consider effect of tension
70
 in calculating collapse pressure.

10.Tubing burst if tubing/casing annulus lS closed off design for tubing burst pressure equal
during life of well without being filled to closed-in pressure of welL
with fluid.

11.Increased tubing loading design for any increased loading

loading may be increased during anticipated during life of well.
stimulation

12.Tubing movement expansion and contraction of tubing Designed for tubing movement
due to change In temperature and compensation
pressure

Equipment Installation

Landing . nipples potential difficulty in locating run one joint of tubing between similarly sized
nipples at depths over 7000 ft. nipples, sleeves, etc.

Retrievable packers
retrieval difficulties of difficulties encountered' in deviated

packers rotational release holes-NEVER choose this type for wells with control
type line to SC-SSV

Retrieval difficulties of straight pull

type
introduction of cold fluid during fracturing/acidizing
causes contraction of tubing which may shear the
packer release studs. Carefully calculate anticipated
stresses in tubing string when fracturing 80 that
correct shear pins can be selected or means for tubing
movement compensation be provided.

Latched tubing Restricted bore type  larger through-bore packers preferred.

type packers.

Packer locator seals

Use of correct bore type  in sour corrosive conditions use premium seals.
Chevron seals should have stainless steel back-up
rings.

Flow coupling Prevent Internal erosion

use above and below tubing devices such as safety
valves. Length of flow coupling to be at least 20 x J.D. of
tubing.

Blast joints Prevent External erosion preferred

method, if tubing is stuck, is to cut  use opposite Perforated zones. 4145H alloy gives
tubing at desired depth since this is most economical performance against jetting
a very infrequent occurrence. action" of fluids against tubing.

Safety valves On selection

 ensure classification of safety valve is for correct

71
 type of service.

 ensure safety valve can operate at depth required.

Tubing safey Weaken tubing string Restrict use to fishing strings.

joints
preferred method, if tubing is stuck, is to cut tubing at
desired depth since this is a very infrequent
occurrence.

Table 3.2

Table 3.2 Environments and applications

Gas/Gas-Condensate Wells
ENVIRONMENTS AND APPLICATIONS
Low-Temperature
Part General H2S CO2 H2S1 General H2S CO2 H2S! Water flood
Service CO2 Service CO2
1.casing heads body Al A3 A3 A3 AI,A2 A3 A1,A2 A3
2.Casing hangers housing A A A A AA A A
slips J J J J JJ J J
pack-off K K K K K,L
K,L K,L K,L
3.None gasket H H F,G F,G HH F,G F,G F,G
4.None bolts" M M,MI,M M Ml,M2 M,M2, M,MI, M,MI,M
2 M,M3
M3 M2,M3 M2,M
5.None nuts" N,N2 N,Nl,N2 N,N2 Nl,N2 N3 Nl,N2 3
N3 Nl,N2 NIN2
6.Intermediate body At A3 A3 A3 AI,12 A3 Al,A2 A3
Casing heads
7 .Casing hangers see Item 2
8.Gaakete aee Item 3
9.Bolta see Item 4
10.Nuts see Item 5
1l.Ttibing heads see Item 1
I2.Tubing hangers housing Al,BI Al,Bl AI,Bl Al,BI AI,Bl AI,Bl AI,BI AI,Bl
top Al A3 At A3 Al A3 Al A3
bottom Al A3 Al A3 Al A3 Al A3
pack-off K K K K K,L K,L K,L K,L
13.Tubing head body AI A3 Cl C2 AI,A2 A3,P P P
adapters
14.Tees and creases body Al AS Cl C2 AI,A2 A3,P P P
15. Valves body At A3 Cl 02 Al,A2 A3,P P P Al
bonnet At A3 CI C2 AI,A2 A3,P P P Al
bonnet H H,G F,G 'F,G H H,G F,G F.G G
gasket
bonnet bolts M MI,M2. M MI,M2 M3 M,MI, M,M3 M,Ml, M
. M2,M3 M2,M
gates A,Bl A3,B2 Cl 02 Al A3 CI C2
3 F
seats A,BI A3,B2 01 02 Al A3 C1 C2 F
stems R D E D R D E D E
16.Adjustable choke" body Al A3 C2 02 Al A3 02 02 Al
bonnet Al A3 C2 C2 Al A3 C2 C2 Al

72
 stem R S S S R S S S S
seat R T T T R T T T T
17.Positive chokes body AI A3 C2 C2 At A3 C2 C2
bull plug Bl B2 B1 B2 R R R R

A AlSI 4130 or ASTM A 487.9 (normalized)

Al AISI 4130 or ASTM A 487.9 (quaenched&tempered)
A2 AlSI 4130 or ASTM A 487.9 modified by mickel
A3 . AISI 4130 or ASTM A 487.9 or 90 modified controlled hardness HRC 22
B1 Carbon Steel such as AISI A 217 CA 15
B2 Carbon Steel controlled handness HRC 22 max.
C1 AlSI 410 SS OR ASTM A 217 CA 15
02 AISI 410 S8 OR ASTM A 217 CA 15 controlled hardness HRC 22 max
D K·500 Monel, HRC 35 max
E 17.4 PH Condition HI 150 (Final head treating temperature) ,FAlSI 316 SS, annealed
H Soft Iron
J AISI 8620 Carbonitrided
K Elastomer, Hycar
L Elastomer, Hydrin
M Bolts, ASTM A 193.87
1\'11 Bolts, ASTM A 193.87M (HRC 22 max)
M2 Bolts. ASTM A 453 - grade 660
M3 BOlts, A 320-L 7
N Nuts, ASTM A194.2H
Nl Nuts, ASTM A194.2HM (HRC 22 max)
N2 Nuts, A8TM A194.2
N3 Nuts, ASTM A194, grade 4 or 7
P ASTM A187cab NM SS
R AISI 4140 low alloy
8 K 500 Monel with carbide trim
.T AlSI 4140 with carbide trim
* Bolts or Nuts must not be covered or buried in accordance with NACE MR 01-75

73
CHAPTER 4

WELL PERFORMANCE

4.0 INTRODUCTION TO WELL The reservoir drive mechanism refers to the method by
PERFORMANCE which the reservoir provides the energy for fluid
production. There are a number of drive mechanisms
This chapter describes the basic principles used to and a reservoir may be under the influence of one or
analyze well performance problems. The chapter more of these mechanisms simultaneously. Major types
introduces the basic concepts used to solve production of drive mechanism are: a.) Solution gas drive b.) Gas
problems, including: cap expansion drive c.) Water drive reservoir
 Reservoir drive mechanism a.) Solution Gas Drive: As production occurs the
 Reservoir inflow performance relation (IPR) reservoir pressure drops, and the exsolution and
 Gradient curves and tubing and flowline expansion of the dissolved gases in the oil and water
performance provide most of the reservoirs drive energy. Small
 Choke performance amounts of additional energy are also derived from the
This chapter shows how to use these concepts to predict expansion of the rock and water, and gas exsolving and
well performance. expanding from the water phase. The process is shown
4.1 RESERVOIR DEPLETION CONCEPTS: schematically in Figure 4-1.
A reservoir rock will produce fluid into the wellbore as A solution gas drive reservoir is initially either
a consequence of the fluid in the pore space which considered to be undersaturated or saturated depending
exists at high pressure and the rock being in a state of on its pressure:
compaction. Thus the reservoir as such contains an  Undersaturated: Reservoir pressure > bubble
enormous amount of compressive energy stored within point of oil.
the compressible hydrocarbon fluid which can be  Saturated: Reservoir pressure < bubble point
utilised to allow fluid to be produced from the reservoir of oil.
into a well. Under natural flowing conditions the For an undersaturated reservoir no free gas exists until
pressure is also significant enough to allow fluid to be the reservoir pressure falls below the bubble point. In
flowed to surface and finally into treatment facilities. this regime reservoir drive energy is provided only by
The response of the reservoir to the pressure depletion the bulk expansion of the reservoir rock and liquids
process which occurs on production, will be dynamic (water and oil).
and the fluid remaining in the reservoir will change both For a saturated reservoir, any oil production results in a
in terms of its volume, flow properties and in some
drop in reservoir pressure that causes bubbles of gas to
cases its composition. The manner in which the
exsolve and expand. When the gas comes out of
reservoir system responds to the depletion process will
solution the oil (and water) shrink slightly. However,
be naturally governed by the drive mechanism.
the volume of the exsolved gas, and its subsequent
Once the reservoir delivers fluid to the wellbore, expansion more than makes up for this. Thus gas
sufficient pressure energy needs to exist to lift the fluid expansion is the primary reservoir drive for reservoirs
to surface if the well is to operate under natural flow. In below the bubble point.
the event that insufficient energy exists to allow
production to occur or to occur at an economic rate, the
well may require assistance by the application of
artificial lift to provide all or a portion of the vertical lift
pressure losses.

74
 Figure 4-1: Solution gas drive reservoir in both the undersaturated
(A) and saturated production (B) scenario

Solution gas drive reservoirs show a particular formation of gas bubbles in the reservoir that expand
characteristic pressure, GOR and fluid production taking up the volume exited by produced oil and hence
history. If the reservoir is initially undersaturated, the protecting against pressure drops. When this happens,
reservoir pressure can drop by a great deal (several the GOR rises dramatically (up to 10 times). Further fall
hundred psi over a few months) in reservoir pressure, as production continues, can,
however, lead to a decrease in GOR again when
reservoir pressures are such that the gas expands less in
the borehole. When the GOR initially rises, the oil
production falls and artificial lift systems may then be
instituted.
Oil recovery from this type of reservoir is typically
between 20% and 30% of original oil in place (i.e. low).
Of this only 0% to 5% of oil is recovered above the
bubble point. There is usually no production of water
during oil recovery unless the reservoir pressure drops
sufficiently for the connate water to expand sufficiently
to be mobile. Even in this scenario little water is
produced.

b.) Gas cap expansion Drive: A gas cap drive

Figure 4-2: Performance of a solution Gas drive
reservoir usually benefits to some extent from solution
reservoir gas drive, but derives its main source of reservoir
energy from the expansion of the gas cap already
This is because of the small compressibilities of the existing above the reservoir.
rock water and oil, compared to that of gas. In this
The presence of the expanding gas cap limits the
undersaturated phase, gas is only exsolved from the
pressure decrease experienced by the reservoir during
fluids in the well bore, and consequently the GOR is
production. The actual rate of pressure decrease is
low and constant. When the reservoir reaches the
related to the size of the gas cap.
bubble point pressure, the pressure declines less quickly
due to the

Figure 4-3: Gas cap drive reservoir

75
The GOR rises only slowly in the early stages of Gas cap reservoirs produce very little or no water. The
production from such a reservoir because the pressure recovery of gas cap reservoirs is better than for solution
of the gas cap prevents gas from coming out of solution drive reservoirs (20% to 40% OOIP). The recovery
in the oil and water. As production continues, the gas efficiency depends on the size of the gas cap, which is a
cap expands pushing the gas-oil contact (GOC) measure of how much latent energy there is available to
downwards (Figure 4-3). Eventually the GOC will
drive production, and how the reservoir is managed, i.e.
reach the production wells and the GOR will increase
how the energy resource is used bearing in mind the
by large amounts (Figures 4-3). The slower reduction in
pressure experienced by gas cap reservoirs compared to geometric characteristics of the reservoir, economics
solution drive reservoirs results in the oil production and equity considerations.
rates being much higher throughout the life of the
reservoir, and needing artificial lift much later than for Water Drive: In a reservoir with a water drive
solution drive reservoirs. mechanism for maintaining reservoir energy, the
production of fluids from the reservoir unit is balanced
by either aquifer expansion or, via injection of water
into the reservoir. The water normally contained within
an aquifer system can be defined as edge or bottom
water drive depending upon the structural shape, dip
angle and OWC within the reservoir (Figures 4-5). The
net effect of water influx into the reservoir may be to
prevent reservoir pressure dropping and, given the
relatively low compressibility, for this to occur without
depletion of the aquifer pressure, the aquifer volume
must be very large. In the majority of cases, the aquifer
is of a finite size and accordingly both the reservoir and
aquifer pressure will decline in situations where the
production rate is significant. If the production rate is
small compared to the aquifer volume, then the
Figure 4-4: Performance of a gas cap drive compensating expansion of the aquifer may lead to no
reservoir-impact of substantial gas cap noticeable depletion for part of the production life of the
field.

A B

Figure 4-5: Edge Water Drive (A) and Bottom Water drive (B)

76
 The hydrocarbon fluid flows from the reservoir into the
well, up the tubing, along the horizontal flow line and
into the oil storage tank. During this process the fluid‟s
pressure is reduced from the reservoir pressure to
atmosphere pressure in a series of pressure loss
processes (Figure 4-2):
 across the reservoir
 across the completion (perforation/gravel pack
etc.)
 across the tubing and any restrictions
 across the sub surface safety valve
 across the surface choke
 across flowline

Figure 4-6: Performance of a well with water drive

The expansion of the aquifer into the depleting oil zone

in the reservoir will lead to a steady elevation in the oil
water contact (OWC) and this may effect the zone
within the reservoir from which production is required,
e.g., the perforated section. In most cases, the rise in the
OWC may not be uniform and, especially in the locality
of a significant pressure drawdown, the water may rise
above the average aquifer level towards the
perforations. This phenomenon is referred to as coning.
In addition, fingering due to heterogeneities may occur
and this could lead to preferential movement through
the more conductive layers and water accessing the
wellbore prematurely.
Figure 4-8 : Pressure losses during production
Recovery efficiencies of 70 to 80 % of the original oil
in place (OOIP) are possible in some water drive
Where,
reservoirs. Fig 4-6 shows the performance characteristic
PR - Reservoir Pressure ; Pwfs - Flowing sand face Pressure
of a well with water drive. Pwf - Flowing Bottom Hole Pressure ; PUR - Upstream Restriction Pressure
PDR - Downstream Restriction Pressure ; PUSV - Upstream Safety Valve Pressure
4.2 Pressure loss in a producing system: A simple PDSV - Downstream Safety Valve Pressure ; PWH - Well Head Pressure
producing system is illustrated in figure 4.7. PDSC - Downstream surface Choke Pressure ; Psep - Separator Pressure

The magnitude of these individual pressure losses

depend on the reservoir properties and pressures; fluid
being produced and the well design. Figure 4-9
schematically represents the pressure distribution across
the production system shown in Figure 4-8. It identifies
the most significant components, flowline, tubing and
the reservoir and completion where pressure losses
occur.

Figure 4-7: Simple producing system

77
 Figure 4-10: Node flow rate and pressure
Typical results of such an analysis is shown in Figure 4-
10 where the pressure-rate relationship has been plotted
for both the inflow (Equation 4-1) and outflow
(Equation 4-2) at the node. The intersection of these
two lines is the (normally unique) operating point. This
defines the pressure and rate at the node. This approach
forms the basis of all hand and computerized flow
calculation procedures. It is frequently referred to as
“nodal analysis”.

Having established the concept of nodal analysis, the

following sections will discuss how the hydrocarbon
phase behaviour (Section 4.4) effects the reservoir fluid
Inflow Performance into the well (Section 4.5). The
outflow, or tubing performance will be reviewed
Figure 4-9: Pressure across production system (Section 4.6 et seq.) and the interaction between the in-
and out-flow discussed in Section 4.8 which gives the
4.3 SYSTEMS ANALYSIS OF THE well operating point..
PRODUCTION SYSTEM:
4.4 HYDROCARBON PHASE BEHAVIOUR
The use of systems analysis to design a hydrocarbon Hydrocarbon reservoir fluids are a complex mixture of
production system was first suggested by Gilbert. hydrocarbon molecules, the composition of which is
Systems analysis, which has been applied to many types dependent on the source rock, degree of maturation etc.
of systems of interacting components, consists of Phase changes occur when this complex hydrocarbon
selecting a point or node within the producing system fluid flows from the (high temperature and pressure)
(well and surface facilities). Equations for the reservoir environment to the (cool, low pressure)
relationship between flow rate and pressure drop are separator conditions. Such changes are sketched for an
then developed for the well components both upstream undersaturated oil in Figure 4-11. Here it can be seen
of the node (inflow) and downstream (outflow). The that the fluid:
flow rate and pressure at the node can be calculated
since: i. is present as a single phase liquid in the
reservoir {point (a)}
(i) Flow into the node equals flow out of the node.
ii. remains a single phase liquid at the wellbore
(ii) Only one pressure can exist at the node. (significant reduction in pressure and small
Further, at any time, the pressure at the end points of the change in temperature during flow in reservoir)
system {separator (Psep) and reservoir pressure (PR)} {point (b)}
are both fixed. Thus: iii. starts to evolve gas {point (c)} as temperature
PR - (Pressure loss upstream components) = Pnode …….. 4.1 and pressure are reduced during flow up the
tubing
Psep + (Pressure loss downstream components) = Pnode ……4.2
evolves increasing amounts of gas {points (d) and (e)}
until the separator {point (f)} is reached.

Figure 4-10: Node flow rate and pressure

78
 Figure 4-11: Schematic phase diagram for an
undersaturated oil

Some or all of the flow regimes illustrated in figure 4-

12 may occur (flow regimes are discussed elaborately in
section 4.6) . The phase behaviour of the hydrocarbon
fluid controls the fluid‟s gas/liquid ratio as a function of
bottom hole pressure. This, in turn, will effect flow rate,
i.e. the Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR) Figure 4-12: Schematic view of possible phase
discussed in section 4.5 and the Outflow tubing changes in tubing
performance discussed in section 4.6.
4.5 RESERVOIR INFLOW PERFORMANCE:
The Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR) is routinely
measured using bottomhole pressure gauges at regular
intervals as part of the field monitoring programme.
This relationship between flow rate (q) and wellbore
pressure (Pwf) is one of the major building blocks for a
nodal-type analysis of well performance.
The Inflow Performance Relationship or IPR is defined
as the functional relationship between the production
rate and the bottomhole flowing pressure. Gilbert first
proposed well analysis using this relationship. IPR is
defined in the pressure range between the average
reservoir pressure and zero (bottomhole) wellbore
flowing pressure. The flow rate corresponding to the
zero wellbore flowing pressure is defined as the
absolute open flow potential of the well, whereas the
flow rate at wellbore (bottomhole) flowing pressure
equal to the average reservoir pressure is always zero. A
typical inflow performance relationship is presented in
Fig. 4.13.
Fig. 4.13: A Typical IPR Curve

Single-phase Flow

For single-phase oil or liquids, the inflow performance

relationship shown in Fig. 4.13 is stated by Darcy’s law
for radial flow, as follows -
79
 ……….. 4.3 A straight line IPR can be determined from two field
measurements:
(i) The stabilised bottomhole pressure with the
well shut in {reservoir pressure of (PR)}
(ii) The flowing, bottom hole, wellbore pressure
(Pwf) at one production rate
The well‟s inflow potential can then be calculated at
any draw-down (or Pwf)

Two Phase flow: Darcy's law is only applicable in

This simple equation, Darcy equation, is often used for single-phase flow within the reservoir. In the case of an
the estimation of flow rates from oil wells. oil reservoir, single-phase flow occurs when the
bottomhole flowing pressure is above the bubble point
Productivity Index pressure of the reservoir fluid at the reservoir
temperature. During the depletion of a reservoir, the
An inflow performance relationship based on Darcy‟s reservoir pressure continues to drop unless maintained
law is a straight line relationship as shown in Fig. 4.7. by injection or flooding. Consequently, during depletion
Absolute open flow potential (AOFP) is the maximum the bottomhole flowing pressure falls below the bubble
flow rate the well can flow with atmospheric pressure at point pressure which results in the combination of
the bottomhole. The Productivity Index (PI) is the single fluid phase and two-phase flow within the
absolute value of the slope of the IPR straight line. reservoir. This requires a composite IPR.
Thus,
Vogel IPR: In the case of two-phase flow in the
…………… 4.4 reservoir where the Pr is below the bubble point
Based on Darcy‟s law, pressure, the Vogel's inflow performance relationship is
recommended (curve C in Fig. 4.14). This IPR equation
(bbl./day/psi) ……. 4.5 is –

The PI concept is not used for gas wells, as the IPR for
a gas well is not a straight line but a curve. …………………. 4.6
This IPR curve can be generated if a.) Either the
Productivity Ratio absolute open flow potential qomax and the reservoir
pressure pr are known or b.) the reservoir pressure pr
The Productivity ratio is defined as the ratio of the and a flow rate and the corresponding bottomhole
actual Productivity Index to the ideal Productivity Index
flowing pressure are known. For either case, a buildup
[skin (st) = 0].
test for pr and a flow test with a bottomhole gauge are
needed.

Where,

m = slope of semi log straight line (Homer or MDH).

The productivity ratio is also called the flow efficiency,
completion factor, or condition ratio.

80
 Then,

From the definition of flow efficiency:

So,
Vogel's
IPR can
be written as –
Fetkovich Method: Multipoint backpressure testing of
gas wells is a common procedure to establish the
performance curve of gas wells or deliverability.
Fetkovich applied these tests on oil wells with reservoir
pressures above and below the bubble point pressure.
Figure 4-14: Inflow performance relationships The general conclusion from these backpressure tests is
that as in gas wells, the rate pressure relationship in oil
Composite IPR: The composite IPR (curve C in Fig wells or the oil well IPR is of the form –
4.14) is a combination of the Productivity Index based
on Darcy's law above the bubble point pressure and
Vogel's IPR below the bubble point pressure. This IPR ……………. 4.7
is particularly used when the reservoir pressure pr is
above the bubble point pressure and the bottomhole
flowing pressure is below the bubble point pressure.

Standing Extension of Vogel IPR: Standing extended

the effect of skin on Vogel's IPR equation and came up
with the concept of a flow efficiency factor or FE. If
P‟wf is defined as the bottomhole flowing pressure for This equation is also referred to as the oil and gas
an undamaged well, deliverability equation. The exponent “n” was found to
lie between 0.5 and 1.000 for both oil and gas wells. An
“n” less than 1.0 is often due to nondarcy flow effects.
In such cases, a nondarcy flow term can be used. The
coefficient “C” represents the Productivity Index of the
reservoir. Consequently, this coefficient increases as k
and h increase and decreases as the skin increases.
The Fetkovich IPR is a customized IPR for the well,
and is obtained by multipoint backpressure testing, e.g.,
flow after flow or isochronal testing.
Multipoint or Backpressure Testing: Such tests are
performed in a shut-in well which has achieved a
stabilized shut-in pressure throughout the drainage area.
These tests are also called deliverability tests because
they are used to predict the deliverability of a well or
flow rate against any backpressure (Pwf) imposed on
Figure 4-15: Flow After Flow, Normal Sequence the reservoir. Typically, these backpressure tests consist
(After Fetkovich) of a series of at least three stabilized flow rates and the
measurement of bottomhole flowing pressures as a
function of time during these flow intervals. The results
of backpressure tests are presented in log-log graph
papers as log (Pr2 – Pwf2) vs. log q . Typical flow after

81
flow test sequences are presented in Fig. 4.15 and Fig. flow to 1.0 for fully developed
4.16. turbulent flow.

This equation applies to any fluid in a steady state flow

condition. An important thing to note in this equation is
that the total pressure gradient is the sum of three
principal components.

 Hydrostatic gradient (ρ sin ϴ)

 Friction gradient (f v2ρ) /( 2gcd )
 Acceleration gradient (ρvdv)/(gcdL)
The friction factor f for laminar single-phase flow, is
calculated using an analytical expression such as,

Where

Figure 4-16: Flow After Flow, Reverse Sequence

NRe is the Reynolds Number and is defined as
(After Fetkovich)

4.6 FLOW THROUGH TUBING AND FLOWLINES: where,

µ = Viscosity of the flowing fluid.
Fluid flow through the reservoir and completion are
discussed in the previous sections. However, the For turbulent flow when the Reynolds Number exceeds
performance evaluation of a well is not complete until 2000, the relationship between the friction factor and
the effects of the tubing and flowline are considered Reynolds Number is empirical in nature. This
with the other effects discussed in the previous section. relationship is very sensitive to the characteristics of the
The objective here is to calculate the pressure loss in the pipe wall and is a function of relative roughness ε/d,
tubing or in the flowline as a function of flow rates of where ε is defined as the absolute roughness of the pipe.
different flowing phases. In most oil wells two- or The most widely used method to calculate the friction
three-phase (oil, gas, and water) flow occurs in the factor in turbulent flow is the equation of Colebrook -
flowing system. Consequently, a brief discussion on the
theory of multiphase flow in pipes is presented. This
theory is an extension of the theory of single phase
flow.
a.) Pressure gradient equation for single-phase
incompressible fluid: The pressure gradient equation Note that the friction factor f occurs on both sides of
under a steady-state flow condition for any single-phase this equation requiring a trial and error solution
incompressible fluid can be written as procedure. For this reason, the solution of these
equations presented by Moody (1944) in graphical form
(Moody diagram) is widely used for the calculation of
the friction factor. A Moody diagram is presented in
Fig. 4.16. A very simple equation proposed by Jain
reproduces the Colebrook equations over essentially the
……. 4.8 entire range of Reynolds Number and relative
Where dP/dL = pressure drop per unit length of pipe, roughness of interest, and is presented as
(psi/ft.),
ρ = density of fluid, (lbm/ft3),
ϴ = angle of inclination of pipe,
v = fluid velocity (ft/sec),
f = friction factor,
d = internal diameter of the pipe (ft),
a = correction factor to compensate for the Selecting the absolute pipe roughness is often a difficult
velocity variation over the pipe cross task because roughness can depend upon the pipe
section. It varies from 0.5 for laminar material, manufacturing process, age and type of fluids
82
flowing through the pipe. Glass pipe and many types of 0.00015ft. for clean, new pipe to 0.00075 ft. for very
plastic pipe can often be considered as smooth pipe. It is dirty pipe. An acceptable procedure used by many
common to use a roughness of 0.00005 ft. for well investigators is to adjust the absolute roughness to
tubing. Commonly used values for line pipe range from permit matching measured pressure gradients.

Fig 4.16 : Moody Friction factor diagram

b.) Single-phase Gas Flow in Pipes: Equation 4-9 can be rewritten as

For gas flow or compressible flow, the density of fluid
is a function of pressure and temperature. The energy
balance Equation 4-8 can be modified to account for
pressure and temperature-dependent density. The
energy balance equation for steady-state flow can be ……………. 4.10
written as,
The velocity of gas at in situ pressure and temperature
conditions is

………………. 4.9

The energy loss term due to friction uses the Moody Where,
friction factor 'f'. The kinetic energy term (vdv)/gc, is q = gas production rate, MMscfD (14.65 psia, 60 oF),
negligible for all cases of gas flow as shown by Aziz. v = gas velocity in pipe, ft/sec,
Applying real gas law, the density of gas ρ becomes
d = pipe diameter, ft,
γg = gas gravity, (air = 1).

83
Substituting the velocity term in Equation 4-10 gives Equation 4-11 Cullender and Smith rearranged
Equation 4-11 and integrated the pressures over the
……………. 4.11 whole length of the pipe. Thus,
This is the most practical form of an energy balance ……. 4.13
equation used for gas flow calculations. The friction
factor is calculated using the Moody diagram (Fig, Equation 4-13 can be solved by any standard numerical
4.16) or using any of the friction factor equations
presented in the previous section as functions of the
Reynolds Number and relative roughness factor. For
steady-state gas flow Reynolds Number is defined as

where, the viscosity of gas ‘µ’ is in centipoise. For

diameter„d‟ in inches integration schemes such as Simpson's rule. Equation 4-
13 uses the Moody friction factor and the diameter‟d‟ is
in feet.

c.) Multiphase Flow

Estimation of Static Bottom hole Pressure: Ignoring
The energy balance equation for multiphase flow is
the friction loss term and appropriately integrating over
very similar to that of the single-phase flow. In this
the pressure and length,
case, the velocities and fluid properties of the total fluid
mixture are used instead of the single-phase fluid
properties. However, the definition of a fluid mixture
becomes complicated in this case. The quality of a fluid
mixture changes with the pipe diameter, pipe
inclination, temperature, pressure, etc., mainly due to
Therefore ,
slippage between the phases. In the absence of slippage,
the mixture properties should be the input as volumetric
…………… 4.12 fraction weighted average of all the phases constituting
the mixture. For example, if the mixture contains 50%
oil and 50% gas at the pipe entry, then the average
mixture density should be
Where ,
pbh = static bottomhole pressure, psia, ρm = ρo x 0.5 + ρg x 0.5
pwh = static wellhead pressure, psia,
T = average temperature between bottomhole However, such averaging is not practically valid in the
and surface, case of multiphase flow in pipes .When gas and liquid
z = compressibility factor at average pressure phases flow in pipes, due to buoyancy or density
and average temperature. contrast between the phases, the gas phase tends to gain
an upward velocity with respect to the liquid phase.
Equation 4-12 is used extensively to calculate the
Thus, in the case of upward two-phase flow
weight of the gas column. The solution of this equation (production), the gas gains velocity in direction of flow
is iterative in pressure as T is a function of pressure. To as liquid slips down or loses velocity. To satisfy the
calculate the bottomhole pressure from known surface
conservation of mass, the cross section of pipe occupied
pressure and temperature, a value of bottomhole
by a liquid or gas phase thus change continuously. The
pressure has to be assumed. Then the average pressure
fraction of pipe cross section occupied by liquid at any
and average temperature knowing the geothermal point in the multiphase flow string is called the liquid
gradient should be calculated and the average z-factor holdup (HL). The complementary fraction of pipe
determined. Now, using Equation 4-12, a new cross-section occupied by gas is called the gas void
bottomhole flowing pressure is calculated. If this
fraction. The actual mixture property in a multiphase
calculated pbh does not compare with the assumed
flow should be the holdup weighted sum of the single
bottomhole pressure, the iterative procedure should
phase fluid property. Since the liquid holdup
continue until convergence of the assumed and continuously changes in the pipe, the phase velocities
calculated bottomhole pressures. also change. This section presents definitions of some
Estimation of Flowing Bottomhole Pressure: of the important flow properties (such as holdup) and
different velocities used in multiphase flow
Cullender and Smith (1956) proposed a simple method calculations.
of calculating the flowing bottomhole pressure based on

84
Liquid Holdup: In gas liquid two-phase flow, due to Superficial Velocity: Many two-phase flow
the contrast in phase densities the gas phase tends to correlations are based on a variable called superficial
move up while the liquid phase tends to move down velocity. The superficial velocity of a fluid phase is
with respect to the gas phase, creating a slippage defined as the velocity which that phase would exhibit
between the phases. As a result in up flow, a liquid if it flowed through the complete cross section of the
loses velocity requiring increased pipe cross section to pipe. Thus, the superficial liquid velocity is
flow with the same volumetric flow rate. This
phenomenon of slippage causes the flowing liquid
content in a pipe to be different from the input liquid
content. The flowing liquid content is called the liquid
holdup. Liquid holdup is also defined as the ratio of the and, the superficial gas velocity is
volume of a pipe segment occupied to the total volume
of that pipe segment.

That is, HL = (volume of liquid in pipe segment) Where, qL and qg are liquid and gas flow rates,
/ (volume of pipe segment) respectively, and A is the cross-sectional area of the
pipe.
Liquid holdup is a fraction which varies from zero for The actual phase velocities are defined as
single-phase gas flow to one for single-phase liquid
flow. The most common method of measuring liquid
holdup is to isolate a segment of the flow stream
between quick-closing valves and to physically measure
And
the liquid trapped. There are different mechanistic and
empirical models for the prediction of liquid holdup.
The remainder of the pipe segment is occupied by gas,
which is referred to as gas holdup or void fraction. That
is, Where, vL and vg are liquid and gas velocities,
respectively, as they flow in the pipe.
Hg = 1 - H L
Mixture Velocity: The mixture velocity vm, used in
No-Slip Liquid Holdup: No-slip holdup, sometimes two-phase flow calculations is
called input liquid content, is defined as the ratio of the
volume of liquid in a pipe segment divided by the
volume of the pipe segment which would exist if the vm = vsl + vsg
gas and liquid traveled at the input or entrance velocity
(no slippage). It can be calculated directly from the It is an important correlating parameter in two-phase
known gas and liquid flow rates from flow calculations.
Slip Velocity: The slip velocity is defined as the
difference in the actual gas and liquid velocities

Vs = Vg - VL
where, qL and qg, are the in-situ liquid and gas flow
rates, respectively. The no-slip gas holdup or void Liquid Density: The total liquid density may be
fraction is defined as calculated from the oil and water densities and flow
rates if no slippage between the oil and water phases is
assumed-

It is obvious that the

difference between the liquid holdup and the no-slip
holdup is a measure of the degree of slippage between
the gas and liquid phases. Since no-slip holdup is an
analytically determined parameter, it is often used as an Where
independent variable to determine important two-phase
flow parameters such as the liquid holdup.

85
 Surface Tension: Correlations for the interfacial
tension between water and natural gas at various
pressures and temperature are obtained from measured
data or PVT correlation. The interfacial tension between
natural gas and crude oil depends on oil gravity,
temperature, and dissolved gas, among other variables.
When the liquid phase contains both water and oil, the
same weighting factors as used for calculating density
and viscosity are used. That is,

Multiphase-Flow Pressure Gradient Equations The

pressure gradient equation for single-phase flow can
now be extended for multiphase flow by replacing the
Two-Phase Density: The calculation of two-phase flow and fluid properties by the mixture properties.
density requires knowledge of the liquid holdup. Three
Thus,
equations for two-phase density are used by various
investigators in two-phase flow.

………………… 4.14

ρs is used by most investigators to determine the

pressure gradient due to the elevation change. Some
correlations are based on the assumption of no-slippage
and, therefore, use ρn for two-phase density. ρk is used
by some investigators such as Dukler to define the
mixture density used in the friction loss term and
Reynolds Number.

Viscosity: The viscosity of an oil water mixture is

usually calculated using the water/oil ratio as a The equation is usually adapted for two-phase flow by
weighting factor. The equation is assuming that the gas/liquid mixture can be considered
to be homogeneous over a finite volume of the pipe. For
two-phase flow, the hydrostatic gradient is
Two-Phase Viscosity: The following equations have
been used to calculate a two-phase viscosity.

where, ρs is the density of the gas/liquid mixture in the

pipe element.

86
Considering a pipe element which contains liquid and
gas, the density of the mixture can be calculated from

The friction loss component becomes

where, ftp and ρf are defined differently by several

investigators, i.e, Duns and Ros (1963), Hagedorn and
Brown (1965), etc.
Two-Phase Friction: Previously, it was shown that the friction loss can be very dominant. In gas lift wells,
term (dp/dL)f represents the pressure losses due to injection above an optimum GLR causes a reversal of
friction when gas and liquid flow simultaneously in the tubing gradient due to very high friction losses
pipes. This term is not analytically predictable except compared to hydrostatic losses. In fact, by injecting
for the case of laminar single-phase flow. Therefore, it more gas, one may lose oil production in a gas-lift well.
must be determined by experimental means or by Acceleration Component : The acceleration
analogies to single-phase flow. The method which has component, which sometimes is referred to as the
received by far the most attention is the one resulting in kinetic energy term, constitutes a velocity-squared term
two-phase friction factors. The different expressions for (Eq. 4-14) and is based on a changing velocity that must
the calculation of two-phase friction gradient are the occur between various positions in the pipe. In about
following - 98% of the actual field cases, this term approaches zero
but can be significant in some instances, showing up to
10% of the total pressure loss. In those cases of low
pressure and hence low densities and high gas volumes
or high gas-oil ratios, a rapid change in velocity occurs
and the acceleration component may become
significant. It should always be included in any
computer calculations.
The acceleration component is completely ignored by
In general, the two-phase friction factor methods differ some investigators and ignored in some flow regimes
only in the way the friction factor is determined and to a by others. When it is considered, various assumptions
large extent on the flow pattern. For example, in the are made regarding the relative magnitudes of
mist-flow pattern, the equation based on gas is normally parameters involved to arrive at some simplified
used; whereas, in the bubble-flow regime, the equation procedure to determine the pressure drop due to the
based on liquid is frequently used. The definition of pf kinetic energy change. This pressure gradient
can differ widely depending on the investigator as component is important near the surface in high GLR
discussed previously. (Please refer to the appropriate wells.
papers for any detailed discussion of this topic.) From the discussion of the various components
Most correlations attempt to correlate friction factors contributing to the total pressure gradient, it is essential
with some form of a Reynolds Number. Recall that the that methods to predict the liquid holdup and two-phase
single-phase Reynolds Number is defined as: friction factor be developed. This is the approach
followed by most researchers in the study of two-phase
Hydrostatic Component: From the pressure gradient flowing pressure gradients.
equation in single and multiphase flow, it becomes
evident that the elevation component drops out in Flow Patterns Whenever two fluids with different
horizontal flow. However, the elevation or the physica1 properties flow simultaneously in a pipe, there
hydrostatic gradient component is by far the most is a wide range of possible flow patterns. The flow
important of all the three components in vertical and pattern indicates the geometric distribution of each
inclined flow. It is the principal component that causes phase in pipe relative to other phase. Many investigators
wells to load up and die. Gas well loading is a typical such as Mukherjee and Brill have attempted to predict
example where the hydrostatic component builds up in the flow pattern that will exist for various flow
the well due to liquid slippage and overcomes reservoir conditions. This is particularly important as the liquid
pressure, reducing the gas intake. holdup is found to be dependent on the flow pattern.

Friction Component This component is always more In recent studies, it was confirmed that the flow pattern
dominant in horizontal flow. Also in vertical or inclined is also dependent on the angle of inclination of the pipe
gas, gas condensate or high GLR multiphase flow, the and direction of flow (e.g., production or injection).

87
Consequently, some of the more reliable pressure loss
correlations are dependent on the accurate prediction of
flow pattern.
There are basically four important flow patterns.

 Bubble Flow (can be present in both vertical

flow or horizontal flow)
 Slug Flow (can be present in both vertical flow
or horizontal flow)
 Annular/Mist Flow (can be present in both
vertical flow or horizontal flow)
 Stratified Flow (only possible in horizontal
flow)
Fig 4.18: Horizontal flow patterns

Fig 4.17: Vertical flow patterns

Bubble flow in gas/liquid two-phase flow is defined as

the flow regime where both the phases are almost In two-phase gas/liquid flow, the momentum balance
homogeneously, mixed or the gas phase travels as small equation (Eq. 4-14) depends on the flow pattern. The
bubbles in a continuous liquid medium. prediction of flow patterns is possible using the
Mukherjee and Brill (1979) or Barnea et al. (1982) and
Slug flow is defined as the flow condition where the gas Taitel et al. (1980) methods.
bubbles are longer than one pipe diameter and flow Figures 4.12 and 4.13 presents sample flow pattern
through the pipes as discrete slugs of liquids followed maps. The flow pattern maps are presented with liquid
by slugs of gas. Due to continuous segregation of and gas velocity numbers as the independent variables.
phases in direction of flow, slug flow results in These are defined as follows.
substantial pressure fluctuations in pipe. This creates
production problems e.g., separator flooding, improper
functioning of gas lift valves.

Annular flow is defined as the flow pattern where the

gas phase flows as a core with the liquid flowing as an
annular film adjacent to the pipe wall. This happens at a
very high gas velocity.

The stratified flow only occurs in two-phase. This flow

pattern is characterized by fluid stratification along the
cross section of the flow conduit or pipe. The heavier Fig 4.19: Example flow map
fluid flows through the bottom of the pipe, whereas the
lighter fluid/gas occupies the upper cross section of the
pipe.

88
 Gradient Curves Gradient curves are graphical
presentations of pressure vs length or depth of flowline
or tubing, respectively, for a set of fixed flow and fluid
parameters. Figure 4.21 is a typical gradient curve for 2
7/8-in. tubing with 600 BPD liquid production at 50%
oil. The fixed fluid properties, such as specific gravity
of gas, etc. are presented on the top right comer of the
plot. On each gradient curve, a family of curves is
presented for a number of gas/ liquid ratios. These
curves are computer generated and are used for design
calculations / tubing performance curve generation in
the absence of a computer program. Gradient curves are
used to calculate one of the terminal pressures
(Wellhead pressure / flowing bottomhole pressure)
Figure 4.20: Duns and Ros flow pattern map
when the other terminal pressure (Wellhead pressure /
flowing bottomhole pressure) and the appropriate flow
Calculation of Pressure Traverses: A number of
and fluid properties are known. Fig 4.22 to 4.24 are a
methods have been proposed to calculate the pressure
set of sample gradient curves presented by Brown. A
loss and tubing performance curve generation when gas
suite of gradient curves can be found in “Technology of
and liquid simultaneously flow through tubing /
Artificial Lift methods by Kermit Brown” volume 4
pipeline. These methods provide means to predict flow
covering all the ranges of flow rates that are possible for
patterns for given flow and fluid parameters such as the
a particular tubing size ( ID : 1” , 1.5”, 2” ,2.5” ,3” and
individual phase flow rates, fluid properties, pumping
4”).
system dimensions, and one of the terminal pressures
(wellhead/separator pressure). For the predicted flow
patterns, liquid holdup and friction factors are
calculated to determine the hydrostatic gradient and
friction gradient. A detailed discussion on some of these
methods has been presented by Brown and Beggs.

The NODAL analysis programs such as Pipesim,

Prosper, Wellflo offers several flow correlations to
calculate pressure traverse in a well. Some of the
general correlations used for pressure traverse
calculations are:

 Duns and Ros (1963)

 Orkiszewski (1967)
 Hagedorn and Brown (1965)
 Beggs and Brill (1973)
 Mukherjee and Brill (1985)
 Dukler (1964)

The first three correlations are developed for vertical

upflow or for production wells. Only the Beggs and
Brill and Mukherjee and Brill correlations are
developed for inclined multiphase flow, and are valid
for both production and injection wells as well as for
hilly terrain pipelines. These are also valid for
horizontal single or multiphase flow. The Dukler
correlation is only valid for horizontal flow. All these
correlation programs can also be used for single-phase
gas or single-phase liquid flow. Only the Mukherjee and
Brill program in the above list predicts the flow pattern Figure 4-21: Example "Gradient" or Pressure
transitions in inclined two-phase flow. Traverse Curve
89
Fig. 4.22: Vertical Multiphase Flaw: How to Find the Flowing Bottomhole Pressure (considering well
depth of 1000 ft , tubing of 2.441” ID , flow rate 1000blpd , GOR 400 scf/bbl and wellhead pressure
160psi.

90
 Fig. 4.23: Vertical Multiphase Flaw: How to Find the Flowing Wellhead Pressure (considering well
depth of 1000 ft , tubing of 2.441” ID , flow rate 1000blpd , GOR 400 scf/bbl and flowing bottom hole
pressure 3800 psi.

91
Fig. 4.24: Horizontal Multiphase Flow: How to Find the Flowing Wellhead Pressure (considering
pipeline length of 6000 ft , tubing of 2.50” ID , flow rate 1500blpd , GOR 800 scf/bbl and pipeline
terminal pressure of 490 psi.

92
4.7 FLOW THROUGH CHOKE / RESTRICTION: Several fluid empirical choke performance formulae
based on field or experimental data have been proposed,
Flow through the choke will be largely influenced by of the form:
whether single or multiphase flow occurs.
a.) Single Phase Flow
The rate of flow through an orifice q, if the velocity of
approach is neglected, is expressed as:
…………………. 4.17

R = gas liquid ratio

q = liquid flowrate
A = cross-sectional area of the choke
a, b, c and M are constants
………………….. 4.15
The value of the constants will depend upon
where , Cd = discharge coefficient  the choke characteristics and
A = cross-sectional area of the orifice dimensions
hL = loss of pressure head across the orifice  the gas and liquid properties
b.) Multiphase Flow through a Choke  the flowing temperature at the choke
A number of researchers have published studies on The majority of the correlations assume critical flow
multiphase flow through chokes. Some of the studies across the choke.
relate to correlation of field measurements. Assuming a
knife edged circular orifice and making several (i) Gilbert's choke correlation :
simplifying assumptions with regard to the phase Gilbert proposed the following empirical relationship
properties, it can be shown theoretically that: based on field data:

……………………… 4.16 …………………….. 4.18

where
PTH = tubing head flowing pressure in psia where PTH = flowing tubing head pressure in psig.
Cd = constant (about 100) He also presented the information as a nomograph
R = gas liquid ratio (MSCF/bbl) (Figure 4.25). The nomograph is split into 2 portions.
Q = gas liquid ratio (STB/d) The left hand side related the production rate and GLR
S = bean size in 1/64" and the right had side utilised a 10/64" choke for
reference and this is related to choke size and PTH.

Fig 4.25: Gilbert's bean performance correlation

93
4.8 Complete Flow Performance and optimization The method is depicted in Fig 4-26 and comprises the
(Matching the Inflow and Tubing Performance): following stages:

In the previous three section, we have looked at

sequentially:
(a) Predict Pwf as a function of inflow flow rate q
(1) inflow performance or pressure loss from the reservoir using either
(2) tubing flow performance and pressure loss (i) The straight line assumption, the
(3) choke pressure loss productivity index and reservoir static
or average pressure
The dissipation of reservoir pressure can be stated in (ii) A radial inflow performance equation
simplified form as: (iii) Vogel‟s technique or a variant thereof
(b) Predict Pwf from pressure loss in the tubing
using either.
…... 4.18 Using PTH, the tubing size and length, the flowing gas
Where liquid ratio, we use a series of gradient curves for
individual flow rate, to back calculate the flowing
bottomhole pressure as a function of rate based upon.

(i) The specified tubing head pressure

Or
(ii) Predict tubing head pressure as [PSEP +
ΔP flow line]
We can then plot Pwf versus q, based on tubing
pressure loss requirements.
i.e ,
At the point of intersection as shown in figure 4-27, the
bottomhole flowing pressure required based on both the
IPR at that rate, and the tubing performance at that same
……………. 4.19 flowrate, are equal. The flowrate at the intersection of
Since the pressure loss in the system is flowrate the two curves is termed the operating flowrate.
dependent, the production rate from the well can be
optimized. Inflow and tubing performance matching can
be done by carrying out reservoir and tubing pressure
loss convergence.
The approach will be to predict the bottomhole flowing
pressure, Pwf, from both directions, i.e. converge on
predicting Pwf from :
(a) From the separator back up the flowline and
down the tubing to the formation, and
(b) From the reservoir pressure PR assuming
inflow inwards to the wellbore
Since both of these pressure losses are rate dependent,
we seek to identify the operating flow rate at which
reservoir pressure is fully utilized to maximize the
production rate for an assigned tubing head or separator
pressure.
The calculation of the pressure losses and the
identification of the operating flow rate is easily
obtained from a plot of bottomhole flowing pressure
versus production rate, with Pwf being calculated based
on reservoir and tubing pressure loss respectively.
Figure 4-26 : Simplified approach to evaluating
bottomhole flowing pressure
94
 as separator pressure, wellhead pressure or surface
flowline) the tubing size capable of maximizing the
production rate is the optimum tubing size. Tubing size
selection is carried out as follows:

a.) The inflow performance relationship (IPR) is first

obtained for various production rates (Fig 4-28).
For the given wellhead pressure Pwh and various
production rates supposed, flowing well bore pressure
(Pwf) is calculated under different tubing sizes either
using gradient curves for given production conditions or
by using suitable flow correlation .The production rate
vs flowing bottom hole pressure (TPR, that is, tubing
performance relationship) curves obtained under
different tubing sizes can be obtained. Figure 4-28
shows TPR curves under various tubing sizes. The
intersection of the TPR curves and the IPR curve are the
Figure 4-27: Evaluation of the operating production points under various tubing size.
flowrate

4.9 Tubing size selection using nodal analysis:

Tubing is one of the most important component of

production system and is the main channel for oil and
gas field development. Any oil well system needs an
optimum tubing size .Undersized tubing will limit the
production rate due to increased friction. Contrarily
oversized tubing size may lead to an excessive liquid
phase loss due to slippage effect or an excessive
downhole liquid during lifting. Therefore it is essential
that sensitivity analysis of tubing size is carried out
using nodal analysis.
The tubing size should be optimized in order to ensure
lowest energy consumption for lifting and longest flow
time, that is, to utilize rationally the energy of oil and Figure 4-28 : TPR curves for various tubing sizes
gas reservoir. Under the given surface conditions (such

95
Chapter 5

ARTIFICIAL LIFT

5.1 Artificial Lift Methods

The well will stop flowing whenever the inflow and

outflow curves do not intersect, or in other words,
when the available reservoir energy becomes less than
that required to support the flow. (Fig. 5.1). The
purpose of all artificial lift methods is to lower the
tubing intake pressure below the natural flow
condition, thus increasing production.
The following artificial lift methods are common:-
Sucker rod pumping
Gas lift
Electrical submersible pumping
Progressing cavity pump Fig 5.1 Inflow / Outflow curve
Jet pumping

5.2 Sucker Rod Pump

5.2.1 Introduction : Sucker rod pump (SRP) is an age

old technique used in the oil industry for lifting crude
oil from oil wells. It is the most widely used mode of
artificial lift system - approximately 80% to 90% of
Artificial lift wells operate on SRP.
The whole pumping system (Fig: 5.2.1)is presented in
three broad units namely:
1) Surface unit and well head assembly.
2) Sucker rod string
3) Sub surface sucker rod pumping system.
It is important, in brief, to visualise the motion of each
of these units before they are described in detail and
how these units are tied together into a unique
pumping system.

Fig 5.2.1: Schematic of a Sucker rod pump

96
With the help of a prime mover, say an electric motor
of comparatively low r.p.m. (like 720 r.p.m.) a rotating
motion is generated. This rotating motion is then

converted to reciprocating vertical motion with the

help of surface unit. This linear reciprocating motion
is then transmitted to sub-surface sucker rod pump
through the sucker rods, which is the linkage between
the surface unit and subsurface pump.

5.2.2 SURFACE UNITS (Pumping units) :

The structural parts of a conventional beam pumping
unit (Fig: 5.2.2)are as follows:-
1 Walking beam
2 Horse head
3 Saddle bearing.
4 Equaliser bearing Fig 5.2.2: Sucker rod pumping system
5 Equaliser.
6 Pitman arm. The whole structure is based on a rigid steel base
7 Wrist pin or crank ensuring proper alignment of the components and this
pin bearing. base is usually set on a concrete foundation. Two
8 Crank. types of base systems are followed - one is the skid
9 Counterweight based where the skid is not grouted to the concrete
10 Crankshaft. foundation and the other is the base properly grouted
11 Double reduction by the grouting bolts with the concrete foundation.
gear box.
12 Unit sheave. 5.2.3 DIFFERENT PUMPING UNIT
13 Sampson post. GEOMETRIES :
14 Ladder
The pumping units are broadly classified into two
15 Briddle (wire-line
groups :
hanger).
16 Carrier bar. I) Walking beam operates as a double arm
17 Electric motor. lever (Class-I) - Conventional unit
18 Motor sheave or II) Walking beam operates as a single arm
Motor pulley lever (Class-III).
19 V-belt. Air balanced
20 Belt cover Mark II Unit
21 Reducer gear box. Torque master
22 Motor base
23 Brake, its link and 5.2.4 DESIGNATION OF CONVENTIONAL
handle PUMPING UNITS :
24 Pumping unit base.
25 Grouting nuts and The API has standardised and designated the pumping
bolts unit. For example in a C-456D-256-144 unit, 'C'
means crank balanced conventional unit, 456 means
gear box having a torque of 456,000 inch-lb maximum
, 'D' means double reduction gear box, 256 means the
unit having the PPRL (Peak Polished Rod Load)
capacity of 25600 lbs. and 144 means having
maximum possible stroke length of 144 inch. In the
above, the first letter can be either B, C, A, M or TM.
'B' is for beam balanced conventional unit, 'C' as
described above', „A‟ for air balanced unit, 'M' for
Mark 11 unit and 'TM' for torque master unit.
Fig 5.2.2: Sucker rod pumping system

97
5.2.5 DESIRABLE FEATURES OF A PUMPING head gas from the casing head. A gas scrubber is
UNIT installed at the well head to knock out the liquid
such as oil and water from the gas before it enters
1. Long and slow upstroke is most desirable.
the engine carburettor. Slow speed engines with
2. Down stroke should be faster than the upstroke.
operational speed between 200 - 800 rpm are
3. Low torque factors on the upstroke are desirable.
preferable.
5.2.6 PRIME MOVER : The choice between electric or gas engine is based on
Two types of prime movers are very common: several factors:
(i) Availability of gas or electricity at well site.
1. Electric Motor : Most sucker rod pumping units
are being run on electric motors. Low cost, ease (ii) Investment cost of a gas engine and an
of control, more compact and adaptability to electric motor. Gas engines have higher
automatic operations relative to other types of initial cost.
prime mover have endeared it most. The primary (iii) Service life of gas engine and electric motor.
requirement is that these motors should have very Gas engines have much higher service life.
low rpm say 720 rpm, 950 rpm etc. Electric Energy costs when using electric motors. In this
motors used for pumping are designated as respect, gas, if available,can turn out to be more
NEMA B, C and D motors. economical.
2. Internal Combustion Engine (run on gas) : Internal
combustion engines are usually run on the well

5.2.7 WELL HEAD EQUIPMENT( Fig. 5.2.3)

The sucker rod wellhead is not like the normal

wellheads. The material difference is the presence of
polished rods projecting out of wellhead through the
stuffing box in case of sucker rod pumping system.
Every care is to be exercised to prevent any leakage
from the stuffing box.
5.2.7 SUCKER ROD STRING : Sucker rod string, in
fact, is the vital link between the sub surface pump and
the pumping unit and consists of the following :

98
5.2.7.1 SUCKER RODS: Sucker rods are available NUMBER OF PONY RODS IN THE SUCKER
as per API in three different lengths – 25‟, 30'and 35'. ROD STRING COMBINATION
The diameter of the rod body ranges from 1/2" to 1 1/8"
Rod Wear & measures : When sucker rod string
with 1/8" increments. Rod body of diameters 5/8", 3/4",
moves up and down the tubing also moves a little up
7/8" and 1 " are most common.
and down because of the expansion and contraction of
5.2.7.2 SUCKER ROD MATERIALS: The material tubing/sucker rods. This invariably results in rod tubing
of steel sucker rods has more than 90% iron content. friction. Since, metallurgy of the rod is inferior to that
Other elements are added to increase strength and of tubing, so most of the wear and tear results on rods.
hardness, resist corrosion etc. Table below indicates the Due to the wear of the metal parts, strength of the rod
tensile strengths of different rod grades viz.'C', 'D', & decreases and eventually failure of rods results.
'K' according to API Spec. 1.1B.
In order to overcome such rod tubing friction, several
Rod Tensile Strength, psi common field practices being used for a long time out
Composition
Grade Min. Max. of which some are enumerated below :
K AISI 46 (carbon steel + Ni + Mo) 85, 000 115,000
C AISI 1536 ( Carbon steel) 90,000 115,000 1) Use of a number of small length pony rods at the
D Carbon or Alloy ( Carbon steel + 115,000 140,000 vulnerable points where friction is more, help
CrMo alloy) save the abrasion of sucker rod body.

In cases where grade 'D' rod fails to perform because of 2) Extra long sucker rod coupling is more effective
the excess calculated stress some Non-API high than the normal coupling.
strength Sucker rods have come into the market. [Some 3) The plastic material or metal scrappers are fitted
of these are Norris make '97' grade type and oil well on to the sucker rods at the specified interval at
make 'EL‟ grade type]. the vulnerable points where friction is more.
Use of hollow sucker rod tubes can be advantageous in 4) Rod Guides: The rod guides are factory-mounted
slim hole completions where fluid lifting takes place metallic guides and moulded permanently to
inside the hollow sucker tubes, rods. In many oil fields, moulded guides are
Fibre glass sucker rods figure in the API specifications. most preferred.
These rods are low weight, corrosion resistant, non- Other rod guides like wheeled rod guides are placed at
metal and develop a strength of 110,000 - 180,000 psi 45 degrees angle with each other and roll on inside
which is about 25% stronger than the steel sucker rods surface of tubing during the up and down movement of
and therefore have definite advantages over steel sucker the sucker rod and thus because of the rolling action the
rods specially when the pump is to operate in very deep rod encounters a minimum friction. It cannot work
corrosive wells. very effectively when the inclination is very severe,
5.2.7.3 SINKER BAR : A few number of sinker dog-legged and well profile is in the shape of 'S' and
bars just above the pump provide the stability of the „L‟.
downhole SRP operations due to their increased weight
on the pump. For example, a sucker rod pump well is 5.2.8 SUB-SURFACE SUCKER ROD PUMP: Sub-
completed with 1 ", 7/8" and 3/4" sucker rods and in surface sucker rod pump has five main components:
that well about 60 m or so 1 " rods are installed at the - Barrel.
lowest end of the string just above the pump as sinker - Plunger.
bar. Each sinker bar is about 4-5 feet in length. In - Standing valve.
many of the ONGC oil wells a few heavier rods (about - Travelling valve.
6-18 in number) are lowered just above the pump. Of - Pump seat or nipple.
late, a new type of sinker bar has been designed which
is approximately 12 feet in length and most of its part is A conventional pump consists of a fixed "barrel" and a
of 1 1/2" diameter with the top neck of 1 " diameter for moving plunger, with "standing valve” fitted at the
making the room to hold the sinker bar with 1” elevator barrel end and with "travelling valve" fitted at the
with the top end having similar end connection of plunger end. Theword 'travelling' implies that the valve
sucker rod ¾” pin end and the bottom of ¾” pin thread. moves or travels along with the plunger. The standing
In fiber glass rod completion, heavy rods are an valve is fixed with the stationary barrel hence the word
absolute necessity. 'standing'. Both the standing and travelling valves are
unidirectional, implying, both allow fluid to pass
5.2.7.4 ROD GUIDES, SCRAPERS, ETC. LONG through them in the upward direction only. The fluid
SUCKER ROD COUPLING AND USE OF A will not pass through them in the downward direction.

99
PUMPING CYCLE:
a) Plunger moving down and near bottom of stroke :
b) Travelling valve is open.
Fluid is moving up through the travelling
valve.
Standing valve is closed due to weight of fluid
column in the tubing.
c) Plunger moving up and near the bottom of the
stroke
The travelling valve is closed due to load of
fluid column on it.
Standing valve begins to open to allow entry
of fluid from the well bore.
d) Plunger moving up and near top of the stroke
The travelling valve is closed due to fluid load
above it. Fig 5.2.4: Pumping cycle
The standing valve is open and fluid entry The classifications as mentioned in API RP-11 AR is as
from well bore into the barrel continues. follows:-
e) Plunger moving down and near top of stroke
 The standing valve is closed by the increased
fluid pressure resulting from the
compression of the fluids in the barrel
between the standing and the travelling
valves due to downward movement of
plunger.
 The travelling valve begins to open to allow
the compressed fluid in the barrel to push
through it against the tubing fluid load in
the tubing.
 The plunger thereafter reaches the bottom of
the stroke and another cycle is started.
5.2.8.1 TYPES OFSUB SURFACE SUCKER
RODPUMPS : There are basically two types of SRP
pumps :
a) INSERT (OR ROD) PUMP : In the insert or rod
pump, the barrel, plunger, travelling and standing valve Fig 5.2.5: Sub surface sucker rod pump categories
are the integral part of entire sub surface assembly and
is run as a unit on the sucker rod string. It is the more RHA: Rod, stationary heavy wall barrel, Top Anchor
conventional choice and more commonly used pump.
b) TUBING PUMP : In the tubing pump the working RHB :Rod, stationary heavy wall barrel, Bottom
barrel is run as part of the tubing and is placed at the Anchor pump.
desired depth. The standing valve is then dropped into RWA : Rod, stationary thin wall barrel, Top Anchor
the well followed by running in plunger along with pump.
sucker rod strings and is placed inside barrel.Used in RWB : Rod, stationary thin wall barrel, Bottom
inclined wells. It is used when greater liquid volumes Anchor pump.
are required to be pumped out. RSA : stationary thin wall barrel, Top Anchor, soft
packed plunger pump.
5.2.8.3 API PUMP CLASSIFICATIONS RSB : Rod, stationary thin wall barrel, Bottom
(SUBSURFACE PUMPS) Anchor, soft packed plunger pump.

100
RHT : Rod, Travelling heavy wall barrel, Bottom A-Top Anchored
Anchor pump. B-Bottom Anchored
RWT : Rod, Travelling thin wall barrel, Bottom T-Bottom Anchored
Anchor pump.
RST : Rod, Travelling thin wall barrel, Bottom Anchor, (4) Type of seating assembly:
soft packed plunger pump. C-Cup type
TH : Tubing, heavy wall barrel pump. N-Mechanical type
TP : Tubing, heavy wall barrel, soft packed plunger (5) Barrel length: In feet, like 10', 12', 14‟16’etc.
pump.
(6) Nominal plunger length: In feet, like 3,‟ 4', 5'etc.
Complete pump designations are as follows: (7) Total length of extensions, which includes top and
(1)(2)(3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) bottom extension of barrel: e.g. 2', 3' etc.
XX XXX X XXXXXX Example: 25 - 175 RHAM 16-4-3
(1) Tubing Size 15 means 1 1/2" Nom. Size Tubing  Here, 25 means 2 1/2" tubing.
i.e. 1.900" OD (48.3 mm)  175 means 1 3/4" plunger opening or pump bore.
20 means 2" Nom. Size Tubing i.e. 2 3/8” OD  RHAM means Rod, Heavy wall, Top anchored,
(60.3 mm) Mechanical type hold down.
25 means 2 1/2" Nom. Size Tubing i.e. 2 7/8”  16 means 16' barrel length.
OD (73.0 mm)  4 means 4' plunger length.
30 means 3 1/2" Nom. Size Tubing i.e. 3 1/2"  means a total of 3‟ extension on both sides of the
OD (88.9 mm) barrel say 2‟ on one side & 1‟ on the other side.
and so on
5.2.8.4 BASIC PUMP CLASSIFICATION AS
(2) Pump bore (basic):
PER API
125 - 1 1/4" (31.8 mm) 200 - 2” (50.8 mm)
150 - 1 1/2" (38.1 mm) 225 - 2 1/4" (57.2 mm) 1. Stationary barrel top anchor (or top hold
175 - 1 3/4" (44.5 mm) 250 - 2 1/2" (63.5 mm) down) rod pump (Fig.5.2.6).
178 - 1 25/32" (45.2 mm) 275 - 2 3/4" (69.9 mm) 2. Stationary barrel bottom anchor or bottom
and so on. hold down rod pump (Fig. 5.2.7).
(3) Location of seating assembly: 3. Travelling barrel rod pump (Fig. 5.2.8).
4. Tubing pump (Fig. 5.2.9).

Fig 5.2.6: Stationary Barrel Fig 5.2.7: Stationary Barrel Fig 5.2.8: Travelling Barrel Fig 5.2.9: Tubing
Top anchor rod pump Bottom anchor rod pump rod pump Pump

101
 Rod Pump API class-
Features & Advantages Disadvantages
type ification
Stationery RHA Used for producing sandy wells , Due to the top hold down system,
Barrel Top RWA This pump performs better in gassy wells the outside of barrel is at suction
Anchor , pressure while the inside of barrel
Facilitates in the installation of a very experiences the pressure due to
simple and effective type of poor boy gas fluid load of total tubing length.
anchor where the barrel of the pump This large differential pressure
serves as pull tube of the gas anchor. across the barrel wall may lead to
System is stable while the pump is in the bursting of barrel. Therefore,
operation. the pump has a limitation of depth.
Rod Pump API class-
Features & Advantages Disadvantages
type ification
Stationery RHB The differential pressure across the During intermittent operation of
Barrel RWB barrel is much lesser in this case as pump, sand or other particles can
Bottom RSB compared to the TOP HOLD-DOWN settle in the barrel-tubing clearance
Anchor pump. SO THIS PUMP CAN BE USED space. Thus when it is required to
AT GREATER DEPTHS. pull out the pump, smooth pulling
out of pump will be prevented
Travelling RHT The travelling barrel rod pump has got The pump is not recommended for
Barrel RWT the stationary plunger and moving barrel lifting moderately high viscous
RST i.e. the plunger is held in place while the fluid and gassy fluid due to small
barrel is moved by the rod string. size of the standing valve
Due to its ability to create a greater In deep wells, length of dip tube is
turbulence in the fluid motion it is best limited due to high hydrostatic
suited to produce sands/solids. pressure acting on the standing
valve.
Tubing TH The large barrel in tubing pump allows For replacement of pump barrel
Pump TP more fluid volume to be produced than Work-Over-is required.
with any other rod type of pump for the Large amount of rod and tubing
same size of tubing. stretch / contraction are expected
The tubing pump is stronger in because of large standing valve
construction than any rod pump. and therefore, setting depth of
Suitable for pumping viscous and pump is limited
comparably higher GLR fluids due to
large size of standing valve.
It is more suitable in inclined well as
compared to insert pump.

5.2.8.5 TUBING ANCHORS (Fig : 5.2.10) :

During upward and downward strokes the load is
transferred to the travelling valve and tubing
respectively. Therefore, in each pumping cycle, a
freely suspended tubing string periodically
stretches and contracts. This results into the
buckling of tubing string, which sometimes
becomes very severe. There are several ways to
contain the buckling of the tubing. The most
effective way is to anchor the tubing string by a
tension type anchor.
Two types of tubing anchors are known:
a) Mechanical type tubing anchor catcher. Fig. 5.2.10 : Tubing stretch / contraction for freely
suspended tubing during pumping operation

102
 b) Hydraulic type tubing anchor catcher installed and commissioned, it should be
mandatory that within the 10-15 days of
5.2.9 REGULAR CHECKING AND operation of the pump all the connecting nuts
MONITORING OF SUCKER ROD PUMPING and bolts are to be retightened by applying
SYSTEM leverage. Special care should be taken that
crank pin bearing nuts are adequately tight and
Monitoring of rod pumping system can be broadly locked. This part should be re-checked after 15
categorized into two components viz., Monitoring of days..
surface system and sub-surface system.
SRP units should be stopped for one hour once in
5.2.9.1 Checking and monitoring surface system: every month and all of their bearings must be
Once every day the maintenance team should visit thoroughly greased and the level of oil in the gear box
each sucker rod pumping well. Team should first must be checked and topped with oil, if required, to
check and monitor SRP surface unit and try to detect ensure that the oil level in the gear box is in the
any type of disorder by a visual inspection. If there is maxima-minima range. Within about six months of
none, then there is no need of doing any changes. If operation from the date of the commissioning of the
there is any disorder then the pump should be stopped pumping unit there is no need to change the gear box
and necessary steps must be taken for rectification. oil. However, approximately in the seventh month, the
During the visual inspection, the following basic gear box oil should be changed and after flushing
things should always be observed:- thoroughly the gear box oil chamber, the gear box
should be filled with new specified gear oil.
 There should not be any abnormal mechanical Thereafter, for about five years there is no need to
noise of continuous or periodic in nature. change the gear oil. The oil level in the gearbox level
 Motor V-belts should be in proper tension to should be monitored on a continuous basis and refilled
prevent slippage of V-belts on the pulleys. The if necessary. Also, the lubricator fitted over the
crank should rotate in a direction as earmarked stuffing box should be checked and refilled with
on the gear box by the manufacturer of surface engine oil once or twice in every month.
unit.
 Any leakage from stuffing box to be checked & 5.2.9.2 Checking and monitoring sub-surface
tightened if necessary. system : Performance of Sub-surface pump should be
 The person visiting a particular pumping well checked by carrying out “Pressure Build Up test” (the
should have a record of position of polished rod basic assumption is the flow line valve on surface has
clamp. If the polished rod clamp is displaced, been closed and the pumping unit was left pumping).
then immediate measures must be taken for its In order of preference, the following things should be
reinstallation to original position. checked:
 The polished rod should always be more or less  Shut the well in for a minimum of 2 to 4 hours or
perfectly centered w.r.t the well. If found overnight and start the well back up after being
otherwise, measures must be taken to correct it. shut in. This will allow for fluid inflow into the
 If polished rod surface found damaged (i.e. well-bore.
pitting on polished rod surface). It is  Flush with fluid or hot oil to circulate any debris
recommended to change polished rod to avoid off the valves in the pump
future problems like leakage from stuffing box.
 Check the fluid level in the well by carrying out
 Check lub oil indicator for oil level in gear box. echometer survey to ensure there is fluid
 Record the current drawn by motor in up stroke available to pump
and down stroke. The current should be within  Perform a dynamometer to check the condition of
allowed limit and there should not be much the pump
difference in current drawn by motor in both
strokes.  Space the plunger in the pump to ensure that it is
as close to tapping as possible
 Take a look at a few important connecting bolts
and nuts like crank-pin bearing nuts, saddle  If the wing valve on surface is closed and the
bearing nuts and bolts, base nuts and bolts etc. pump pressures up on the upstroke, but loses the
These should not be loose. Once the pump is pressure on the down stroke, it is possible that the

103
 standing valve is damaged (washed, plugged, or pumping too fast. Check the polished surface.
worn, etc.) If polished rod surface getting too hot (i.e. the
pumping system is not pumping fluid as it
 Ensure that the check valve is in place and not
should), a fluid level and dynamometer is
leaking, as this would cause the fluid to circulate
recommended to find and fix the pumping
up the tubing and back down the casing
problem
 Watch carefully if the casing pressures up while
 Check the flow line pressure to ensure there is no
pressuring up the tubing. This is an indication of
high back pressure on pump.
a hole in the tubing.
 If the pump pressures up OK and the well is still
 If the casing is full of fluid, but the pump cannot
not making any production, it could be due to
pressure up, it may be an indication that the
either a plugged or broken flow line. Paraffin, a
strainer nipple or standing valve is
hydrate or a stuck pig all could cause a plugged
plugged/scaled off and no fluid is entering into
flow line. The broken flow line is the worst
the barrel (starved pump)
possible scenario for the producer and they
 If the pump pressures up very slowly it may be an should be looking for fluid on surface, or monitor
indication of a worn travelling valve and/or pressure drops along the flow line.
plunger, or no fluid in the well, or the fluid is
If the bottom hole pump must be on tap, it is
very gassy and it takes a long time to compress
recommended that a light tap be set that is the pump is
this mixture.
to be lowered by 2 to 3 inches until a tap is felt.
 If the pump will not pressure up or only
marginally, it could indicate that a very deep rod 5.2.10 MONITORING AND
part has occurred and the only displacement in TROUBLESHOOTING – TOOLS
the well is from rod displacement
 Acoustic surveys: Records annular liquid level
 Check the pump description and calculate the which helps to determine the inflow
stroke length and confirm the surface unit stroke. performance of the wells.
It may be that the pump stroke is too short for the
surface stroke length and the pump is unseating  Dynamometer survey: Provides subsurface
itself. You would see a sudden drop in pressure and surface information of the equipment being
near the end of the upstroke as the pump unseats used. Results of the survey are used to cut costs
itself. related to equipment failures and optimize the
production.
 If the fluid level is high and the pump will not
pressure up, confirm gradient of the fluid in the The diagnosis of problems related to SRP involves
annulus. It could be that the "fluid" is in fact intricate analysis of the Acoustic & Dynamometer
foam and the pump cannot pump this mixture. surveys read in conjugation with the surface
operating parameters.
 Monitor the existing tubing and casing pressure.
If the casing pressure is regulated with a Baird
5.2.10.1 ACOUSTIC SURVEYS: In acoustic survey
valve, it could be set so high that the additional
a wave source, a pressure pulse (usually an acoustic
back pressure on the reservoir is preventing
impulse) is produced at the surface in the casing-
inflow of fluid into the wellbore.
tubing annulus, which travels in the form of pressure
 If polished rod found in “No Free Fall” condition waves along the length of the annular gas column. The
(i.e. polished rod not going inside well after waves reflected from casing tubing annulus are picked
travelling certain length in down stroke and up and converted to electrical signals by a microphone,
polished rod clamp is separating from the carrier also placed at the surface, and are recorded on paper or
bar of the pumping unit on the down stroke.), by electronic means. An evaluation of the reflected
SRP unit must stopped immediately and signals allows the determination of the depth to the
corrective action must be taken. liquid level in the well. The acoustic well sounder
consists of two basic components, i.e., the wellhead
 A hot polished rod could be due to no fluid in the
attachment (Fig 5.2.11) and the recording and
well, a gas locked pump, a scaled off pump
processing unit known as well analyzer (Fig 5.2.12).
strainer nipple and the pump is starved for fluids

104
 Fig 5.2.11: Wellhead attachment Fig 5.2.12: Recording / Processing
unitlevel depth test result, as
A single-shot acoustic liquid
displayed below, can be visualized / studied to
understand the well performance.

Fig 5.2.14: Wellbore reflections in Fig 5.2.1evel test result

acoustic survey Fig 5.2.13: Acoustic liquid level test result

Liquid level determination with the help of peak). The depth of the liquid level is determined by
Echometer survey : counting the number of tubing collar signals and
The signal processed and amplified by well analyzer is multiplying the same by the average length of each
recorded on a chart recorder as a function of time. A tubing. A typical Acoustic survey chart recorded by
number of peaks in the chart will be visible well analyzer software is shown in Fig. 5.2.15.
corresponding to tubing collar and liquid level (liquid
level peak has larger deflection than tubing collar

105
 Fig 5.2.15: Acoustic survey recorded by well analyzer software

5.2.10.2 DYNAMOMETER CARD cell can be of the horseshoe type or a polished rod
(DYNAGRAPHS) transducer (PRT) type. Accelerometer output is used to
The most valuable tool for analyzing the performance calculate polished rod velocity and position versus
of the pumping system is the dynamometer, which time. This polished rod load and position data is
records the loads occurring in the rod string. The most processed to plot the surface dynamometer card and
widely used portable dynamometer acquisition system waved down to calculate the pump dynamometer card.
consists of a laptop computer, an analog to digital
converter, and a load cell with accelerometer. The load

Surface Card

Sub Surface or
Pump Card

Fig 5.2.16: Surface & Sub-surface

Dynamometer cards

106
Surface Dynamometer Cards:
A dynamometer system gathers polished rod load
and displacement “points” and plots the resulting
“curve” - which is commonly known as the
“surface dynamometer card”. The graphics shown
below (Fig 5.2.17) illustrate how “surface cards”
relate to the motion of the polished rod and the
actions of the down hole pump. Because of the
complex behaviour of the rod string visual
diagnosis of the surface card is always not
possible.

Fig 5.2.17:
Surface
Dynamometer
Card (Typical)
& relation to
pump motion

Card Area: The term “Card Area”, as used in

LOWIS/cs Beam Analysis, represents the amount of
work being done by the entire pumping system. Fig cards given in “API RP11L”, illustrating the effect of
5.2.18 shows a group of representative dynamometer pumping speed, rod stretch and polished rod load.

Fig 5.2.18: API-11RL Dynamometer cards

107
The following pages are a collection of “API 11L” and “actual” surface cards gathered in
representative dynamometer cards as given in the field.

108
109
Downhole Dynamometer cards/ Pump cards: subsurface or down hole card can be interpreted to
Using wave equation sub-surface dynacards are diagnose the down hole problem.
generated from the surface card. The resulting

Fig 5.2.19: Typical Downhole API-11RL Dynamometer cards

Down hole pump card example: Combination of simultaneously (GS: Gross stroke, NS: Net
following downhole cards can occur Stroke).

110
5.2.11: PUMPING PROBLEMS : The majority of 5.2.11.1 GAS INTERFERENECE / GAS LOCK:
failures associated with sucker rod pumping can be Sucker-rod pumps working on the positive
classified into two broad categories: displacement principle are designed to pump an
a) Failures attributed to the well condition : incompressible liquid phase and provide efficient fluid
A. Gas interference / Gas Lock, lifting operations in wells where negligible amounts of
B. Fluid pound , free gas are present at pump depth. Gas that is free at
C. Deviated well suction pressure drastically reduces the pump's
D. Sand, volumetric efficiency .On the upstroke, the standing
E. Heavy oil & valve's opening is delayed. In addition to this, the barrel
b) Mechanical failure : only partially fills with liquid, since gas occupies some
A. Tubing failure of the barrel space.
B. Sucker rod failure including connecting
On the down stroke, the travelling valve is kept closed
rod failure
for a portion of its downward travel by the fluid load
C. Standing valve / Travelling valve failure
from above. All these effects decrease the plunger's
effective stroke length, and a considerable reduction of
pump displacement occurs. In extreme cases a gas lock
can also develop, which completely stops the pumping
action. The phenomenon is shown in the fig 5.2.20 (a)
& (b)

Fig 5.2.20 (a) - Gas Interference/

Gas lock
111
 improved compression ratio, variable slippage
pump etc.) .

 Beam Gas Compressor (BGC): The Beam gas

compressor (Fig 5.2.21) prevents gas
locking on down hole pump by moving the gas up
the casing and away from the down hole pump
resulting in increased pumping efficiency of the
downhole pump. It utilizes the action of the walking
beam of a Conventional, Mark, or Air balance unit
as the prime mover.

Fig 5.2.20 (b) - Gas Interference

Effects of Gas Interference/ Gas lock are :

Low pumping efficiency,
Increased pump and rod failures due to fluid
and gas pounding and
Losses in liquid production. No liquid
production in case of gas lock
Additionally lifting cost gets higher and production Fig 5.2.21 : Beam Gas Compressor
economy is considerably decreased.
 Gas Anchor : One of the most effective methods to
Remedial Solutions : Two main methods exist : separate gas before fluid enters the pump is with the
help of Gas Anchor. Gas anchors are of three types
a) Free gas is separated downhole and is not allowed
- "natural", packer, and "poor boy". The better
to enter the pump (by using beam gas
anchors are designed so that free gas cannot
compressor, gas anchor), and
easilyflow into the down passage of the gas anchor.
b) Minimize detrimental effect of free gas by using Figures 5.2.22, shows the schematic of natural,
special type of pumps (viz., pump with packer and poor boy anchors.

Fig 5.2.22: Schematics for Natural, Packer & Poor-boy Gas Anchors

112
 Improve compression ratio : The required and
available compression ratios are both critical design
factors for a rod pump installation when pumping
live fluids. The discharge head of the pump divided
by its suction head will yield the minimum required
compression ratio of the installation. A combination
of waste space or upswept areas, plunger diameter,
and stroke length can all dramatically affect the
pump‟s maximum available compression ratio. By
simply modifying these factors and then
recalculating the compression ratio available, a
pump can be designed to exceed the minimum
required compression ratio of the installation and
still be capable of moving the desired fluid
volumes.
 Variable Slippage pump : The patented (by
Harbison Fischer) Variable Slippage Pump is a
Fig 5.2.23 : Variable Slippage Pump
sucker-rod-drawn, positive-displacement pump  At point “A”, the travelling valve closes and the
which operates on the principle of pressure load begins to be transferred from the tubing to the
equalization just before the plunger reaches the rods.
top of the upstroke. The VSP has a gradual taper  Between points “A” and “B”, tension in the pull
in the upper barrel. As the plunger enters this rod is increasing as the rods are picking up the
taper near the top of the upstroke, slippage fluid.
increases past the plunger, and pressure is  At point “B”, the entire fluid load is borne by the
equalized above and below the plunger and rods and the standing valve opens.
 Between points “B” and “C”, fluid is being lifted to
travelling valve. Therefore, when the plunger
the surface. At the same time, the pump chamber
starts downward, the travelling valve opens below the travelling valve is filling with a mixture
easily since high pressure in the compression of liquid and low-pressure gas. Liquid fillage can
chamber has already been achieved. be much less than the volume of the pump
5.2.11.2 FLUID POUND: chamber.
 At point “C”, the top of the stroke has been reached
With the fluid level at the pump intake and pump and the downward tendency of the pump causes the
capacity in excess of well inflow, the pump barrel does standing valve to close.
not completely fill up with fluids during the upstroke.  Between points “C” and “D”, the fluid load is
Consequently, on the down stroke, the plunger will hit being transferred from the rods to the tubing.
the fluid level in the barrel, producing the phenomenon Because the gas is under low pressure, little
known as fluid pound. compression takes place as the pump descends.
Eventually, the plunger encounters nearly
incompressible liquid in the incompletely filled
(with liquid) pump chamber. At this point, the load
is rapidly released from the rods and the pump is
said to “pound fluid”.
 The travelling valve opens at point “D” and the
pump continues to descend.
 Between points “D” and “A”, the pump descends
with the travelling valve open (standing valve
closed) through the fluid that entered the pump
chamber during the upstroke.
 At point “A”, the travelling valve is closed by the
tendency of the pump to move upward. This action
begins another pumping cycle.
Effects of Fluid pound are :
 Reduced pumping efficiency,
 Increased energy cost,
Fig 5.2.24 : Fluid Pound  Increased wear and tear on downhole equipment,
 Shattered or broken traveling valve balls,
 Broken or cracked traveling valve cages,

113
  Rod strings can experience buckling that leads efficiency of work over rig and sometimes leads to
to rod break, fishing operation.
 Rod to tubing wear is increased, & Solutions for pumping deviated well using Rod
pump:
 Shock loads lead to coupling failure due to
unscrewing
 Using Rod guides:
Rod guides are
factory-mounted
metallic guides and
moulded permanently
to rods. In many oil
fields, moulded
guides are most
preferred.

Fig 5.2.26
Other rod guides like wheeled rod: guides
Mouldedare
Rod guides
placed
at 45 degrees angle with each other and roll on
inside surface of tubing during the up and down
movement of the sucker rod and thus because of the
rolling action the rod encounters a minimum
Fig 5.2.25 : Effects of Fluid Pound friction. It cannot work very effectively when the
inclination is very severe, dog-legged and well
 Increased wear and tear on surface equipment, profile is in the shape of 'S' and „L‟.
 Gear tooth failure in pump jacks,
 Damage to the rod pump base, &  Properly modelling / designing sucker rod
installations for deviated well:
 High instantaneous torques that overloads the
speed reducer 5.2.11.4 SAND PROBLEM : The major problems
 Demands more maintenance & down time faced while pumping sand laden fluids are:
Remedial Solutions :  Plunger sticking in the barrel due to sand trapped
 Run SRP continuously: between barrel and plunger
 Pump sticking in the tubing ( insert pumps) ,
 Match pump capacity with well productivity:
 Damage to barrel, plunger and valves,
 Intermittent pumping using timers or pump off  Sand packing off in the pump, &
control :  Sticking valves (Standing and travelling valves).
 Use of sinker bars:In condition of rod free fall the
System design to minimize sand problem: Various
lower portion of the rod string can buckle under the
methods to minimize the impact of sand on wells
compressive loads and can rub against the tubing. To
produced with sucker rod pumps include:
minimize these effects, the total weight of the string
must be increased by running sinker bars above the  Minimizing the amount of sand entering the
pump. Sinker bars are heavy solid steel rods with wellbore: Sand control measures viz., liners,
standard rod threads on both ends. They are run as screens or gravel pack, can minimize sand entry
part of the rod string and are located immediately into the wellbore.
above the pump.
 Minimizing the amount of sand entering the
sucker rod pump: Filters and centrifugal sand
5.2.11.3 DEVIATED WELLS : The dynamic
separators attached to the pump intake can reduce
behaviour of the sucker rod string in a deviated well is
the amount of sand entering the sucker rod pump.
different from that in a vertical well due to several
reasons –  Minimizing the impact of sand on sucker rod
 One of them is the friction between the rod and the pump:
tubing. o Travelling barrel API pump: The travelling
 The other is the curvature of the rod string. valve system in the travelling barrel API pump
acts as a sand check and prevents sand from
Problems encountered in deviated wells on SRP are:
settling on top of the plunger when the well is
 Snapping, unscrewing of sucker rods. shut down. The surging of fluid in and out of
 Wearing out of tubing & socket joints on one the lower end of the barrel causes turbulence
side. and prevents sand from settling around the
These problems result in lower system efficiency, pump and sticking in the tubing.
increase in work over load, reduction in operational

114
 Modified Pump Components for sandy 5.2.11.5 HEAVY OIL PUMPING : While pumping
environment : heavy oil using sucker rod pump, the dropping velocity
of sucker rod during the down stroke is reduced by the
o Plungers: As a best practice far sandy wells,
great frictional resistance of heavy oil to sucker rod (no
the following general rules for subsurface
free fall) , and the movement of sucker rod lags behind
pump plunger/barrel clearance have usually
the movement of hanging point of horsehead. When the
proved to give a much longer service life:
hanging point is rising, the sucker rod is still dropping
 The tight fit to exclude sand from barrel/
.Not only the normal movement of sucker rod may be
plunger interface works best with large
affected, but also impact of the horsehead on the sucker
grain size (0.020"and above).
rod may be caused .Thus the impact load may be
 Looser fit to allow sand to pass between
generated, the service life may be reduced and even
the plunger and barrel Interface when fine
mechanical failure may result.
sand is present (medium to small grain
size, 0.015"and smaller).
The problems associated in Sucker rod pumping of
Users report longer plunger runs with
heavy crude can be viewed mainly in the following
grooved plungers in abrasive conditions,
perspectives:
especially when large abrasive particles
due to  Significant fluid friction loss
are being produced with the production
viscosity against the tubing and flow line
fluid.
results in an increased polished rod
load during the upstroke
 Excessive flow resistance of the
standing valve causes considerable
pressure drop of the liquid entering
the pump barrel which may result in
gas break out from the liquid, a
very slow filling-up of the pump
o Pump Barrel: Needs surface treatments
barrel and consequently, incomplete
filling up of the barrel. During
down stroke it may result in severe
fluid pounding.
due to  Low API gravity crude imposes a
density high fluid load on pump parts, rods
and tubing and therefore need
heavy pumping units
due to  Sand is a common problem in
sand pumping heavy oil. Sand coming
with crude oil causes rapid wear of
valve ball and seats. It causes
Fig 5.2.28 : Dual valves system scratching on barrel and plunger. In
intermittent pumping, sand may
o (chrome, carbonitrided and nickel carbide) for settle down between plunger and
efficient performance in sandy environment. barrel and may cause problem
o Pump valves( travelling and standing valve) during subsequent start-up
: Experience has shown that two valves in
series will give much longer service than a Solutions /Methodologies for pumping heavy crude
single valve if the valve life is determined by using Sucker rod pumping : In order to pump heavy
wear or fluid cutting, rather than by corrosive oil efficiently using sucker rod system modification
action. may be done with reference to following parameter:
 Longer Stroke Length
5.2.11.5 HEAVY OIL PUMPING : While pumping  Pumping at reduced SPM
heavy oil using sucker rod pump, the dropping velocity
of sucker rod during the down stroke is reduced by the  Sub-surface API pumps:
great frictional resistance of heavy oil to sucker rod (no Stationary barrel rod pump with top seating
free fall) , and the movement of sucker rod lags behind hold-down and stationary barrel rod pump
the movement of hanging point of horsehead. When the with bottom seating hold-down are better
hanging point is rising, the sucker rod is still dropping suited for handling low gravity crude oil
.Not only the normal movement of sucker rod may be (400 Cp or greater Viscosity).
affected, but also impact of the horsehead on the sucker For handling of high viscous crude (400 Cp
rod may be caused .Thus the impact load may be or greater viscosity), with these pumps,
generated, the service life may be reduced and even metal–to metal plunger with fits of –
mechanical failure may result. 0.005” to – 0.008” is used.

115
  Heavy sinker Bar : Heavy sinker bar, just above 5.2.12 SUCKER ROD AND CONNECTION
the pump, is used in case of heavy crude FAILURE ANALYSIS: All sucker rod, pony rod and
pumping. The basic objective is to increase the coupling failures are either tensile or fatigue failures.
rod weight to facilitate the rod free fall.
 Tensile failures occur when the applied load
 Downhole diluent injection: Diluent injected exceeds the tensile strength of the rod. To avoid
downhole by some means ,such as valve installed tensile failures, the maximum weight indicator pull
in tubing or through a control line (injecting for a rod string in "like new" condition should
diluent below or just above the pump ), would never exceed 90% of the yield strength for the
improve pumping efficiency while pumping known size and grade of the smallest diameter
heavy oil with rod pump. sucker rod.
5.2.11.6 PROBLEMS OF PUMPING DEEP WELLS
: Inability of sucker-rod systems to produce high
volumes from deep wells has resulted from several
factors which can be basically related with:
a) Prime Mover : There are four prominent types of
oilfield electric motors:
(1) NEMA“B” - the normal slip motor
(2) NEMA “C” - 5% to 8% Slip
(3) NEMA “D” - 8% to 13% slip
Fig 5.2.29 : Tensile failures valves system
(4) High Slip - 0 to 52% slip
All other sucker rod, pony rod and coupling failures
Lower slip motors generally have higher efficiency are fatigue failures.
and are less expensive to manufacture than the
higher slip motors. But the characteristics of higher  Fatigue failures are progressive and begin as
slip motor can help maintain production while small stress cracks that grow under the action
reducing the peak gearbox torque while pumping of cyclic stresses. Fatigue failures are initiated
deep wells. Even though the higher slip motors are by a multitude of stress raisers. Typical visible
more expensive to purchase and have lower stress raisers on sucker rods, pony rods, and
average efficiency, they use the energy more
couplings are bends, corrosion, cracks,
efficiently in many beam pumping systems.
mechanical damage, threads and wear or any
b) Tubing string design : Tubing must have adequate combination of the preceding.
burst pressure strength and must be anchored when
producing fluid from deep wells.

c) Sucker rod string design : Stress on sucker rods

has been the major limiting factor in beam
pumping deep wells. Stress limits of sucker rods in
some deep wells can be exceeded by the rod
string‟s own weight.
New alloys are being tested in an effort to increase
the allowable stress limits or reduce the weight per
ft. of metal sucker rods.
Fig 5.2.30 : Fatigue failures valves system
Fiberglass sucker rod have a high level of stress
limits and at the same time reduce the weight per Since the location of the failure and the failure
foot by 70% as compared to steel sucker rods. The cause are often interrelated, knowing where the
lighter buoyant rod weight of a fibreglass/steel failure occurred is an important first step in
sucker rod string will allow fluid production at identifying potential causes.
depths beyond the limits of API steel rod strings.
d) Downhole pumps : Since fluid load is directly Figure 5.2.31 indicates identified specific failure
affected by pump plunger diameter, it is necessary locations in sucker rods and probable cause of
to use a smaller bore pump when producing from failure:
deep wells and to provide a pump long enough to
accommodate the over travel and rod stretch. A. Square Wrench: : Abrasive-wear, corrosion-
abrasion, corrosion fatigue, erosion-corrosion, material
e) Temperature Effect defects, mechanical damage, and workmanship defects

B. Upset Taper : Abrasive-wear, bent-rods, corrosion-

abrasion, corrosion-fatigue, erosion-corrosion, material
116
defects, mechanical damage, unidirectional bending- loading, unidirectional bending-stress, and
stress, and workmanship defects workmanship defect

5.2.13 SAFETY ASPECTS :

5.2.13.1 Motor
 Motor shall be NEMA Design D with ultra high
slip of 5-8%
 The power terminal box shall be located on the
right side of the enclosure facing the shaft end of
the motor.
 Packing of the terminal box should be sealed
Fig 5.2.31 : Specific Failure 5.2.13.2 Items to be guarded
locations in Sucker rod
C.Rod Body-to-Upset Transition: Bent rods, material  Brakes sheaves and belts on pumping units should
defects, mechanical damage, unidirectional bending- be guarded by removable enclosures.
stress (i.e., “shock Loads”) and workmanship defects  Crank, counter weights air counter balance tanks
D.Rod Body : Abrasive-wear, bent-rods, corrosion- should be guarded either guard rails.
abrasion, corrosion-fatigue, erosion-corrosion, material  Fly wheels on gas engine prime movers should be
defects, mechanical damage, rotational bending, stress- for pumping units should be guarded by enclosures.
fatigue, torsional loading, unidirectional bending-stress,  In those instances where carrier bar descends less
and workmanship defects than 84 inches from the ground, standard guard
Figure 5.2.32 indicates identified specific failure rails shall be installed around the well.
locations in sucker rod joints/ couplings and  Carrier bar shall not travel beyond 6 inches from
probable cause of failure: the stuffing box top during down stroke.
 The enclosures shall be constructed of expanded
A. Chamfer: Application metal, perforated sheet metal, wire mesh etc to
(if split), and torsional meet the requirement.
loading (if split and/or
flared)  Opening to permit lubrication, adjustment or
inspection shall be equipped with hinged, sliding or
B. One-third / two-thirds bolted cover plates.
: Abrasive-wear,  Guard railing consist of top rail, intermediate rail,
corrosion-abrasion, and posts with vertical height ranging from 36
corrosion-fatigue, inches to 48 inches.
erosion-corrosion, loss
 Guard rails shall have a minimum horizontal
of displacement,
clearance between the rail and the moving part of
material defect,
15 inches and a maximum of 42 inches.
mechanical damage,
thread galling, torsional  When guard rail clearance exceeds 20 inches, signs
loading, tubing-slap should be posted to warn against the use of space
wear, and workmanship between the passage way and the moving part.
defect 5.2.13.3 Signs and color coding
C. Midlength : Abrasive- Fig 5.2.32 : Specific Failure  At the option of the operator, signs and colour
wear; alternating- locations in Sucker rod coding for marking physical hazards may be used
bending; corrosion- joints/ coupling to extend and augment the protection afforded by
abrasion, corrosion-fatigue, erosion-corrosion, enclosures and guards.
material defect, mechanical damage, stress-fatigue,  A bright contrasting colour such as orange, or
tubing-slap wear, unidirectional bending-stress, and yellow shall be used to designate the dangerous
workmanship defect part of the machines
 For operational purpose pumping unit brake handle
D. Threads: Corrosion-fatigue, erosion-corrosion, loss should be extended out side the unit counter
of displacement, material defect, mechanical balance guard.
damage, thread galling, torsional loading, and  The pumping unit stop is not intended as a safety
workmanship defect stop but is intended for operational stop.
E. Stress Relief : Alternating bending, corrosion-  When operation or maintenance to be conducted on
fatigue, erosion-corrosion, loss of displacement, the pumping unit the position of crank arms and
material defect, mechanical damage, torsional counter weights should be securely fixed in

117
 stationary position by chaining or other acceptable
means.
5.2.13.4 Ladders and platforms
 Ladders are provided to give access to the walking
beam and some of the structural bearings to help in Unloading
the erection of the unit and for maintenance valves
purpose.
 Ladders are not intended to be used during the
Operating
operation of the unit.
 A person should not be required to enter the crank valve
swing area to use a ladder.
 Toe clearance on the back side of the ladder should
be 7” minimum.
 The min. design live load shall be a single
concentrated load of 200 lbs.
 All rungs or cleats shall have a minimum diameter
of ¾ “ or be made of other suitable section with
same strength.
 The centre to centre distance between the rungs Fig 5.3.1 : Schematic of Continuous Gas Lift system
shall not exceed 12 inches and be uniform
throughout the ladder. Minimum clear length of the Continuous gas lift can be seen as an extension of the
rung is 16 inches self flow period of oil well. It is applicable for high PI
 Ladders should always be attached to the main and/or relatively high BHP wells.
structure with inclination of 75 to 90 deg from the
horizontal In the continuous gas lift, only one valve will be
 Cages shall be provided on ladders of more than 20 accomplishing the gas injection work and that this valve
feet length from bottom rung to top rung. should be as deep as possible as per the available normal
 The cage shall not extend less than 27 inches and gas injection pressure. This valve is termed as 'operating
more than 28 inches from the centre line of the valve'. The valves above it are used to unload the well
rungs of the ladder. to initiate the flow from the reservoir. Once the gas
 Landing plat forms are commonly used in large injection begins through the operating valve, the upper
structures. valves, termed as "unloading valves" are closed. Gas
 All landing plat forms shall be equipped with injection is done at a slow rate through GLV port sizes
railings and toe boards arranged in such a manner of 3/16", 1/4" and 5/16".
to give safe access to the ladder.
 API RP 11 ER should be referred for more details 5.3.1.2 INTERMITTENT GAS LIFT: Intermittent
gas lift is applicable for the wells those have the
5.3 GAS LIFT: following characteristics:
Gas lift is one of the methods of Artificial Lift whereby (1) High PI, low bottom hole pressure
relative high pressure gas is injected into a fluid column (2) Low PI, low bottom hole pressure
to reduce the density of the fluid from the point of gas
injection to the surface. The injection gas supplements (3) Low PI, high bottom hole pressure
the formation gas and lightens the flowing fluid traverse
above the point of injection. This allows a lower
reservoir pressure to lift the fluids to the surface

5.3.1TYPES OF GAS LIFT : Gas lift system can

broadly be classified into two main categories:-
(1) Continuous gas lift.
(2) Intermittent gas lift.

5.3.1.1CONTINUOUS GAS LIFT :

The basic principle of continuous flow gas lift (Fig
5.3.1) is to inject the gas in the liquid column at some
predetermined depth at a controlled rate to aerate the
liquid column above it and as a result the density of
liquid column gets reduced to a point where a flowing
bottom hole pressure for a desired rate of production is
sufficient to lift the liquid to the surface. Thus, liquid is
produced continuously from the well.

118
 gas wells. Later its use was extended to produce oil
from high GLR wells and those wells that stop
producing due to paraffin deposition in tubing. Due to
the inherent limitations of intermittent gas lift, plungers
have been used in conjunction with it. In intermittent
gas lift, as an average of 5 – 7 % of the starting liquid
slug is lost per 1000 ft of lift. By use of plunger lift this
liquid fall back can be arrested to great extent and
increase the slug recovery. It also minimizes the chance
of gas break through.
The plunger is simply a solid interface with or without a
mechanically triggered push- type valve inside with no
driving force/energy of its own.
Main advantages:-
An increase in liquid production due to elimination
of production losses arising from
Fig 5.3.2 : Schematic of Intermittent liquid fall back.
Gas Lift system An increase in lifting efficiency due to decrease in
injection gas requirement.
In paraffin producing wells, the moving plunger
In intermittent gas lift (Fig. 5.3.2) sufficient volume of will also keep the tubing walls free of paraffin
gas at the available injection pressure is injected as which in turn reduces additional back pressure
quickly as possible into the tubing under a liquid column caused by reduced tubing ID.
and then the gas injection is stopped. Static bottom hole
pressure, flowing bottom hole pressure and productivity A typical plunger assisted intermittent gas lift
index of the well govern the fluid accumulation in the installation is shown in Fig 5.3.4
tubing.For injecting large amount of gas, large ported
gas lift valves are required. That is why gas lift valves 5.3.4 Advantages and Limitations of gas lift:
having port sizes 1/2", 7/16", 3/8" or 5/16" are
preferred. 5.3.4.1 Advantages
Chamber lift is a special type of intermittent gas lift. In Offers high
low BHP and high PI wells, production may often be degree of
greatly increased and lift efficiencies may be improved flexibility w.r.t.
by the installation of chamber type of assembly. The production rates. Solar
Panel Lubrica
tor
purpose of the chamber is to make use of the casing Effectively Control
ler
volume to store well fluids. For a given drawdown, produces high
more well fluids are gathered/ and low GOR
wells.
stored in the chamber which is of a greater cross-section
Initial cost is
when compared to the production tubing. A custom
generally less if
made insert chamber can also be made that will hold Dual
high pressure gas “T” Pad
still more volume than the same length of tubing.
is available.
Typical two-packer chamber type installation and insert
Low operating
chamber installation, shown in Fig 5.3.3
cost and ease in
operations.
5.3.3 Plunger Assisted Intermittent Lift: Plunger lift
Suitable for deep Bumpe
r
and deviated
wells.
Handles sandy
conditions well
Allows full-bore
tubing drift.
Use wireline Fig 5.3.4 : Plunger Lift system
retrievable
valves eliminates workover jobs and offers
flexibility to design changes.
Minimum space requirements for wellhead
equipment set up.

Fig 5.3.3 : Schematic of Chamber Lift system

was originally developed and used to unload liquids for
119
5.3.4.2 Limitations Scale, corrosion and/or paraffin problems may
Availability of gas. Needs high pressure gas increase the back pressure and reduce lift
well or compressors. efficiency.
Wet gas is subject to freezing and hydrate Not suitable if injection gas is corrosive.
formation. Has limitation in completely depleting a low BHP, low
Valve retrieval in highly deviated wells poses productivity well in some cases, and an alternate mode
problem. of lift may be required towards the end of the life of the
Not applicable in bad casing where it is well.
uneconomical to repair the casing

5.3.5 TYPES OF INSTALLATION - CLOSED, SEMI-CLOSED OR OPEN

Fig. 5.3.5 : Schematic diagrams for Open,. Semi-closed and Closed Well Completions
In open Installation, there will be In Semi-Closed Installation, there Closed Installation can be defined as
neither any packer in the tubing - won‟t be any non-return valve in the (i) When there is a packer in the
casing annulus nor any standing tubing, only packer is there in the tubing - casing annulus, below the
valve in the tubing tubing annulus deepest gas lift valve and
(ii) When there is a standing or
non-return valve in the tubing at the
tubing shoe.

The installation of packer is recommended: (iii) To prevent production casing coming in contact
with the well fluid.
(i) To prevent U-tubing through the tubing, especially
when reservoir pressure is very low and the deepest (iv) In case of offshore wells, it is mandatory to have
gas lift valve is very near to the perforation packer in the annulus. This is primarily due to
safety aspect for offshore wells to prevent
(ii) To prevent rise of fluid level in the annulus,
accidental leakage of oil and gas in the sea through
especially when there is an idle period of
leaked casing
intermittent gas lift. So, the same liquid is to be U-
tubed again through the gas lift valve before the The installation of standing valve is recommended
normal gas injection is resumed. when reservoir pressure is low and PI is in the range of
moderately high to high. Generally, semi-closed type
120
of installation is the standard practice for intermittent external pressure should be sufficient to overcome
gas lift wells, whereas open or semi-closed are for the compression force of the spring. In case of gas-
continuous gas lift wells. charged valve i.e. nitrogen- loaded valve, the
external pressure is required to overcome force due
5.3.6 COMPONENTS OF GAS LIFT SYSTEM to nitrogen pressure to make the valve open for gas
injection.
5.3.6.1 SUB_SURFACE EQUIPMENTS:
(iii) RESPONSIVE ELEMENT (Fig 5.3.7) :
5.3.6.1.1 Gas Lift Valve (GLV):
Responsive element can be metal bellows or piston.
Gas Lift Valveis the heart of the gas lift system through Bellows type of gas lift valve is most prevalent.
which gas is injected. The bellow operated nitrogen The bellow is made of very thin metal tube
pressure loaded gas lift valve is the most common type preferably of 3-ply monel metal. Its thickness is
of gas lift valves being used by oil industries. approximately 150th of an inch. This is
Components of GLV: A gas lift valve has five basic hydraulically formed into a series of convolutions.
components. ( Fig 5.3.6) This form makes the tube very flexible in the axial
They are: direction and can be compared with a
Body
Loading element
Responsive element

Fig 5.3.7 : Gas Lift Valve

Responsive Element

similar rubber bellows. The bellow is regarded as

Fig 5.3.6 : Gas Lift Valve Assembly the heart of the gas lift valve. It can be said that if
bellows is of high quality, it is reflected in the
quality of gas lift valve
Transmission element
Metering element (iv) TRANSMISSION ELEMENT : The transmission
element is generally a metal rod, whose one end is
(i) BODY: The body is the outer cover of the gas lift fitted with the lowermost portion of the bellow and
valve and is generally of 1 1/2" O. D. or 1" O.D. the other end is rigidly attached with the stem tip.
Some pencil type of gas lift valve is also there,
which has an O.D. of 5/8" of SS.- 304 /316. For the (v) METERING ELEMENT : It refers to the opening
conventional type of gas lift valve, one end of it is or port of the gas lift valve, through which casing
threaded and that is screwed with the mandrel. For gas passes into the well fluid in the production
wireline type, the "O" ring or VEE seal rings are tubing.
provided on the body for isolating the required
portion of the gas lift valve from the adjacent areas. (vi) REVERSE FLOW CHECK VALVE : A reverse
The length of the gas lift valve body varies usually flow check valve is either coupled with the gas lift
from 1 to 3 feet. valve or in-built with the gas lift valve. Its function
(ii) LOADING ELEMENT : The loading element can is to prevent the backflow of fluids from the tubing
be spring, gas (N2 gas) or a combination of both. to the casing. The back flow of fluids from the
The spring or gas charge provides a required tubing to annulus is not desirable because of the
balancing force so that the valve can be operated at following :
a desired pressure. It means that above this (i) Back flow of fluid has to be stopped during
pressure the valve opens and below that it gets setting of hydraulic packer with gas lift valves
closed automatically in the tubing string.
Spring provides the required compression force, so (ii) It may damage the gas lift valve seats.
when spring-loaded valve is required to open, the

121
 (iii) It may result in accumulation of sand etc. the check valve is closed, it ensures the tubing
above the packer making the servicing of well pressure to act on the valve port from below.
with workover difficult.
5.3.6.1.2 TYPES OF GAS LIFT VALVES:
Two types of reverse flow check valves are
available A. Casing pressure or Injection pressure
1) Velocity type : The valve is normally open and Operated Gas Lift Valves (Fig. 5.3.8)
gets closed, when there is a flow from tubing
to annulus. In ONGC oil fields, whether it is in offshore or onshore,
2) Weak-spring loaded : It is normally closed. casing pressure operated, nitrogen loaded, unbalanced
Because of weak spring action, even though type gas lift valves are being used.

Fig 5.3.8 : Casing pressure Operated Gas Lift valve schematic

Other than the casing pressure operated unbalanced implies the fluid operated gas lift valves operate
nitrogen charged bellow type with or without spring predominantly with the pressure of tubing. So, its
two more types of valves are common for oil field use. larger surface of opening and closing mechanism i.e.,
They are: the bellows area is directly exposed to tubing and not
the casing pressure. That is, the tubing pressure acts on
the bellows and casing pressure on the downstream side
B. Tubing Pressure or Fluid pressure Operated
of the seat. Due to this, the force balance equations as
Gas Lift Valves(Fig. 5.3.9)
described for casing pressure operated valves are
As the name
reversed.

Fig 5.3.9 : Tubing Pressure operated Fig 5.3.10 : Pilot operated Gas Lift
Gas Lift Valve schematic Valve schematic
122
C. Pilot Operated Gas Lift Valve (Fig 5.3.10) downward movement of the stem and the valve gets
opened. Casing gas then, passes through the main
The pilot valve has two ports. One is pilot port and the
section port to find entry in the tubing. When the
other is main port. The pilot section is very similar to
casing pressure decreases below the closing pressure of
an unbalanced type of valve, with the exception that
the pilot section valve, the pilot section, like in the
injection gas does not pass through the pilot port into
normal casing pressure operated valves, gets closed.
the tubing. The power section consists of- a piston,
Then, the trapped gas between the pilot port and piston
stem, spring and the main port through which injection
is bled in the tubing through a specially constructed
gas enters into the tubing. As the casing pressure
bleeder line in the main valve section.
reaches the opening pressure of the valve, at first, the
pilot section port opens. The gas through the pilot port, The same force balance equation is applied to the pilot
then, exerts pressure over the piston in the main valve section only for the opening and closing of the valve,
section. The piston is, then pushed downward against since it is the main functional area.
the compressive force of spring.This causes the

5.3.6.1.3 Merits and demerits of different categories of gas lift valves:

Category of Gas Lift Valve
Advantages Limitations
& Type of Operation
Casing Pressure Operated  The valve is of a very simple  Excessive valve spread (difference of pressure
N2 Charged Bellows with design and is rugged. at which valve opens and closes) characteristic
or Without Spring for  The calibration of the valve is of the valve can result in an excessive
Continuous and done very easily injection gas volume to be used in one cycle in
Intermittent Gas Lift  Valves can be repaired easily intermittent gas lift.
Casing Pressure Operated  The valve is of a very simple  Excessive valve spread (difference of pressure
N2 Charged Bellows with design and is rugged. at which valve opens and closes) characteristic
or Without Spring for  The calibration of the valve is of the valve can result in an excessive
Continuous and done very easily injection gas volume to be used in one cycle in
Intermittent Gas Lift  Valves can be repaired easily intermittent gas lift.
(contd.)  Valve can be suited both to  For dual installation of gas lift valves in one
continuous and intermittent gas well, with a common source of gas injection, it
lift by differing the port sizes is very difficult to control the gas injection.
only. Small ported valve
generally is suitable for
continuous gas lift and bigger
ported for intermittent gas lift.
Casing Pressure Operated  N2- charged bellows with spring  Only bellows type of valve is temperature
N2 Charged Bellows with is not affected by the sensitive. It affects the closing and opening
or Without Spring for temperature. So, the opening pressure of valves.
Continuous and pressure of the valve is not  N2-charged bellows type valve with spring
Intermittent Gas Lift changed with varying has restricted gas passage, therefore, this valve
(contd.) temperature in the well. is not suitable for intermittent gas lift.
Tubing (Fluid) Pressure It has got many advantages when  It is not a good valve for use in the well with
Operated Gas Lift Valve used in intermittent gas lift design. low flowing bottom hole pressure.
The most important application is  In absence of any control from the surface,
for dually completed gas lift wells, optimum/ capacity oil production may not take
i.e., when two parallel tubings in a place.
well both fitted with gas lift valves  This type of valve is not recommended for
are used in a well for producing two continuous flow. It is recommended in dual
zones through two different tubings gas lift . While trying to control the volume of
with the help of gas lift. gas injection, it happenes that the upper valve
opens and desired point of gas injection is not
maintained. This results in lower production.
Pilot Operated Valve Bigger size port can be used for gas  It is complicated in design and in case, the
injection with less spread, as for bleed hole in the power section gets plugged,
spread calculation, size of pilot port the valve, then, remains in open position.
is considered in force balance  It is costlier than the conventional gas lift
equation. valve, because of its complex configuration.
 Pilot valve is not recommended for continuous
gas lift since the discharge of gas in the tubing
is very large and for a very short period.

123
5.3.6.2 GAS LIFT MANDREL: 1. Mandrel for conventional gas lift valves.
Gas lift mandrel is the part of tubing string. It houses 2. Side Pocket Mandrel for Wireline retrievable
the gas lift valve and check valve and its length ranges valves.
from 4 to 7feet depending upon the length of the gas lift
valve and check valve. There are two general types of
mandrels

Fig 5.3.11 : Gas Lift Mandrels

Conventional Wireline Retrievable

Type Side Pocket Type

5.3.7 SURFACE EQUIPMENTS fitted in the gas injection line near the well head.
Sometimes one pressure controller is also fitted
For continuous lift well, one adjustable (Fig. 5.3.12) or
upstream of the choke to regulate the upstream pressure
fixed choke to regulate the volume of gas injection is
of the injection gas.

Fig 5.3.12 Adjustable choke

Fig 5.3.13 Time Cycle Controller

For intermittent lift, it is a usual practice to install a Potd= Valve opening pressure when there is no
time-cycle controller (TCC), diaphragm motor valve pressure exerted over the
and a pressure regulator. This controller (Fig. 5.3.13) valve port area from the other side i.e. when
periodically opens and closes by itself with the pre-set tubing pressure is zero.
time and so periodically injects gas into the tubing. Pcd= Valve closing pressure in casing at valve
depth.
5.3.8 FORCE BALANCE EQUATIONS PTRO = Valve opening pressure at 60OF in the test
Let, Ab = Effective area of bellows (Sq.in.) rack.
Ap = Area of valve port (Sq.in.)
Ptd = Tubing pressure at valve depth (psig)
Pd = Bellows charge pressure at well temperature (psig) Ct = Temperature correction factor.
Pb = Bellows pressure at 60OF test bench. Gas lift valve dome pressure at 60oF
Psp = Spring pressure effect. Ct =
Pod = Operating casing pressure at valve depth Gas lift valve dome pressure at well
temperature

124
 Pd Ap/Ab Pd R
Td = Temperature at valve depth (OF) ==>Pod = -------- - Ptd -------- = ------- - Ptd------ (R = Ap/Ab)
Pik = Max. injection pressure available at the (1 –Ap/Ab) (1 –Ap/Ab) (1 –R) (1 –R)
surface. (i.e. kick off pressure)
Pwhf = Flowing wellhead pressure. ==> Pod = Potd - Ptd [T.E.F.]
Gsf = Static fluid gradient.
P1= Normal gas injection pressure available at Pbt. R
the surface. Where Potd = ------------- and T. E. F = ----------
Cgt = valve correction factor for sp. gravity and (1 –R) (Tubing effect factor) (1 –R)
temp. at the Valve depth.
==> Pod = Potd - T E.
= 0.0544 ((S.G.) (TL1 + 460OF))
Where T. E. = Tubing effect = Ptd x T. E. F.
Two types of situations can be envisaged in the well
Note
IWhen valve is closed and ready to open. (Fig 5.3.14)
Every gas lift manufacturer is supposed to supply R
II When valve is open and ready to close. (Fig.5..3.15).
value for each type of valve.

For spring loaded gas lift valve the manufacturer has to

provide the spring pressure effect (Psp) (in psi say) of
the valve.
When the same equation is used to find P d the form of
the equation is re-arranged as :

Pd = Pod (1 -R) + Ptd R

(b) For the valve (with spring)

Closing force = Pd x Ab + Psp (Ab – AP)

Fig 5.3.14 : When valve is closed and ready to open Opening force = Pod (Ab – AP) + Ptd
Since opening force = closing force,
I Valve is closed and ready to open
(a) For the valve (without spring)
Pod (Ab – AP) + Ptd AP = Pd x Ab +Psp(Ab – AP)

==>Pod (1 – AP /Ab) + Ptd AP /Ab= Pd + Psp (1 –AP/Ab)

AP / Ab Pd
==> Pod + Ptd ------------- = ------------ + PSP
1 –AP / Ab 1 –AP / Ab

Pd R
==> Pod = ------------ + PSP - Ptd -------------
1 –R 1–R

==> Pod = Potd - Ptd x (T. E. F.)

Also in terms of Pd the equation can be re-arranged as

Pbd = (Pod - Psp) (1 - R) + Ptd R

Fig 5.3.15 : When valve is open and ready to close
II When valve is open and ready to close
Closing force = Pd x Ab
(a) For the valve (without spring)
Opening force = Pod x (Ab) - Pod x (Ap) + Ptd x (Ap)
Closing force = Pd x Ab
when opening force = closing force,
Opening force = Pcd x Ab
Pod (Ab – Ap) + PtdAp = PdAb
Since, opening force = closing force
==> Pod (1-Ap/Ab) + PtdAp/Ab = Pd Pcd x Ab = Pd x Ab or Pcd = Pd

(b) For the valve (with spring)

Closing force = Pbd x Ab+ Psp (Ab – Ap)
125
Opening force = Pcd x Ab design is constrained by the limitations of gas injection
Since, opening force = closing force pressure, available gas volumes, the nature of the
Pcd x Ab = Pd x Ab+ Psp (Ab – Ap) produced fluids, the well's inflow performance and the
Ab Ap tubing size.
== >Pcd x Ab/Ab = Pd x Ab/Ab + Psp ( --- - ---- )
The design of continuous gas lift and intermittent gas
Ab Ab
lift installation is explained below:
== >Pcd = Pd + Psp (1 - R)
5.3.9.1 Design of Continuous Gas Lift
The equation can be rearranged in terms of P d as:
5.3.9.1.1 Data Required for Continuous Gas Lift
Pd = Pcd- Psp (1 - R) Design
To design a continuous gas lift installation, the
In the open bench calibration of valve, the valve is
following data is required.
closed with the force of N2 -gas in the bellows with or
without spring. Thereafter the pressure is applied to 1) Depth of perforation interval.
open the gas lift valve. It is a very convenient way of 2) Tubing and casing size.
calibrating the gas lift valve. It is a case of where valve
is closed and ready to open. So, with the little 3) Inclination profile of the well.
modification of the equation, along with converting 4) API gravity of oil.
some terms to surface condition, we get P OTB in place of 5) Formation gas-oil-ratio.
Pod and since there is no tubing pressure in the open test 6) Specific gravity of injection and formation gas.
bench, so the term containing Ptd is zero. Thus the
expression without spring 7) Water cut & Specific gravity of water.
Pb 8) Desired liquid production rate.
POTB = -------------- 9) Flowing wellhead pressure, FTHP.
( 1- R) 10) Injection gas pressure at well.
Pb
For the valve with spring, it will be POTB = --------- + Psp 11) Volume of injection gas available.
( 1 - R) 12) Static bottom hole pressure, SBHP
Here Psp does not change with temperature. 13) Productivity index, PI or Inflow Performance
Relationship, IPR.
5.3.8.1 Nominal Setting Pressure or Test Rack
14) Bottom hole temperature.
Opening Pressure
Valves are usually calibrated, or set, in a test rack. For 15) Type of reservoir.
pressure loaded valves it is not practical to set the actual
dome pressure directly. Rather, the dome is 5.3.9.1.2 Design Procedure (Graphical):
overcharged and the pressure released gradually until The following procedure serves as a guide for designing
the valve opens at the required external opening an installation on the basis. Plot all information on a
pressure. Therefore, all valves are calibrated in terms of sheet of rectangular coordinate paper. ( Fig 5.316)
an extended pressure, applied at the test rack, that
would open the valve if the dome pressure or/and the
spring tension was set correctly. This pressure is known
as the nominal setting pressure (Pn) or the 'Test rack
opening pressure' (Ptro).

The nominal setting pressure (Pn) is the external

pressure at which the valve opens at a selected standard
temperature, and with atmospheric pressure under the
valve port.
Pd @ 60O F
Ptro = ----------------- where R = AP/Ab
1- R

5.3.9 GAS LIFT DESIGN

The most efficient operation of a gas lift installation
depends on proper design. The selection of the valves
for the well, the spacing of the valves and the Fig 5.3.16 : Graphical design procedure for
determination of proper pressure setting depends upon Gas lift design
accurate design techniques.
1.) Depth is plotted on vertical axis
The design objective is to control the vertical fluid
gradient so as to give the desired production rate. The 2.) Pressure is plotted on horizontal axis

126
3.) SBHP is plotted at the correct depth. Depend upon
4.) The necessary “drawdown” in pressure is a) Gas volumes available
determined to produce the desired flowrate. For a b) Feed-in rates
constant PI, drawdown in pressure for any rate is
Normally a minimum gradient of 0.04 psi /ft is
determined.
used in 2” and 2 ½” tubing.
5.) The drawdown is subtracted from the SBHP to
4) Differential between valve pressure and tubing load
obtain FBHP and this pressure at depth is noted.
to lift
From the point of SBHP, the static gradient line is Best efficiencies occur in the range 140 – 170 psi.
extended up the hole to intersect the ordinate. This will
Differentials of 300 – 400 psi are also used.
be the static liquid level in the well for Pwh=0. In case
the well is not loaded, can be used as the point of As an arbitrary selection – 200 psi is recommended
location for the first gas lift valve(GLV). in the beginning.
5) GLV port size
6.) From the point of FBHP, the flowing pressure Larger port results in
traverse is plotted below the point of gas injection
a) Higher recovery – less fall back
7.) The surface operating pressure, that can be b) Less GLR
maintained at the well site to operate the gas lift
c) quicker slug arrival at surface with higher THP
well is selected.
d) Places more pressure underneath the liquid slug
8.) The kick-off pressure and surface operating
e) Creates lower minimum pressure
pressure are marked at zero depth and are extended
For 2” tubing a minimum port size of ½” is
downwards until it intersect the flowing gradient
line . recommended.
6) Percent recovery
9.) The point where the operating casing pressure
5-7 % loss per 1000 ft travel in 2” tubing.
intersects the flowing gradient line is marked as the
point of balance between the tubing and casing Fluid recovery / cycle Bp = ( Ct(Pt – Pwh ) ( 1 –
pressure. Sf(Dv/1000) ) ) Gs
10.) 100 psi is subtracted from the pressure in the casing Ct = Tubing vol factor in bbl/ft
at this point. Return up the hole a distance Pt = Tubing pressure opposite valve at the time of lift
equivalent to this 100 psi on the FBHP line and this Pwh= Well head pressure
point is noted, This will be the point of gas Sf = loss factor ( 5-7% per 1000 ft )
injection. The selection of this differential(100 psi)
is extremely important and is controlled by the Dg = valve depth in ft
valve spacing. Gs = Well fluid gradient
11.) The fluid well-head pressure is approximated and Daily production for intermittent lift
this value is marked at zero depth.
N = 1440 / ( 3 * Dv/1000 ) , N is max cycles per day
12.) The flowing well-head pressure is connected to the Ql = N * B p
point of gas injection by tracing the appropriate
flowing gradient curve. 7) Gas volume requirements
Vol of gas needed to fill the tubing string at
By subtracting the solution gas from this total gas average gas pressure underneath the fluid slug from
volume, the required injection GLR is obtained, from top to bottom
which the required gas flow rate can be determined.
8) Cycle frequency and stabilization time
5.3.9.2 DESIGN OF INTERMITTENT GAS-LIFT The time required for all spray and fallback to
settle .
Factors to consider
In 2‟ tubing approximate cycle time for producing
1) Location of Top valve good clean slug = 1.5 * ( Depth/1000 ) minutes.
- At static fluid level (well not loaded upto surface) Slug velocity = 1000 ft minute --- for 2” tubing
- Well Loaded upto surface Stabilization time decreases as the recovery
2) Available pressures and valve settings increases.
Kick-off pressure Stabilization time decreases as differential between
Available operating pressure Pc &Pt increases.
3) Unloading gradients and spacing 5.3.9.3 Calibration & Installation of Gas Lift valves
Cover two phases i. As per the design sheet, the valves of various
a) Well is filled and no feed-in port sizes and outside diameters (casing pressure
operated) of particular number for utilizing in the
b) Well feeds-in
127
 well are first aged (Bellow Stabilization) in an
Ageing chamber at the expected operating dome
pressure.
ii. Valves are assigned numbers as installed from
the top.
iii. Domes are charged with Nitrogen at the
predetermined pressures as per the design sheet.
iv. The valves are immersed for about half an hour
in a water bath at fixed room temperature.
v. The operating pressure of each valve is adjusted
(as per the number given) by tapping the Fill
Core valve.
vi. Tail plugs with new rubber o-rings and copper Fig5.3..17a
washers are firmly fitted, so that the external
fluid cannot enter the dome while these valves II. Gas injection into the casing has begun. Fluid is U-
are installed in the well. tubed through all the open gas lift valves. No
vii. Before transporting to drill site, opening pressure formation fluids are being produced. ( Fig 5.317b )
is once again ascertained after keeping those
valves in the Ageing chamber.
viii. Mandrels are numbered as per the number of gas
lift valves. Also the design depth of each valve is
indicated on each mandrel.
ix. Gas lift valves along with check valves are fitted
on to the mandrel properly such that the lugs
properly cover both the ends of the gas lift
valves.
x. Reverse depth calculation is to be made for
lowering of mandrel depending upon the desired
location of packer / tubing shoe, so that each Fig5.3..17b
valve is fitted at or near the predetermined depth.
xi. Once all the gas lift valves are lowered with III. III The fluid level has been unloaded to the top gas
required length of tubing, the tubing hanger is lift valve. This aerates the fluid above the top gas
connected to the top of the tubing and the same is lift valve, decreasing the fluid density. (Fig 5.317c)
placed on the wellhead and bolted tightly.
xii. Master valve and x-mass tree are placed over the
wellhead.
xiii. Flow line with minimum bends is connected to
the flow-arm valve without any bean housing /
bean in between them.
xiv. Injection line is connected to the annulus with an
adjustable choke in case of continuous gas lift
and in case of intermittent gas lift, the time Cycle
Controller (TCC) should be installed on the line
along with a by-pass of it on which variable
choke should be installed.
Fig5.3..17 c
5.3.10 GAS LIFT UNLOADING ( FIG. 5.3.17 )
IV. The fluid level in the annulus has now been
After gas lift valves have been installed, the first unloaded to just above valve number two. ( Fig
operation is to unload the fluids. The objective is to 5.317d )
enable injection gas to reach the operating gas lift valve
without excessive kick-off pressure, so that a final,
stabilized production rate can be easily obtained.
The detailed unloading process is illustrated below.

I. No gas is being injected into the casing and no

fluid is being produced. All the gas lift valves are
open. Fig 5.317a

128
 Fig 5.3..17 d

Fig 5.3.17g
V. The fluid level in the casing has been lowered to a
point below the second gas lift valve. The top two
gas lift valves are open and gas being injected VIII. The No. 2 valve is now closed. All gas is being
through both valves. ( Fig 5.317 e ) injected through valve No 3. Valve No 2 is closed
by a reduction in casing pressure for casing
operated valves ( Fig 5.317h )

Fig 5.3.17e
VI. The top gas lift valve is now closed, and all the gas
is being injected through the second valve. When
casing pressure operated valves are used a slight Fig 5.3.17h
reduction in the casing pressure causes the top
valve to close. (Fig 5.317f)
5.3.11 GAS LIFT OPTIMIZATION:
Gas Lift Optimization is a continuous process for
maximizing the production, reduction in injection gas
and thereby reducing costs. Well performance is
continuously monitored for identification of under-
performing / sub-optimal wells with the help of
different monitoring tools. Based on the data and model
results, suitable corrective measures are taken to
optimize the wells and continuously maintain the
system efficiency. Thus, gas lift optimization results in
following:
Fig 5.3.17f Enhanced Production
Effective utilization of resources like injection
gas
VII. The No. 3 valve has now been uncovered. Valves 2 More stable well and system operation
and 3 are both open and passing gas. The bottom Base for performing wider optimization
valve below the fluid level is also open ( Fig 5.317 strategies.
g)
5.3.11.1 Gas Lift Monitoring:
First step of optimization of gas lift wells is to identify
the wells which are flowing sub optimally i. e. to
identify the wells which are not flowing as per their
potentials. Major parameters which will give indication
of the condition of a gas lift well are:-
Gas injection pressure (Pso)
Injection Gas rate and Total Gas rate
129
 Tubing Head Pressure (THP) 5.3.12 DO’s and DONT’s
Operating Valve Depth
5.3.12.1 DO’S
Tubing fluid gradient
 Gas lift wells should be operated with minimum
The fluid gradient from the surface to the operating
backpressure. It is preferred that wells have
depth will give an indication of the functioning of
independent flow lines till GGS. Avoid
valve. Lighter gradient than the normal indicates more
interconnection.
gas injection or vice-versa. Suitable corrective measures
 If interconnection is unavoidable every well should
can be taken.
have NRV at the upstream of interconnection point.
This is very critical for the intermittent lift wells
5.3.11.2 GAS LIFT TROUBLESHOOTING:
because during the idle phase of the intermittent lift
Gas Lift problems may broadly be classified to two , well fluid from other well can enter in to its
main categories: Surface problems & Subsurface tubing .
problems.Surface problems again can be categorized to  After gas injection line repair, the line should be
problem assocsited in “Inlet” & “Outlet”. Examples of flushed with water and then purged with air
inlet problems may be the input choke sized too large or keeping FCVs and DMVs in full open condition to
small fluctuating line pressure, plugged choke, etc. remove the debris.
Outlet problems could be high backpressure due to a  Drain the liquid regularly from the filter to avoid
flow line choke, a closed or partially closed wing or chocking of regulator.
master valve, or plugged flow line. Downhole
problems, of course could include a cut-out valve, 5.3.12.2 DONT’s
restriction in the tubing string. Often the problems can
 Do not circulate liquid through GLVs. Hot oil
be found on the surface. If nothing is found on the
circulation or water circulation through GLV can
surface, a check can then be made to see if the down
damage its seat. Circulation should be carried out
hole problems are wellbore problems or gas lift
as a last resort to rectify the GLV malfunctioning.
equipment problems.
 Do not disturb the setting of FCV for during
scrapping operation. Use annulus valve or bypass
5.3.11.3 MONITORING TOOLS
valve.
The tools listed below are very useful to determine the  Do not wind the clock of the timer without
trouble spots in wells: loosening timer wheel. This damages the clock.
1. Two pen pressure recorder Loosen the timer wheel and do winding.
2. Well tests
3. Closing pressure analysis 5.3.13 QUALITY CONTROL OF GAS LIFT VALVES
4. Subsurface pressure and temperature traverse
The quality of gas lift valves used in a gaslift well plays
5. Acoustical surveys
a very important factor in the efficient operation of the
well. The failure of valves in the well due to various
5.3.11.3.4 RECOMMENDED MONITORING
reasons could detrimentally affect the oil production
PRACTICES:
from the well. This leads to the situation where an
Following monitoring practices are recommended: effective quality control is essential to evaluate the
5.3.11.3.4.1 For Continuous Gas Lift wells: performance of different makes of gas lift valves.
5.3.13.1 STATIC TESTS
Sl. Monitoring Methods Recommended
Frequency The static tests can be normally considered as
1. Sub – surface survey Once in a quarter mandatory for accepting a lot of gas lift valves for field
2. Two pen recording Once in a quarter use. The tests which can be categorized under static are
3. Injection gas measurement Once in a quarter as follows :
4. Total gas measurement Once in a month
5. Well testing Once in a month
6. Acoustic Surveys After unloading
7. GIP and THP Once in a week

5.3.11.4.2 For Intermittent Gas Lift wells:

Sl. Monitoring Methods Recommended
Frequency
1. Long Bottom Hole Once in a quarter
Pressure survey
2. Two pen recording Once in a quarter
3. Well testing Once in a month
4. Acoustic Surveys After unloading

130
Fig 5.3.18 : Assembly for Leakage test –
Static Test
(i) Leakage through seat and stem (iv) Probe test
(ii) Ageing Test
This test is to be done on randomly selected valves out
(iii) Shelf Test
of a whole lot offered for inspection. The API standard
(iv) Probe Test
recommends this test on at least one valve of each
(i) Leakage through seat and stem
valve configuration. The probe test set up is as shown
This test can be performed in a closed test hood facility on ( Fig.5.3.19 ).
as well as open test bench facility In the open test bench
( Fig. 5.3.18 ), the valve is initially allowed to open and
the opening pressure is noted down. The closing
pressure is calculated based on the force balance
equation i.e. Pd = PTRO ( I - R), where R = AP/Ab. The
upstream pressure is down to that the valve closing
pressure.As per API standards, the leakage rate
measured downstream of the valve should not be more
than 35 SCFT/day for accepting a valve.
Recently ONGC is following much stringent criteria;
where in the leakage in the form of gas bubbles
downstream of the valve is measured by keeping a
beaker of water below the valve. If the
gas bubbles formed are more than 1 bubble in 5
seconds, the valve is rejected for leakage. The leakage
rate for acceptance in this method is even less than 1
SCFT/day which makes it much more stringent than
Fig 5.3.19 : Assembly for Probe test
API leakage criteria

(ii) Ageing Test In this test, a probe micrometer is used to measure the
stem travel of a valve with incremental upstream
This test is mainly done to access the quality of bellows
pressure increase from the dome pressure, which is the
of the gas lift valve at the pressure it is to be used. The
closing pressure of a valve. The stem travel is measured
valve is initially charged to a predetermined dome
till the maximum travel of the particular valve is
pressure (normally the operating injection pressure of
reached, where the stem travel remains constant for
the field where the valves are to be used); and the further increase in pressure. The pressures are then
corresponding opening pressure is noted. The valve are reduced, preferably by the same increment till dome
put in an Ageing chamber filled with water and then
pressure is reached, where the valve stem should travel
subjected to 5000 psi hydrostatic pressure for a
back to it's original close position. The upward and
minimum 15 minutes. The chamber is then
downward stem travel with respect to pressure is plotted
depressurized and again pressurized to 5000 psi within
and the
a minute. This is to be repeated 3 times and then the
valve opening pressure is again checked. Care should slope of the plot gives the bellow load rate, measured
be taken to maintain the temperature of the valve during in psi/inch. (Fig.5.3.20 )
initial checking and final checking, by using a
temperature controlled water bath.
The difference in opening pressures before and after
this test should not be more than 5 psi for
acceptance.This test will also check the proper design
of the top plug of the valve as well, since an improper
design would allow water to enter the valve dome
which will allow the dome pressure to increase.
(iii) Shelf Test
In this test, the openiing pressure of the valves are noted
down and the valves are kept on shelf for a minimum of
5 days. The opening pressure are again checked after 5 Fig 5.3.20 : Probe test – Graphical analysis
days and the difference should be within 1% for
acceptance (Pressures should be checked at same This test is of utmost importance in assessing the quality
temperatures).This test ensures that the different joints of bellows by the way of load rate measurement and
in the valve are proper and check for minor leakage uniformity of bellow movement. The total travel should
which is not instantaneously detectable. The above be higher than the equivalent stem travel for particular
mentioned three tests should be done on 100% of the port sizes which ensure full area open for flow during
valves. normal operation. The stem travel with respect to
131
different pressure ranges can be used to analyze the 5.4.2 APPLICATIONS
behavior of a valve, i.e. whether it will operate as on
A few decades back, ESP had application in lifting
orifice or it will throttle close during different casing
water from water well and
pressure conditions.
5.3.13.2 DYNAMIC TEST
The dynamic test set up is an elaborate set up with
upstream and downstream control valves, high pressure
lines and different pressure, flow and temperature
transmitters for online measurement of different
parameters. The set up can effectively simulate different
upstream and downstream pressure conditions which
will vary the gas through put for a gas lift valve.

The test is done to generate flow performance curves

for a GLV with different casing and tubing pressures, to
predict the flow performance of the gas lift valve; i.e.
whether they are actually behaving in orifice regime or
throttling regime under particular conditions.

5.4 ELECTRICAL SUBMERSIBLE PUMP

5.4.1INTRODUCTION Fig: 5.4.2

The electrical submersible pumping system is

considered an effective and economical means of lifting
large volumes of fluids from great depths under a thereafter ESP was used to produce an oil well with high
variety of well conditions. The electrical submersible water cut. Many offshore and onshore wells are
pump (ESP) is basically a high volume mode of lift currently being produced by ESP, especially where
system. The minimum capacity of ESP is available of wells are high producers.
around 200 bpd and the maximum capacity is as high as
5.4.3CENTRIFUGAL PUMP HYDRA-ULICS:( Fig
90,000 bpd. A typical ESP installation is given in the
5.4.2 )
Fig 1.1. ESP, in some situations, can provide the
maximum possible drawdown by bringing annulus level A centrifugal pump converts mechanical energy to
to the top of the perforations. hydraulic energy within the liquid being pumped. This
energy is present as velocity energy, pressure energy, or
both. The pump has, for a standard speed and fluid
Electrical viscosity, a performance curve which indicates the
submersible relationship between the head developed by the pump
pump and capacity through the pump

The Head-Capacity curve is plotted using actual

performance data.
The Brake Horsepower (BHP) curve is plotted based on
the actual performance test data. This is the actual
horsepower required by the centrifugal pump, based on
the same constant factors as previously discussed, to
deliver the hydraulic requirement.
5.4.3 SURFACE AND SUB-SURFACE
COMPONENTS OFELECTRICAL
SUBMERSIBLE PUMPS
The equipment of ESP can be broadly segregated as
surface and downhole components.
The downhole components
1. Electric motor.
Fig. 5.4.1 : Electrical Submersible pump 2. Protector / Seal.
3. Pump intake/gas separator.
1. Multistage centrifugal pump.
5. Pressure sensing instrument (PSI).
6. Pothead extension power cable.
132
7. Power cable. minimum I.D. of the casing. The smallest diameter
8. Centralizers. motor is of 375 series for 4 1/2 inch cased hole. The
9. Cable bands. other series are 456, 540, 738 etc. The available horse
10. Check valve. power of the motor ranges from 6.3 HP to 1000 HP.
11. Bleeder valve (drain valve).
12. Pump top substitute Connection. Motor Controllers
There are three basic types of motor controllers used on
Surface components are as follows:
ESP applications. They include the Switchboard, Soft
1. Wellhead. Starter, and Variable Speed Controller (VSC).
2. Mini-mandrel
5.4.4.2 PROTECTOR / SEAL:-
3. Upper pig tail.
4. Surface cable. The very name of the protector implies that it protects
5. Junction box. the motor and it does the following functions:-
6. Booster.
Expansion - to allow for expansion and contraction of
7. Switch board.
6. Power transformer. the dielectric oil contained in the rotor gap of the motor.
This is the most common type of installation and is Equalization - to equalize the casing annulus pressure
more-or-less a standard for ESP configurations. with the internal dielectric motor fluid. This
equalization of pressure across the motor helps to keep
5.4.4 DOWNHOLE COMPONENTS well fluid from leaking past the sealed joints of the
motor..
5.4.4.1 ELECTRIC MOTOR
The electrical submersible pump motor is of two-pole Isolation - to isolate the well fluid from the clean
three-phase squirrel cage induction type one. These dielectric motor fluid. As previously stated,
contamination of the motor insulation with well fluid
motors operate at a nominal speed of 3500 r.p.m. on 60
can lead to early insulation failure..
Hertz cycle and 2915 r.p.m. on 50 Hertz cycle. These
motors are filled with highly refined mineral oil to Absorption - to absorb the down thrust of the pump.
provide the necessary dielectric strength as well as a This is accomplished by a sliding thrust bearing.
good thermal conductivity which prevent motor from
getting overheated and thereby damaged. In general the The protector also houses pump thrust bearing to carry
motor, is attached to the bottom-most part of the the axial thrust developed by the pump. They can be
assembly. classified in two broad groups:

Motors are manufactured with different diameters as a. Labyrinth type

more conveniently named by different series to suit the b. Balloon type
various physical dimensions of the well i.e., w.r.t. the

133
 Pump

Pump

Elastomer bag

Fig: 5. 4.3

134
The labyrinth type of protector can be of two rotating chamber by centrifugal force, leaving the gas
chamber, four chambers, six chambers or eight in near the center. The system efficiency is affected by
chamber type as manufactured by different fluid volumes, composition and properties.
companies as per their patented design. Rotary gas separator has some distinct advantages over
the reverse flow type. Due to centrifugal action,
In balloon type -The positive seal protector, or
separation of liquid from free gas is more effective.
elastomer bag, provides a barrier between the well Secondly, remaining free gas in the form of minute
fluids and the motor oil to allow operation in bubbles can be dispersed all through the liquid medium
gaseous or deviated wells. The bags come in and make the liquid less dense.
different materials depending on the applicationTo
5.4.4.4 MULTISTAGE CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
provide a flexible chamber (Viton bags) that motor
oil to expand Electrical submersible pumps are centrifugal pumps in a
multi-stage fashion. Obviously because of the physical
5.4.4.3 PUMP INTAKE / GAS SEPARATOR. parameters of the well (ID of the casing) diameter of the
pump is very much restricted. The OD and the type of
The pump intake is connected in bolt-on-fashion to the impeller design determine the rate of fluid production,
lower side of the pump section of the electrical Whereas, the number of stages where each stage
submersible pump and to the top of the protector. This consists of one impeller and diffuser, are governed by
provides a path for the fluid to enter into the pump. the requirement of the head of fluid to be lifted to the
Very often, the straight intake section is replaced by the surface against the given tubing pressure.
other forms of intake sections called gas separator for
separating out Two types of setting of the impeller diffusers are in
the free gas vogue. One is floating or balanced type where the
from the impeller floats up and down a little and axially along
liquid before the shaft. Depending on the flow rate, the impeller
the liquid either sits on the down thrust pad or touches the
enter the upthrust pad or freely floats in between them. This is
pump. The precisely the reason why a centrifugal pump should be
free gas is operated within a recommended capacity range where
routed up frictional force is minimum. This recommended
through the capacity range is available from the pump performance
annulus to curve as supplied by the manufacturer.
ultimately get
discharged in The mathematical relationship between head,
the flowline. capacity, efficiency and brake horsepower is
Gas expressed as:
separators are
broadly The discharge rate of a submersible centrifugal
categorised
into two
types. The
first one is the
poor-boy type
gas separator
where the
fluid bends 180 degrees Fig: 5. 4.4 pump depends on the rotational speed (rpm), stage
The second category is the rotary type separator. The design, the dynamic head against which the pump
fluid enters the separator and is forced into a rotating is operating, and the physical properties of the
centrifuge chamber by the action of an inducer. fluid being pumped.
Once in the centrifuge, the fluid with the higher
specific gravity is forced to the outer wall of the

135
 The other type is the
fixed impeller type
pump. It is used for
pumping very high
volume of liquid. In
this type, impeller is
fixed to the shaft and
the shaft cannot move
up and down axially.
The impeller also does
not sit on the diffuser
pad.

Fig. 5.4.6 Fig. 5.4.6

During lowering of pump, pumps of different housing inside the motor are taken out first with the help of
lengths are joined in series as per the requirement of the pliers and then necessary splicing job is carried out to
total head to be generated. Each stage of the connect the pothead extension cable with the motor
submersible pump handles the same volume of fluid cable.
therefore the total stages are only linked with total head
5.4.4.6 POWER CABLE
generation. The pump stages are available in different
groups called housings, where one housing houses a Power is transmitted to the submersible motor by
number of stages like 54, 74, 99, 151 stages etc. Two or banding a specially constructed three phase electric
more housings are connected to create the necessary power cable to the production tubing
stages as per the requirement of well.
5.4.4.6 POWER CABLE
Downhole Pressure and Temperature Monitor
Power is transmitted to the submersible motor by
Valuable reservoir and pump performance data is banding a specially constructed three phase electric
available with the use of downhole pressure and power cable to the production tubing
temperature monitoring systems. By correlating
reservoir pressure with the withdrawal rate, an operator These cables can be constructed in both round and flat
can determine when to change pump size, change configurations:-
injection rate or consider well workover.
5.4.4.5 POTHEAD EXTENSION POWER CABLE
Pothead extension power cable is used to connect the
motor with the main cable. One end of the pothead is
joined with the main cable and the other end is joined to
the motor head. . There are two types of pothead
extension power cable available in the market.
(i) Plug-in type pothead.
(ii) Tape-in type pothead.
The plug-in type pothead is similar to a three pin plug
with necessary 'O'- ring fitted for fluid seal.. This type
of connection has some disadvantages are- When the
plug-in pothead is used a number of times, it looses its Fig. 5.4.5
proper fitting with the motor body and secondly due to
more rigidity of this type of cable-motor connection
there is always a possibility that a hair crack in the Cables are available in a wide range of conductor sizes,
pothead just above the plug-in point may accidentally which permits efficient matching to motor
develop. requirements.. The cable has been standardised by
AWG (American Wire Gauge) standards. In this
Tape-in type pothead is a better proposition and for this
standard, sizes of conductor range from # 1 AWG to # 6
motor head should also have the compatibility for this
AWG. # 1 AWG signifies a thicker conductor.
type of connection. This connection is similar to a
connection between two cables. The flexible wires
136
The insulation used for these cables must be able to (i) The wellhead through which the sub-surface power
withstand wellbore temperatures, Pressure, and resist cable protrudes at the surface:- "Hercules" make
impregnation of well fluids. wellhead is one such type can withstand a pressure
of around 1500 psi (100 kg/CM2).
5.4.4.7 CENTRALIZERS
(ii) In the second
Centralizers are often used in ESP applications to place
type, the main
the equipment in the centre of the wellbore, especially
subsurface cable
useful in deviated wells, to eliminate external damage
is joined with one
and insure proper cooling of the equipment. At least
end of the lower
one centralizer can be installed below the motor in the
pig tail and the
pump seat assembly and another above the top of the
other end of the
pump assembly.
lower pig tail is
5.4.4.8 CABLE BANDS coupled with the
mandrel.
Cable bands are used to strap the power cable to the
"Seaboard" make
tubing. One band per 15 feet (5 m) interval is typically wellhead is
used. Cable bands are also used to strap the motor flat similar kind of
cable to the pump and seal: Use of one band per 18
wellhead. This
inches, protected with flat cable guards, is
type of wellhead
recommended for maximum support and protection.
can withstand
Cable bands, though a very small item, is one of the much higher
vital components of ESP system. pressure of
around 3000 psi
5.4.4.9 CHECK VALVE Fig. 5.4.7
(200 kg/cM2).
A check valve which is usually located 2 to 3 joints 5.4.5.2UPPER PIG TAIL
above the pump assembly can be used to maintain a full
column of fluid above the pump. The upper pig tail is similar to the lower pig tail. One
end is connected to the surface cable and the other end
5.4.4.10 BLEEDER VALVE (DRAIN VALVE) is coupled with the top of the minimandrel fitted at the
Whenever a check valve is used in the tubing string, it wellhead.
is recommended to install a drain valve immediately 5.4.5.3SURFACE CABLE
above the check valve to prevent pulling a wet tubing
string. Surface cable is similar to the power cable.
Approximately 100 m or so length of cable is laid on
5.4.4.11 PUMP TOP SUB the surface to connect the wellhead to the switch board.
Pump top sub is a connecting substitute to connect the 5.4.5.4 JUNCTION BOX
top of the pump with the tubing. Its lower portion is a
flange to flange connection with the pump top and top Junction box is required especially when 'Hercules'
portion is box-threaded to connect with the pin end of make wellhead is used. It is a junction point of well
tubing. cable and surface cable located at a safe distance from
the wellhead. It is a well-ventilated box; it gets vented
5.4.4.12 LOWER PIG TAIL at junction box.
Lower pig tail is a small length of main cable with one 5.4.5.5 BOOSTER
end to be spliced with the main cable just before the
wellhead is to be installed (as and when the running-in Booster is required to boost the surface voltage
is completed) and the other end is to be connected according to the requirement of rated downhole voltage.
(coupled) with the electrical minimandrel which is It is connected preferably in between the junction box
installed in a specially drilled hole in tubing hanger by and switch board.
the side of the tubing connection.
5.4.5.6 SWITCH BOARD
5.4.5 SURFACE COMPONENTS The standard switch boards are weatherproof, but not
5.4.5.1 WELLHEAD flameproof. They are available in different ranges of
voltage say from about 440 volts to about 4900 volts.
The wellhead is designed to support the weight of the Also the selection criteria depends upon other factors
subsurface equipment and is used to maintain surface like amperage, horse power requirements etc.
annular control of the well. They must be equipped with
a tubing head bonnet or pack-off which provides for a 5.4.5.7 Variable Speed Controller (VSC)
positive seal around the cable and the tubing, or a feed
The Electrical Submersible Pump fairly inflexible when
though mandrel.
run at a fixed speed; the unit is limited to a fixed range
Broadly, ESP wellhead can be categorised into two of production rates and a fixed head output at each rate.
types: The Variable Speed Controller (VSC) has rapidly
137
gained acceptance as a valuable ESP accessory to 5.4.6 STANDARD PERFORMANCE CURVES
alleviate these restrictions.
The standard performance curves are the most
5.4.5.8 POWER TRANSFORMER important graphs for ESP design for every type of ESP,
in its dynamic flow condition standard performance
Standard power transformer i.e. step down transformer
charts are drawn. The abscissa (horizontal axis)
say from 11 kV to 420/440 V is available with different
indicates the capacity of pumping in bbls/day or m3/day
kW range.
and the ordinate (vertical axis) indicates liquid head to
Since all the ESPs in ONGC's onshore fields are having be generated, brake H.P. and efficiency of ESP.
motors with kW range less than 22 kW, 25 kW
transformer is used to cater to the need of one well.

Fig:5.4.9

The head capacity is plotted with the head either in feet against which pumping is to be done, (iii) The
or in metres. For simplistic approach fresh water of difference in elevation of the dynamic level and the
density 1 gm/c.c. has been used to generate the surface, (iv) Any losses due to valves etc. in the
performance curve by the pump manufacturing flowline.
company.
By taking into account only the elevation and tubing
Also, the performance curve is plotted either with 100 pressure and neglecting all other factors, TDH can be
stages of pump or with single stage, as such, some written as :
companies prefer the former one and some the latter.
TDH = Tubing pressure [ in terms of equivalent fluid
Keeping an eye on the pump efficiency, every (liquid) height ]
manufacturer has drawn a maximum and minimum
+ Dynamic level as measured from top i.e.,
range in each performance curve, as such all ESPs are
from the surface.
supposed to operate within this range. The space
between the maximum and minimum lines is called the For example,
recommended range.
Say tubing pressure = 10 kg/CM2. = 100 m of water
5.4.7 TOTAL DYNAMIC HEAD (TDH),
and dynamic level from the surface = 600 m then,
Total Dynamic head, written in short as TDH, is a very
TDH = 100 + 600 = 700 m
common concept in calculating the total stages of a
centrifugal pump. This includes: (i) The friction losses
in the tubing and surface flow line, (ii) Tubing pressure

138
5.4.8 Advantages & Disadvantages of using ESP
Advantages Disadvantages
1. High volume and depth capability 1. Limited Adaptability to Major Changes in Reservoir
2. Highly efficient 2. Difficult to repair in the field.
3. Low maintenance 3. The build-up of scale deposits can interfere with the
4. Minor surface equipment need operation of submersible pumps.
5. Good in deviated wells 4. Also, the cost of electricity can also be very high,
6. The system is easy to adapt to automation especially in remote areas.
and can pump continuously and 5. The system has limited flexibility under some
intermittently. producing conditions, and the entire system in the well
7. For shallow wells, the investment is low must be pulled when a problem is encountered.

5.4.9 Different Causes of ESP Failures a failure. Possible reasons for a Seal Section leak
are:
1) Excessive overload for an extended period of time.
a. Worn out pump causing seal damaging
2) Seal section leak.
vibrations
3) Well conditions - excessive operating temperature,
b. Broken mechanical seals from rough handling
corrosion, abrasive materials in fluid stream, etc.
c. Defective seal section construction
4) Bad of faulty installation.
d. Bad installation methods and/or procedure
5) Motor controller troubles.
3) Insufficient Fluid Movement: Causes the internal
6) Faulty equipment.
operating temperature of the motor to exceed the
7) Worn pump. temperature limitation of the insulation, resulting in
8) Lightning. an electrical failure.
9) Bad electrical system a. This occurs when the fluid velocity by the
Causes of Pump Failures motor is insufficient to cool it
(Recommended velocity is 1 foot/second).
A pump failure is usually the result of one of the
following reasons: b. Occurs where a unit is set below the perforations
1) Down thrust wear, due to producing below peak in a well and a motor jacket is not installed to
efficiency. direct the fluid by the motor to cool it.
2) Up thrust wear, due to producing above peak Causes of Cable Failures
efficiency. 1) Mechanical damage during running or pulling
3) Grinding wear, due to producing abrasives. operations caused by:
4) Plugged or locked stages, due to scale build up. a. Crushing
5) Longevity wears. b. Stretching
6) Twisted shaft, due to locked pump, starting during c. Crimping
backspin or absence of VSC. d. Cutting
7) Corrosion. 2) Cable deterioration due to:
In some cases, on initial start-up, the formation a. High temperatures
may tend to produce large amounts of sand. This is
b. High pressure gas
especially true when the producing zone is an
unconsolidated sand formation. This problem can c. Corrosion
be minimized by maintaining back pressure on the d. Normal aging
tubing and reducing back pressure slowly over a 3) Excessive current creates a high conductor
period of several hours. temperature capable of breaking down the
Causes of Motor Failure:- insulation.
1) Excessive Motor Overload: Resulting from one or
5.4.10 Ammeter Technology
more of the following reasons:
a. Abnormally high specific gravity of the well A correctly designed submersible pump will provide a
fluid relatively maintenance free, long duration operation.
The usual cause of premature failure for a properly
b. Bad design (undersized motor) resulting from
designed unit is an unattended correctable mechanical
poor data
malfunction, which results in downhole failure. It is,
c. Worn out pump therefore, mandatory that each unit be properly and
d. High, low or unbalanced voltage rigorously monitored in order that these malfunctions
2) Seal Section Leak: A leaking seal section allows are corrected before premature failure occurs.
well fluids to enter the motor and usually results in
139
One of the most valuable and least understood tools 1. Under normal operating conditions, the ammeter
available is the recording ammeter. recorder should draw a smooth symmetrical curve
within amperage value at or near motor nameplate
The ammeter chart, much like a physician's electro-
amperage. This figure 5.10 illustrates this “ideal”
cardiogram, is a recording of the heartbeat of the
condition.
submersible electrical motor. Proper, timely and
rigorous analysis of amp charts can provide valuable 2. Actual normal pump operations may produce a
information for the detection and correction of minor similar curve slightly above or below motor
operational problems before they become costly major nameplate amperage; but, as long as the curve is
ones. The recording ammeter is located visibly on the symmetrical and consistent from day to day, the
motor controller. Its function is to record the input system is operating properly.
amperage of the motor. The amperage is recorded from
one power leg and displayed on the ammeter. The
amperage is then plotted on a circular chart whose grid
carries the proper abscissa multiplier to indicate the
actual cable amperage.
The recording ammeter can be set to record over a 24
hour or 7 day period. It is always recommended that
during the initial start-up phase of the ESP a 24 hour
operation be used until stabilized conditions exist. Once
well stability occurs, the chart will display a pattern that
can be considered normal for the application.
The ammeter chart is an extremely valuable tool for
monitoring the well's operation. If the chart is used
correctly (checked each day) it will warn you of
changes in the well's operation, such as voltage Fig-5.4.10
fluctuation in the power distribution system.
If a good line of communications exists between the B. Normal Operation.
field and engineering, the job of data gathering and well
1. In the electric submersible pump operation, the
monitoring is an easy one. After the first few days of
system amperage varies inversely with the system
operation the recording ammeter can be switched to a 7
voltage. Therefore, if the primary power supply voltage
day chart for recording purposes. This mode of
fluctuates, the system amperage will also fluctuate in an
operation should be carefully monitored and if changes
attempt to maintain constant load. These amperage
to the normal pattern occur, the ammeter should be
fluctuations will appear as shown in Figure.5.11
placed back into the 24 hour operation and closely
watched until the cause for the abnormal pattern is
identified.
Assuming that the recording ammeter is functioning
properly, a number of changes in operating conditions
may be defined by proper interpretation of the amp
chart. Some of these potentially damaging conditions
are:
1) Primary power line voltage fluctuations
2) Low amperage operation
3) High amperage operation
4) Erratic amperage operation
The following text and examples deal with the proper
interpretation of ammeter charts and their inter-
Fig-5.4.11
relationship with other guides in the troubleshooting
and preventative maintenance of electrical submersible 2. the most common cause of primary fluctuations is
pumps. periodic heavy loading of the primary power system.
For example, it could be caused by the start-up of a high
5.4.10.1 Troubleshooting through Ammeter chart horsepower water injection pump or the simultaneous
reading. start-up of other electrical loads. Such primary power
drains should be timed so that they are not
Normal Operation. simultaneous, and their effect is minimized.

140
3. Ammeter “spikes” are often observed during an D. If the pump continues to shut down, it should
electrical disturbance, such as a lightning storm. be pulled and resized on the next pump change
out
C. Pump Gas lock-
D. “Pump Off’ Condition with Gas Interference
1. The above Figure shows the ammeter chart of a
pump which has gas locked and continues to The above Figure 5.13 shows the ammeter chart of
operate at slightly lower amperage. If amperage a pump which has lowered the fluid level to a point
drop is greater than shown in Figure,5.12, it is which leads to gas Interference.
possible for the pump to shut down on under load. a. Section A shows pump start-up. At this time,
a. Section A shows pump start-up. At this time, the well annular fluid level is high; thus, the
the well annular fluid level is high; thus, the production rate and amperage are increased
production rate and amperage are increased slightly due to the reduced head requirement.
slightly due to the reduced head requirement. b. Section B shows a normal operating curve as
the fluid level nears the design value.
b. Section B shows a normal operating curve as
the fluid level nears the design value. c. Section C shows a decrease in amperage as
the fluid level falls below design point.
c. Section C shows a decrease in amperage as
the fluid level falls below design and an d. Section D shows erratic amperage due to gas
amperage fluctuation as gas begins to break interference as the fluid level nears the
out near the pump intake. pump‟s intake.
d. Section D shows erratic amperage due to gas
interference as the fluid level nears the
pump‟s intake.

Fig-5.4.13

The pump “gas locks” at this time resulting in an

undercurrent shutdown as shown in Section E. The
Fig-5.4.12
pump is not now producing.
E. Pump Off ’Condition Without Gas Interference-
The pump “gas locks” at this time resulting in a slight
decrease in amperage. The pump is now not producing This Figure 5.14 shows the ammeter chart of a unit
any fluid. which has pumped off the well and shut down on
undercurrent, then restarted automatically and shut
2. It is possible to remedy this situation by:
down again for the same reason.
A. Shutting down the unit long enough to allow
a. Analysis of Section A, B, and C are identical
the“gas lock” to be “broken.”
to that for gas locking, except no free gas
B. If the gas lock condition continues, it is breakout fluctuations are evident due to the
possible to correct it by lowering the pump to assumption of no gas present.
the point where gas breakout at the pump
b. In Section D, the fluid level approaches the
intake is reduced enough to permit continuous
pump intake, and the rate and amperage
operation, but must have a motor shroud if the
decline. Finally, the pre-set undercurrent level
pump is set below the point of fluid entry into
is reached, and the unit drops off-line.
the well bore.
c. When a unit drops off-line due to
C. If lowering the pump is not feasible, it may be
undercurrent, the automatic restart sequence is
possible (depending on the unit configuration)
triggered. As shown on the ammeter chart, the
to choke production back until a suitable fluid
„unit restarted automatically after the pre-set
level is established. Care should be taken that
time delay. During shutdown, the fluid rose
production rates are not reduced to a point that
will result in damage to the pump or motor.
141
 slightly. When the unit restarted, the fluid more frequent. This type of operation is extremely
level had not reached static. detrimental to submersible motors and should be
corrected immediately.
2. This chart could apply to a unit which is too large
for the application, or has insufficient head
capacity. Close the wellhead discharge valve and
observe “shut in” pressure this will confirm which
condition exists.

Fig-5.4.14

d. Sized for the application and the remedial

action is the same as for gas locking. A well
stimulation treatment may increase
productivity of the well to better suit the unit Fig-5.4.16
F. FALSE START:- H. “Gassy” Well Condition
1. This Figure 5.15 shows an ammeter chart from a 1. This figure 5.17 shows the chart of a unit which is
unit which has shut down on under load, failed in operating near designed levels, but which is
an attempt to restart automatically, timed out and handling light gassy fluid.
restarted beginning the cycle again.
2. The ammeter fluctuation is caused by the pump
2. Analysis of this chart is similar to that for pump off intermittently handling entrained and free gas along
of fluid conditions (d) except that the auto-restart with heavier fluid production. This condition is
delay is not of sufficient length to allow adequate usually accompanied by a reduction in total fluid
well fluid build-up for loading the pump. production (actual stock tank barrels). It is possible
3. This unit is improperly sized. Pump should be that this problem can be reduced or eliminated by
resized on next change out or the well should be proper adjustment of casing and or tubing pressure.
worked over to provide additional fluid to be
pumped.

Fig-5.4.17

This type chart can also be the result of pumping an

Fig-5.4.15 emulsified fluid where the intake is being plugged
momentarily by the emulsion. On the emulsion block, the
G. Short Duration Cycling- spikes will usually drop below the normal amperage line.
It may be possible to correct this problem with emulsion
1. This figure 5.16 shows an ammeter chart similar to
breakers.
that for fluid pump off conditions except that the
running times are of shorter duration and the cycles

142
I. Immediate Undercurrent Shutdown-
l. This figure 5.18 shows the ammeter chart of a unit
which is starting, running a very short time, and
then shutting down due to undercurrent. This cycle
is repeated by the automatic restart sequence.
2. Generally, this type curve is caused by the pump
handling fluid which lacks sufficient density or
volume to load the motor to amperage above the
undercurrent setting.
3. If productivity tests show fluid available at the
pump intake, it is possible to rectify this problem
by lowering the undercurrent shutdown amperage.
This should be done by qualified personnel only.
4. Another cause of this type curve is failure of the
Fig-5.4.19
timing relay used to block the undercurrent relay
from the control circuit during the automatic restart K. Pump Control by Tank Level-.
sequence. This problem is best rectified by
l. This figure 5.20 shows an ammeter chart for a unit
qualified personnel, as several areas in the motor
which is being controlled by a tank switch. The
control panel should be checked to pinpoint the
switch drop the unit off-line and starts the auto-
problem.
restart sequence.
2. This type of operation is often necessary, but the
focus should be made on the restart delay and the
minimum amount of cycling. In this case, the delay
is far too short.
3. In almost all cases, when a unit is shut down, fluid
will tend to fall back through the pump, spinning
the unit backwards (backspin). Attempting to
restart any submersible pump in a backspin mode
may result in damaged equipment such as twisted
or broken shafts.
4. A tubing check valve should not be depended on to
prevent this backspin problem due to possible
leakage of the check valve.
Fig-5.4.18 5. A minimum of 30 minutes is the normal setting to
5. A broken unit shaft could also cause this same insure against backspin by allowing all fluid levels
ammeter chart. to stabilize.

J. Undercurrent below no load:-

l. This figure 5.19 shows a normal pump start-up
followed by a slow decline in amperage down to
the no-load idle amperage of the motor. Finally
after a period of load less operation, the unit faults
and shuts down on overload,
2. This curve is typical of a unit which is improperly
sized for the application and which also has had
the under load protection relay set improperly.
3. With the fluid production retarded, the motor ran at
idle load until heat build-up resulted in a system
failure causing the unit to overload and shutdown.
IT IS TO BE NOTED THAT FLUID PASSAGE BY
THE MOTOR PROVIDES COOLING Fig-5.4.20
MANDATORY FOR PROPER SUBMERSIBLE 6. Actual minimum downtime required should be
PUMP OPERATION. determined by checking the voltage generated by
the backspin and thereby determine how long it
actually takes the well to stabilize.

143
7. A convenient way to insure against starting a pump 4. The actual pump horsepower required is a multiple
against backspin is to set the auto-restart delay function of the specific gravity of the fluid. If it
timer above 30 minutes with the H-O-A switch set becomes necessary to kill a well, use the lightest
on automatic. and cleanest possible-

L. Normal Overload Condition-

1. This figure 5.21 shows the chart for a unit which
has shut down due to overload (high current)
conditions.
2. Section A of the curve shows pump start-up at
amperage below nameplate amperage (normal for
some unit configurations). The amperage then
gradually rises to normal.
3. Section B shows the unit running normally.
4. Section C shows a gradual rise in amperage until
the unit finally drops off-line due to overload.
CAUTION: Until the cause of this overload has
been corrected, restart should not be attempted. Fig-5.4.22
5. Automatic restart sequences are not instigated due CAUTION: This type of restart attempt will destroy the
to the manual reset required by the overload relays. possible kill fluid that will control the well equipment.
6. The complete installation should be checked out
5. Consult the pump manufacturer on the start-up
before a restart of the unit is attempted.
procedure. No manual restarts should be attempted
7. Common causes of this type shutdown area. until the system power that will be required to
handle the kill fluid. Manufacturer can determine if
a. Increases in fluid specific gravity (such as the present motor is of sufficient size to pump the
heavy brines or muds) kill fluid.
b. Sand production 6. Under certain circumstances, it may be necessary
c. Emulsions or viscosity increases to hold back pressure on the well to prevent excess
d Mechanical or electrical problems such as amperage.
motor overheat or wearing equipment 7. If a well produces sand initially, it should be
e. Electrical power problems produced at a reduced rate to provide a slower
drawdown on the formation. The reduced rate
should be determined by the operator by whatever
means available.

N. Excessive Manual Restart Attempts-

l. This figure 5.23 shows a relatively normal chart
until power fluctuation kicks are noticed. Finally,
the unit dropped off-line due to overload. It is also
evident that several manual restarts were attempted.
CAUTION: This type of restart attempt will
destroy the equipment.

Fig-5.4.21
M. Pump Handling Solids-
1. This figure shows a unit which started, pumped
erratically for a short period, and then proceeded
under normal conditions.
2. This type operation can be expected in a well
contains debris such as scale, loose sand and
weighted muds or brines.
3. This type operation is not unusual, but is not Fig-5.4.23
recommended where avoidable.
144
2. No manual restarts should be attempted until the Well profile : S - shaped (Build-up and
system is checked by qualified personnel. Build-downProfile) and
from 1000 mts depth from
O. Erratic Loading Conditions- surface it is vertical.
Formation volume factor (Bo) : 1.15
1. This figure 5.24 exhibits an unpredictably varying
chart. This type chart is usually produced by The following are the step-wise calculations:-
fluctuations in fluid specific gravity, or large STEP - 1 : SIZE OF PUMP
changes in surface pressure. The unit finally From the catalogue of ESP manufacturer the best suited
dropped off-line due to overload and will not pump primarily with respect to its OD and capacity is to
automatically restart. be selected. Let the available ESP is of REDA make.
2. Manual restart should not be attempted until the Since casing size is 5 1/2", at the first instance, 400/450
series REDA pump/protector as applicable in 5 1/2", is
considered (Reference : REDA catalogue). Now,
maximum OD of Reda pump set with cable, cable guard
and cable clamp in position is required to be checked
with 5 1/2" ; 20 ppf casing (that is minimum ID of
casing).
i)OD of 450 series protector = 114.3 mm
ii)Thickness of Armoured cable of = 12.3 mm
6 AWG of parallel shape
iii)Thickness of cable guard and cable = 2.0 mm (approx.)
clamp

Total = Max. OD of REDA Pump = 128.6 mm

Fig-5.4.24 (400 / 450 series)
unit is I.D of 5 1/2" , 20 ppf casing = 121.4 mm
thoroughly checked by qualified personnel, and the Drift diameter of 5 1/2", 20 ppf casing= 118.2 mm
cause of the problem solved. Since drift diameter of 5 1/2", 20 ppf casing is less than
3. Some typical results or simultaneous causes for Max. O.D of Reda pump, it is required to find out pump
over load failure of this nature are a frozen pump, of one size lower.
burned motor, burned cable, blown fuses (primary The next lower size is of 338/325 series pump /
and/or manual restarts were attempted. secondary). protector as applicable in 4 1/2" casing.

5.4.11 ESP DESIGN OD 338/325 series pump / protector= 85.85 mm

Given Data ii) Thickness off Armoured cable = 12.30 mm
(6 AWG, parallel)
Well depth : 2500 Mts. ( 8220 ft ) iii) Thickness of cable guard and cable= 2.00 mm
Tubing : 2 7/8 inch Clamp
Casing size : 5 1/2 inch (17 - 20 ppf ) Total = Max. OD of 338/325 series=100.15 mm
Pump / protector
Reservoir pressure : 205 kg/cm2 (2915 psi)
Flowing Bottom hole pressure: 180 kg/cm2 (2560 psi) Therefore, clearance between minimum casing I.D. and
Wellhead pressure : 7 kg/cm2 (100 psi) max. pump O.D.
Water cut : 60% = (118.20 - 100.15) x 1/2
= 18.05 x 1/2 = 9.0 mm
GOR : 45 m3/m3 (252 SCF/b) From Reda catalogue, the compatible pump / protector
GLR : 17 m3/m3 ( 96 SCF/b) set of 338/325 series is selected which is to be coupled
Design Liquid rate ( at stock tank ): 35 M3/D ( 220 b/d) with 375 series motor OD = 3.75 inch = 95.25 mm).
Degree API of oil : 350 API (Sp.Gr. = 0.8489)
STEP - 2 : STATIC AND DYNAMIC LEVEL
Specific gravity of gas (Air = 1) : 0.65
Specific gravity of water : 1.05 Considering the datum level at 2500 Mts., and with
specific gravity of water as 1.05, the fluid level at static
Bottom hole Temperature : 700C (1580F) condition = 2050 x 1/1.05 = 1952 Mts. So, static fluid
Wellhead temperature : 300C (860F) level from the surface = 2500 - 1952 = 548 Mts.
Bubble point pressure : 80 kg/cm2 (1137 psi) The fluid level at flowing condition (that is, dynamic
Electric supply system : 400 / 440 V : 50 Hz condition)

145
 = 1800 x 1/1.05 = 1715 Mts.
Therefore, dynamic level from the surface = 2500 - Stages x specific gravity of water = 0.06 x 222 x 1.05
= 13.98 H.P.
1715 = 785 Mts. From catalogue, 375 series motor has to be selected,
which has H.P. either equal to this value or next higher
STEP - 3: LOCATION OF PUMP DEPTH
value.
The pump has to be located below the dynamic. Also, to H.P. Motor selected = 16.3 H.P.
minimise the interference of free gas, the pump, if
possible, can be located in deeper depth. It is always advisable to choose a motor with low
i) Dynamic level from surface = 785 Mts. amperage rating, provided its voltage rating is not very
excessive. So, from two categories of 16.3 H.P., 50
ii) Bubble point pressure of 80 kg/cm2,
Hertz motors,
Which is equivalent to = 762 Mts.
That is from, 16.3 HP; 238 V ; 38 A; 50 Hertz and
----------------
16.3 HP; 323 V; 25 A ; 50 Hertz
Total = 1547 Mts.
So, the motor of 16.3 H.P.; 323 V; 25 A; 50 Hertz is
Location of Pump = 1600 Mts. from surface selected.
STEP - 8 : MAIN CABLE SELECTION
STEP - 4 : FLUID VOLUME IN THE PUMP (Q) From manufacturers catalogue "Redelene” type (can
Q = 35 m3/d x Bo = 35 x 1.15 work up to 2050 F, where B.H.T. is 1580F) flat cable
and 4 AWG (considering cost and voltage drop factor)
= 40 m3/d has been considered.
STEP - 5 : PUMP SELECTION STEP - 9 : SURFACE VOLTAGE CALCULATION
A 400 pump is selected from performance curve as From cable voltage chart, supplied by the manufacturer,
supplied by the manufacturer for 50 Hz supply and 338 Voltage drop = 11 volt / 1000 ft.
series pump with the desired fluid production rate of 40 Total cable length = Subsurface cable length +
m3/d lies in the recommended range for operating the Surface cable length
pump on the accepted efficiency level.
STEP - 6 : PUMP STAGES CALCULATION = 1600 Mts. + 100 Mts. (say)
From the performance curve, 100 stages develop 400 Total cable length = 1700 Mts. = 5576 ft or
Mts. of head. 5600 ft
1 stage develop 400/100 = 4 Mts. of head. 11 V
Now, TOTAL Head required, that is, total dynamic So, the total voltage drop = ----------- x 5600 ft.
head (TDH) will be, 1000 ft
TDH = Dynamic level from surface + fluid friction = 61.6 v
in the tubing + Tubing Pressure. Voltage required at the surface = name plate voltage
+ Total Voltage drop
= 785 Mts. + negligible + 70 Mts. = 323 + 61.6
= 855 Mts. = 384.6 V
855 Mts.
Total stages of pump required = ---------- = 214 stages. = 385 V
4 Mts. / stage STEP - 10 : CALCULATION OF KVA (KW)
REQUIREMENT OF POWER
From the catalogue of the manufacturer, the number of TRANSFORMER (STEP DOWN
stages and housings has been selected, so that total TRANSFORMER)
stages of pump are slightly more or equal to 214 stages.
2 number of housings each having 81 stages and 1 (Required Surface voltage) x (name plate amps.) x (1.73)
number having 60 stages have been selected. KVA = --------------------------------------------- + 2.5%
So, total stages = (2 x 81) + 60) = 162 + 60 = 222 1000

STEP - 7 : MOTOR HORSEPOWER 385 x 25 x 1.73

REQUIREMENT = ------------------------- + 2.5% = 16.65 + 2.5%
1000
From performance curve, max. H.P.= 6.0 H.P./100 stages
The nearest whole number =6.0H.P./100 stages
16.65 x 2.5
= 16.65 + ----------------- = 16.65 + 0.42
= 0.06 H.P. / stage
100
So, Total H.P. requirement =H.P./stage x
Number of = 17.07 18 KVA

146
Since the power transformer of 18 KVA is not normally 5.5.1 INTRODUCTION
available. The next size available is 25 KVA So, power
transformer of 25 KVA (25 kW) is selected.
Belt drive
STEP - 11: SELECTION OF SWITTCH BOARD
From the manufacturer‟s catalogue, the switch board of Moto Drive
the following type is selected depending on max. Volt, r head
H.P. and max. Full load amps.
Switchboard is class DFH-2, type 72, size 2, max. volt
600, H.P. 25 and max. full load amp. 50.
STEP - 12: LIST OF SUITABLE DESIGNED
PUMP, ITS COMPONENTS AND Well
MISCELLANEOUS ACCESSORIES head
All pump components must be compatible to each
other.
Pump : A - 400 : 222 stages : 2 Nos. of
Housing each 0f 81 stages
Rod string
(338series) 1 No. of Housing of 60stages.
Motor : 375 series : 16.3 HP; 323 V; 25 A;
50 Hertz; Tape-in type
Protector : 325 series ; labyrinth type. Downhole
pump
Intake Section : Reverse flow gas separator
Tag bar
Pot-head Cable : 6 AWG : Redelene flat galvanised ;
50 ft in length Fig 5.5.1
Main Cable : 4 AWG; Redelene flat galvanised;
around 1700 Mts. Progressing cavity pump is the youngest to join the
(5600 ft) in length wound onto a reel. family of different artificial lift modes. It‟s use in oil
Wellhead : "Seaboard" wellhead or equivalent production started in early eighties.
for 5 1/2" casing; 2 7/8" tubing with Presently, it is mostly used in areas of:
necessary fitting like upper and lower
i) Heavy oil production
pigtails, mini-mandrel etc.
ii) De-watering of Coal Bed Methane (CBM)
Switchboard : Class DFH-2, type 72, size 2, max.
wells
Volt 600, H.P. 25 max. full load
amp. 50. Oil production with sand and other solids if other
modes like Gas lift are not feasible.
Power Transformer: 25 KVA capacity with step-
down voltage from 11 kV power It is a low capital cost, low operating cost, high
transmission line 400 / 420 V efficiency mode of artificial lift. But, it‟s use is limited
(standard industrial voltage). by:
Accessories : Junction box, Pulley and its i) Maximum pumping rate – around 650 m3/d
arrangement for lowering / pulling of ii) Maximum depth of pump – around 2400 mts
ESP in and out of the well, sufficient iii) Maximum bottom hole temperature – around
quantity of high quality insulating oil 150oC
(REDA oil of M/S Reda Co.),
ammeter recording charts, full PCPs are being extensively used for heavy oil
splicing kits, sufficient number of production in Canada, China, Venezula etc. where most
cable bands, clamping of cable band of the world‟s heavy oil exists. Also being widely used
tool-set, check valve, bleeder valve in about thousand wells of Coal Bed Methane in USA
with nipples, pump discharge head, for de-watering the wells.
Pot-head extension guards or
channels, centralizers, necessary 5.5.1.1 APPLICATION
mechanical handling tools and PCP finds application in -
necessary electrical instruments Heavy oil and bitumen with sand cuts to 85%
5.5 PROGRESSING CAVITY PUMPING Dewatering of coalbed methane wells
SYSTEMS Mature water floods
Visual or height sensitive areas

147
5.5.1.2 ADVANTAGES stator to the other, from suction to discharge, creating
pumping action.
Produce high viscous fluids, large solid concentration
and moderate free gas
No valves to clog or gas lock For the simplest PCP geometry, the rotor is a simple
helix. The soft stator, the external one, is a double helix
Ability to tolerate high percentages of free gas
with twice the pitch of the rotor. The geometry of
Low internal shear rates (limits fluid emulsification) assembly is such that it constitutes a series of identical,
Low capital and operating costs separate cavities. When the rotor is rotated inside the
Low wellhead profile stator, these cavities move axially from one end of the
stator to the other, from suction to discharge, creating
5.5.1.3 LIMITATIONS pumping action.

Maximum production rate - 650 m3/day (4100

bbls/day)
Maximum lift - 2400 m (8000 ft), Maximum
temperature - 150oC
Sensitivity to fluids - elastomer may swell or deteriorate 1 2
when exposed to certain fluids
Low volumetric efficiency when producing large
amount of gas
Rod/tubing wear in some directional and horizontal
wells
Fig 5.5.3
5.5.2 OPERATING PRINCIPLE AND GENERAL
DESCRIPTION
5.5.2.1 OPERATING PRINCIPLE
A Progressing Cavity Pump (Fig 5.5.2) essentially
constitutes of two helical gears, one inside the other and
rotating around their longitudinal axis which are
parallel but spaced between each other. The external
gear has one more thread or lobe (Fig 5.5.3) than the
internal element. The internal member, known as rotor
or bolt, is made of high strength steel and the outer Fig 5.5.4
member, called stator, formed from elastomer core
permanently bonded to a steel tube.
The internal element is set so that all the threads or
teeth are constantly in contact with the external
element. The helical pitches of the two elements are
proportionate to each cross section with the number of
teeth. Fig 5.5.4 shows cross-sectional view of position
of the rotor inside the stator at different rotation angles
at 45 deg steps.
This motion leads to the formation of "closed cavities",
delimited by the rotor and the stator which move axially
from suction to discharge. Thanks to this principle, a
Fig5.5.2 rotating positive displacement pump has taken birth
For the simplest PCP geometry, the rotor is a simple which is - reversible and self-priming, without any
helix. The soft stator, the external one, is a double helix check valve, providing a uniform flow rate, without any
with twice the pitch of the rotor. The geometry of pulsation or jerk and capable of conveying very liquid
assembly is such that it constitutes a series of identical, to very pasty fluids, even when containing solids and
separate cavities. When the rotor is rotated inside the gas.
stator, these cavities move axially from one end of the

148
 Fig 5.5.5

Fig 5.5.5 is another presentation of the operating 5.5.2.2 GEOMETRY

principle showing the rotor position inside the stator
The geometry of pumps is generally defined by two
with stator pitch twice the rotor and the oil movement
numbers, the first being the number of lobes of the
running into a cavity. So, the fluid moves from left to
rotor, and the second being the number of lobes of the
right. The discharge and the suction are always
stator. For example, the geometry of a pump with a
isolated from each other by a constant length seal line.
single helical rotor and a double helical stator is
If the rotor runs in reverse gear, the closed cavities
described as a "1-2 pump". The rotor is not concentric
move from right to left according to the same
with the stator. Therefore, the motion of the rotor inside
principle. Therefore the pump is definitely reversible.
the stator is actually a combination of two motions:
Two conditions are necessary to obtain "closed
A rotation around its own axis in one direction, and a
cavities":
rotation in the opposite direction of its own centreline
1. The rotor must have one tooth less than the stator around the axis of the stator.The geometry of the
and every tooth of the rotor must always be in helical gear formed by the rotor and the stator is fully
contact with the inner surface of the stator. defined in Diameters and Eccentricity (Fig 5.5.6 &
5.5.7)
2. The rotor and the stator, as they have been defined
above, constitute longitudinally two helical gears.

Fig.5.5.6 Fig.5.5.7
The thickness of a single helical rotor (minor diameter) The diameter of the helix rotor (major diameter) is
is symbolized as: D symbolized as: (D + - 2 E).
The eccentricity is the distance between the centreline The width of the double threaded helix in the stator are:
of the rotor and the centreline of the stator and is D and (D + 4 E)
symbolized as: E Pitch length (Fig 5.5.6 & 5.5.7)

149
The pitch length is defined as a length of 360deg The majority of manufactured pumps essentially consist
rotation of the crest trace of one of the helix lobes, and of a one lobe rotor and a two lobe stator. The following
is symbolized as: P description is relative to this "1-2 pump" type.
Therefore, the pitch lengths of the rotor and the stator
are more clearly symbolized as: 5.5.5.1 KINEMATICS
Pr - pitch length of the rotor The rotor, which is the rotating internal component is
Ps - pitch length of the stator integral with the rod string run by a surface drive head.
It is very precisely manufactured in high-strength steel,
For 1-2 pump:
and chromium plated to minimize abrasion and friction
Ps =2 Pr between rotor and stator. However, to reduce the
Cavity imbalance effect, the Russians have manufactured
Cavities are lenticular, spiral, and separate volumes and titanium alloy rotors also.
are created between the stator and the rotor when they The stator, which is the external pump component is
are assembled. The cavities are formed as a result of the integral with the production tubing and remains fixed or
additional helix in the stator cavity. Each cavity moves anchored during production. The stator is usually
in spiral around the axis-of the stator, progressing from constituted of a steel tube and an injected elastomer
the inlet to the outlet as a consequence of the rotor moulded element, encased inside. The elastomer is
rotation. injected and moulded between a core and the external
The length of a cavity is always the pitch length of the tube, in the configuration of an internal double helix
stator. whose pitch is twice that of the rotor. The elastomer is
The number of cavities C is calculated as follows: chosen in consideration of the chemical and physical
environment of the well. To resolve the problems
C = Lr (Hs/Pr-1) encountered with high temperature pumping, the
where: Lr is the number of rotor lobes metallic stators is also developed recently.
Hs is the length of the stator The rotor/stator torque is mainly defined by its
Pr is the length of the rotor pitch. eccentricity, the rotor's diameter and the stator's pitch.
5.5.3 DESCRIPTION OF MOTOR The rotation of the rotor inside the stator moves a series
of identical cavity formations which are separated by
The rotor is made from high-strength steel and coated seal lines. Each of these cavities are full of fluid, with
with a resistant substance (chromium plating) so as to length equal to the stator pitch. In each cross section of
minimize the abrasion generated by the conveyance of the pump, two cavities are constantly opposed to the
fluids containing solid particles, and to dscrease the rotor. The rotor rotation inside the stator is a
coefficient of rotorlstator friction. The final diameter of combination of two motions:
the rotor depends on the possible swelling of the
elastomer generated by the pressure, the temperature A rotor rotation (in the direction of the motor rotation)
and thefluids pumped. The thickness of the chromium around its own axis
plating depends on the abrasive nature of the pumped An eccentric reverse rotation around the stator axis.
products. The rotor of helical shape and of circular The co-ordination of these motions creates a nutation of
section is defined by: the rotor through a stator section
Diameter D
Rotor / stator eccentricity E 5.5.5.2 PUMP DISPLACEMENT
Helix pitch Pr = Ps / 2 (pump 1-2) When the pump is driven into rotation, the cavities
5.5.4 DESCRIPTION OF STATOR move longitudinally from suction to discharge, so
The stator is made from an elastomer that is particularly working the pumping action. During each rotation(Fig
designed to withstand petroleum effluents (crude, salt 5.5.8), the fluid volume contained in the cavity is
water, gas), and downhole temperature. displaced by a length equal to the stator pitch. Because
the cavity volume between the rotor and the stator
The stator of helical inner shape is defined by: remains constant, whatever it's cross section, the pump
Minimum width of the section D enables a uniform, non-pulsating flow rate. The
Maximum width of the section D+4E displacement is determined by the fluid volume
Pitch of the helix Ps = 2 Pr (pump 1-2) produced in one revolution of the rotor. So, the function
is symbolized as follows:
5.5.5 PCP CHARACTERISTICS E Eccentricity rotor/stator
D Rotor diameter
Ps Stator pitch.

150
 Fig – 5.5.8 Rotor movement with respect to stator

PS is also the cavity length and the distance of The light seal (or clearance) between rotor and
displacement of the cavity volume for one rotor stator. The diameter of the rotor is slightly
rotation. bigger than the minor diameter of the stator.
The cross section is constant and equal to: 4 E X D. The pumped fluid characteristics (higher head
The surface of this section is a constant. So for a ratings are achieved with viscous fluids).
defined rotating speed, the flow rate is regular. This is a Values determining the geometric profile of
remarkable characteristic of the Progressing Cavity the pump: diameter and rotor pitch,
Pump. Consequently, for one rotation, the pump eccentricity
cylinder(volume) is equal to
The chemical composition of the elastomer.
V = 4 E x D x PS
The mechanical characteristics of the
As it is a pump of positive displacement type and elastomer.
considering the efficiency for a given head rating, the
pump flow rate is directly proportional to its cylinder The thickness of the elastomer.
capacity and its rotation speed. N being the number of
rotations per minute (rpm), the calculated flow rate per In a first approach, a reference value of head rating δp
minute Qc is: for a cavity, of about 200 to 300 kPa may be chosen.
Qc = 4 E x D x PS x N To withstand a high head rating, the PCP's are made
The actual pump flow rate Qa is determined by with a large number of cavities. Then, the total head
considering a leak rate Qs, which is: rating is evaluated to:
Qa = Qc - Qs ΔP = δp (2np – 1)where np is the
The manufacturers generally characterize their pumps number of pitches Ps.
with a reference to the number of rotations per minute
for a daily flow rate. The standard IS0 CD 15136 plans 5.5.7 TORQUE
to codify the daily flow rate of the pumps at 100 The PCP are rotating pumps generating a resistant
rotations per minute (100 rpm). torque, on one hand during the pumping operation, on
the other hand at the start-up.
5.5.6 HEAD(PRESSURE) RATING
The differential pressure between suction and discharge Operational (or running) resistant torque : The rotor
generates a fluid leakage between the two successive rotation transfers fluid from one cavity to another, thus
cavities from high to low pressure, consequently a producing a differential pressure. The required energy
pressure gradient is delivered along the pump. This to generate this action needs a sufficient resistant torque
pressure gradient depends on the pumped fluid of the rotor and drive strings. This torque depends on:
characteristics. The liquids (quasi incompressible The pump hydraulic power (directly
fluids) generate linear pressure gradients, whereas high proportional to the head rating)
gas content fluids have pressure gradients which are
The coating finish quality of the rotor
increasing quasi-exponentially from suction to
discharge. The class of elastomer, the lubricating
characteristics of the pumped fluid
The pump head rating is determined by: The length of the pump.
1. The number of cavities formed between the rotor and Starting torque : This is the initial torque necessary to
the stator start up the pump. It is quite often much higher than the
2. The head rating developed into an elementary cavity, operational resistant torque. Therefore, the surface
which depends on: motor and the drive strings must be able to drive up the
initial starting torque. Also, a security coefficient

151
should be considered. This starting torque must be  They are butadiene-acrylonitrile copolymers
initially measured and noted. from which the double bonds coming from
butadiene, have been more or less totally
Load on Thrust Bearing : The head rating generated by saturated by selective hydrogenation, without
the pump, produces a tensile stress on the drive string. damaging the nitrile functions.
This force should be withstood by the thrust bearing of  They are characterized by:
the motor system placed into the wellhead.  An excellent resistance to abrasion
The load on thrust bearing or the tensile stress on the  An excellent resistance to 150" water steam
drive string has for value:
 An excellent resistance to amine corrosion
Fb = ԓ xΔP x(2E+ D)2/4 inhibitors
The major diameter rotor (2 E + D) is then a  An excellent resistance to acid gas H2S and
characteristic value of the pump, giving a calculation CO
basis to define the driving equipment characteristics.
 Fluorinated elastomers (Viton)
5.5.8 STATOR ELASTOMERS  A small swelling in the aliphatic and aromatic
The stator is generally made of moulded elastomer hydrocarbons
encased and bonded into a steel pipe. The physical  An excellent strength at temperature
characteristics of the elastomers can vary according to (permanent elasticity up to 200°C)
the fluid pumped and the in situ conditions.
 Minimal permeability.
Consequently, four elastomer formulations may be
distinguished:
1. Heavy and very abrasive oils (< 18 deg. API). 5.5.8.2 ELASTOMERS vs DOWNHOLE
2. Heavy and medium viscous oils, more or less ENVIRONMENT
abrasive, for a workingtemperature below than
100°C. Wellbore Environment : Most fluids produced
through the pump will have some effect on the
3. Light oils more or less containing aromatics
elastomer.
and carbon dioxide.
High fluid temperature and exposure to certain
4. Pumped oils at high temperature (references up
chemicals also contribute.
to 160°C).

Elastomers shall meet the following criteria: The most common elastomer reactions are:
 Swelling
 Very slow swelling
 Softening
 Fair chemical and mechanical strength
 Shrinkage
 Long life duration.
 Hardening
 An elastomer is physically characterized by:
 Blistering
 Its utilization temperature limit
Material Properties : Elastomer performance is
 Its strength and its behaviour in presence of
dependent on its mechanical and chemical properties.
sand
Primary mechanical properties are (ASTM):
 Its behaviour in presence of H2S and CO,
 Liquid or Swell Resistance
 Its strength with aromatics
 Tensile Strength
 Its strength with water formation.
 Tear Resistance
5.5.8.1 ELASTOMERS SELECTION:  Fatigue and Flex Cracking Resistance
In the petroleum industry, the choice is made according  Heat Resistance
to the conditions of use.  Abrasion Resistance
 Hardness
 Nitrile (NBR)
 Elasticity (resilience)
 It is a butadiene-acrylonitrile copolymer.
 The butadiene gives a possibility of sulphur Fluid Swell : Elastomer is a permeable
vulcanization (double bond) and an elasticity membrane.Swell is the result of fluid
and a flexibility at low temperature absorption by diffusion into the
 The acrylonitrile gives a certain resistance to elastomer.Swelling takes place until
hydrocarbons and minor gas permeability. equilibrium is reached throughout the
elastomer. Oilfield fluids that commonly cause
 Hydrogenated Nitrile (HNBR) swell are -

152
 Higher API gravity oils that contain  Rapid fluid equalization between casing
aromatics (Benzene, Toluene, Xylene) and tubing in pumped off wells. Deeper
 Water & gas the well the more pronounced the pressure
drop, majority of damage at pump
Fluids and elastomers that have a high
discharge.
compatibility exhibit high volume
swell.Different elastomers have varying  Permeation is a diffusion process
degrees of compatibility with a particular governed by temperature, pressure
fluidi.e. Oils that contain aromatics will cause differential and thickness of elastomer
high swell in Buna and lower swell in High
Nitrile elastomers.Rate of swell is slower with Elastomer Softening : Chemicals in the
lower concentrations of compatible fluid but produced fluid attack the elastomer and cause
eventual equilibrium will take place. it to soften i.e. Amine based corrosion
inhibitors.Aromatics will also cause
softening.Softening results in the deterioration
Effects of Fluid Swell : Swelling can cause an
of the elastomers chemical and material
excessively tight rotor/stator interference fit.
properties
Tight fits may lead to a rapid hysteresis failure.
Badly swollen stators exhibit high pump
Elastomer Hardening : Curatives (i.e sulfur)
friction torque and poor volumetric
plus heat, pressure and time initiate the
efficiencies. Pumps with minor swelling can
vulcanization process. Wellbore environments
generally be fit with a smaller rotor and
can contain all of the above. Wells that contain
reused. Swell results in the deterioration of
H2S may cause advanced vulcanization.
mechanical and chemical properties.
HNBR (hydrogenated) elastomers have been
specially formulated to reduce effects.
Thermal Swell : Heat causes overall
Hardening results in the deterioration of
expansion.Temperature resistance is dependent
mechanical properties.
on chemical structure, base polymer etc. Heat
can break down the chemical structure
Elastomer Shrinkage : Lower molecular
resulting in a deterioration of material
weight parrafins (C3-C30) will extract
properties. Heat can effect the adhesive bond
plasticizers from NBR and cause shrinkage.
between the elastomer and stator tube.
Extraction of plasticizers results in an overall
reduction in elastomer volume. Shrinkage will
Gas Swell : Gas will permeate into an
reduce rotor/stator interference fit. Wells that
elastomer by diffusion.Permeation rate is
have wax problems correlate with elastomer
determined mainly by the gas size, shape and
shrinkage. Shrinkage results in the
polarity. Permeation is a diffusion process
deterioration of mechanical properties.
governed by:
 temperature
5.5.9 EVALUATION OF PUMP EFFICIENCY
 pressure differential
It is necessary to carry out bench tests in "in situ"
 thickness of elastomer
downhole conditions, where the pump will be run at
 Solubility determines the quantity of rotation speed, differential temperature and pressure.
gas that will absorb into the elastomer.
 Gas solubility increases as the 5.5.9.1 CALCULATION OF VOLUMETRIC PUMP
molecular weight of the gas increases. EFFICIENCY
 CO2 & H2S more soluble than CH4 The pump efficiency settled in a well is calculated by
Elastomers with a high diffusivity value allow dividing the fluid volume measured at the separator by
gas to escape from elastomer when subjected the water total volume measured during the bench test
to a rapid pressure drop. in the same conditions of pressure, temperature and
rotating speed.
Elastomer Blistering : Blistering is one result
of Explosive Decompression (ED). ED is Low pump efficiency is not always due to pump wear
when an elastomer compound is exposed to but may also be caused by a large volume of gas at the
high pressure for a period sufficient for gas pump inlet.
molecules to diffuse into the compound,
subsequent rapid reduction in pressure can 5.5.9.2 EVALUATION OF THE ACTUAL FLOW
cause internal fracturing in the form of cracks RATE OF THE PUMP
or blisters. Elastomers exposed to CO2 is
leading cause of ED failures. Common causes The pumpable flow rate is determined by a bench test at
of rapid pressure reductions are - three different speeds, and in measuring the flow rate,
without differential pressure through the pump. The
 Retrieving pump to surface.
pumped flow rates are then reported to a 100 rpm
153
speed, referring to the standard IS0 CD 15136
codification. The average of these three values defines
the actual flow rate of the pump.

5.5.9.3 SLIPPAGE UNDER PRESSURE

The flow rate drop of a pump refers to the volume of
leakage inside the pump. This slippage is defined as a
reduction of flow due to leakage across the dynamic
seal lines between the cavities, compared with the
actual pump flow rate.
This slippage is theoretically independent of the
rotating speed. It will be measured on bench by taking
the resulting average achieved at the three different
rotating speeds at a given head rating. In the case of
viscous oil pumping, the slippage is lower, and the
pump efficiency increases with the viscosity of the fluid
pumped (70 to 90% production can be reached). So,
pumps having low efficiency in the presence of water,
can operate satisfactorily with viscous oil.

5.5.10 THE TOP DRIVE SYSTEM

Generally, the PCPs are driven from the surface by the Fig 5.5.9
same type of rods as those used for beam pumps (25
feet length sucker rods and shorter pony rods). Now a 5.5.10.1 DRIVE HEAD
days continuous rods or hollow rods are also gaining The drive head Fig 5.5.10 is connected to the drive
popularity. string which is interdependent with the pump rotor.
The stator is fixed at the production tubing extremity
The characteristics of the strings of sucker rods depend and generally held by a hanger at the wellhead. A tee
on: joint is often fitted between the wellhead and the drive
head, The drive heads are designed according to the
1. The tubing diameter load they must support and to their fixing systems on
2. The mechanical stresses generated by: the drive string and on the motors.
The axial load of the rods
The thrust generated by the head rating of the pump
The mechanical resistant torque

The resistant torque due to the viscosity of the fluid in

the tubing. On surface, a Progressive Cavity Pump is
characterized by its drive system (Fig 5.5.9) which
includes:

1. A drive head
2. A motor
3. A rotating speed reducer system.

Fig 5.5.10

154
Drive head function 3. The operator should set a back-pressure valve
The drive string is supported by a drive head which is at the wellhead so as to avoid any fluid back-
installed on the wellhead. Its functions are: spin.
 To transmit the rotational movement of the
4. The operator should select a drive head
motor to the drive string
holding a braking system with a higher
 To seal the drive system from the well fluid,
maximum torque than the drive string resistive
by means of a stuffing box
torque.
 To carry the axial load of the rods, and the
head rating of the pump If the drive system is not installed vertically (in case of
 To have sufficient, braking energy .in case the some deviated wells), the bending moment generated by
drive motor stops suddenly. the inclination may increase some constraints which
should be taken into account by the operator.
Protection in case of sudden stop
It is recommended to equip the shaft with a back-spin
control Fig 5.5.11, limiting back spinning when the
motor stops. Calculation has shown that the drive string
turns 40 to 60 rounds on itself, in 1000 m length, when
it runs with a torque corresponding to 75% of the
admissible torque. By reaching high speeds these back-
spins could generate severe damage to the equipment
and may cause accidents.

Fig 5.5.11,

A working team created in Canada established

standards defining specifications which will be
Tag bar
acknowledged by every manufacturer.
The specifications should be clear and understandable
for the pump operators who should be able to choose a
safety drive head for its application. Some rules are
already in place:
1. The manufacturer should design the equipment
with a 150% safety factor as regards the
optimum working conditions, and should take
into account the additional loads generated by
impacts, as well as the heat effects on the
components properties.
2. The manufacturer should supply a handbook
which defines the maintenance operations for
the braking system including the fluids
replacement.

155
5.5.10.2 DRIVE SYSTEM sucker rods. - Speed change ratios from 1
to 6 can be generated.
All types of drive systems may be used:
 Electric motor  Changing speed can only be done when
 Hydraulic drive the system is running.
 Internal-combustion engine, gas or diesel.  Electronic system: The variable speed is
Those drive systems may provide fixed speed or provided by a frequency converter. The
variable speed. Some examples are shown on Fig usual frequency range extends from 10 to
5.5.12. 100 Hz, thereby providing a 1 to 10 speed
range ratio. A speed reducer installed
between the motor and the drive head
enables the speed range to be adjusted.
 Changing speed can be done whether the
system is running or not. The advantage of
this system is that it may be remote
controlled by a downhole pressure sensor
allowing the rotating speed to be adapted
to the submergence level.
 Hydraulic system
 Power is applied to the shaft by means of a
hydraulic motor supplied by a positive-
displacement pump. A wide range of
speeds are available.
 The drive string should be protected from
excessive torque by means of a hydraulic
pressure controller (provide a safety
valve).
 The braking action is generated by the
pumping of the hydraulic fluid system
through a nozzle, so the energy is
absorbed. However, the hydraulic fluid
Fig 5.5.12. Drive systems. A. Belt drive, B- belt & should not exceed 100°C temperature, or it
gear reducer drive, C- Variable speed drive- might generate steam into the system.
mechanical system, D- Variable frequency drive 5.6. JET PUMP
 Fixed speed drive: Direct belt drive – Fig 6.12(A).
Jet pump is a type of hydraulic pump in which the
The advantages of this system are simplicity and
energy from one fluid (liquid or gas) is transferred to
low cost. But it should be used only for medium
another fluid via the venturi effect. As the fluid passes
and high speeds.
through a tapered jet, kinetic energy increases and
 Belt drive and gear reducer – Fig 5.5.12(B) : The pressure decreases drawing fluid from the suction into
combination of a belt drive system with a gear the flow stream.
reducer allows lower speeds to be used. The belts
and pulleys should be selected according to their 5.6.1 WORKING PRINCIPLE
manufacturer recommendations for a continuous 24 Jet Pump operates on venturi effect which is a
hours use of motor service. A 150% safety factor modification of Bernoulli’s principle , which states that
should be applied. the sum of all forms of energy in a fluid flowing along
 Variable speed drive (VSD) Fig an enclosed path is the same at any two points in that
5.5.12(C&D) : The use of a variable speed path (or streamline). A common form of Bernoulli’s
drive allows the production of the well to be equation valid at any point along a streamline where
optimized. Since the flow rate is proportional gravity is constant is:
to the rotating speed, it is possible to choose a
rotational speed compatible with a minimum
submergence level, hence a maximum flow
rate. Besides, when pressure drops are difficult where:- v: fluid velocity along the streamline
to determine with precision, it is possible to g: acceleration of gravity on Earth
adapt the rotating speed with respect to the h: height
producing rate of the pump.Three types of p : pressure along the streamline
variable speed drives are available: - ρ : fluid density
 Mechanical system: The variable speed
drive unit consists of two cone sheaves on
which a belt can move and thus enable
speed variation of the shaft linked to the
156
 Figure 5.6.1 illustrates the venturi effect. When the fluid
passes through narrow /constricted part of venturi tube
it speeds up which is accompanied by decrease in fluid
pressure (v1< v2 & p1> p2). As the fluid passes through
broad section of venturi tube, fluid loses velocity and
consequently acquires pressure (v2 > v3 & p2 < p3).

Fig 5.6.1: Venturi Effect

5.6.2 JET PUMP TECHNOLOGY

Fig 5.6.2: Schematic of a Jet Pump

 It allows the LP fluids to flow at a lower pressure
Jet pumps, also known as ejectors or eductors, enable without being exposed directly to the pressure of
energy from a high pressure (HP) source to be used to the HP line or the downstream back pressure.
boost the pressure of low pressure (LP) fluids. This is  The pressure of the LP fluids is increased through
accompanied by momentum transfer of fluid through an the jet pump, which helps in their transportation
ejector nozzle, throat and diffuser. The unit shown in by pipelines or enables the required downstream
Figure 5.6.2 consists of a nozzle, a suction chamber, a operating pressure to be met.
mixing tube (throat) and a diffuser. High pressure fluid
Both motive (power fluid) and suction (formation fluid)
passes through the nozzle where part of its potential
flows could be a gas or liquid phase or the mixture of
(pressure) energy is converted into kinetic energy
the two. The performance of jet pumps is dependent on
(velocity). As a result, the pressure downstream of the
whether the motive or suction flow is gas, liquid or a
nozzle drops. At this point, the surrounding well fluid,
mixture of the two phases.
having comparatively higher fluid pressure and having
access to the throat chamber will be sucked through 5.6.3 COMPLETION SCHEMATICS:
production inlet chamber. The mixture passes through a Three flow configurations are possible for jet pump.
mixing tube where transfer of momentum and energy
a. Standard circulation type : ( Fig 5.6.3a )
takes place between well fluid and power fluids. On
passing from throat to diffuser, the mixture of well fluid In standard circulation type completion power fluid is
and power fluid loses velocity and consequently acquires pumped through the production tubing (hence called
equivalent discharge pressure to a value sufficient enough power fluid tubing or PFT). Standard circulation type
to lift the total fluid to the surface. completion is also classified as free pump mode as the
unit may be retrieved merely by changing the flow of
The jet pump therefore offers two main benefits:
157
power fluid down the casing annulus, unseating the enables the pump to be retrieved by pumping the
pump and returning it to the surface. power fluid through the annulus (which is opposite
to the normal flow direction of power fluid). In
this case, wire line operations are not required and
the pump is known as "Free pump"

5.6.4 NOZZLE AND THROAT SIZING:

The pump is defined by the nozzle and throat sizes. Refer
to Table 5.6.1 for available nozzle and throat diameters
and areas.
A given nozzle number coupled with same throat number
will always give the same ratio of nozzle area to throat
area. This is designated as “A” ratio. For example nozzle
no Y coupled with throat no Y forms “A” ratio jet pump.
Successively larger throat number when matched with a
given nozzle number will give the “B”, “C”, “D” and “E”
Fig 5.6.3a: Standard circulation type
ratio. For example nozzle no Y coupled with throat no
(Y+1) forms a “B” ratio jet pump and so on. The standard
b. Reverse circulation type: (Fig 5.6.3b): In reverse nozzle to throat area ratios and their designations as
circulation type power fluid is pumped through the provided by one of the reputed manufacturer of hydraulic
tubing-casing annulus and the production is taken Jet pump M/s. KOBE have been given in Table 5.6.2.
through the tubing. Reverse circulation mode is
Other manufacturers of hydraulic jet pump may have
used or producing heavy oil where hot water is
slightly different pump ratios from the ones as given by
used as power fluid.
M/S KOBE.
c. Parallel tubing completion type: (Fig 5.6.3c): Nozzle and throat sizes determine flow rates while the
The third configuration is the parallel tubing ratios of their flow areas determine the trade off between
completion type where the power fluid is pumped produced head and flow rate. For example, if a throat is
through one tubing (power fluid tubing or PFT) selected such that the area of the nozzle is 60% of the
and the production is taken through the other string throat area (Fig 5.6.4a), a relatively high head, and low
(return tubing or RT). The size of the return flow flow pumping operation will result. There is a
tubing is normally bigger than the power fluid comparatively small area around the jet for well fluids to
tubing since only power fluid flows through power enter in the throat, leading to lower production rates
fluid tubing whereas, power fluid plus produced compared to the power fluid rate, and with the energy of
fluid flow through return flow tubing. the nozzle being transferred to a small amount of
All the three configurations will require seating of production, high heads will be developed. Such a
jet pump in the bottom hole assembly (landing combination of nozzle throat sizes of the jet pump is
nipple) which is required to be lowered along with suited to deep wells with high lifts.
the tubing at pre-determined depth. Normally, the
pump is lowered and retrieved by standard wire
line techniques. Only the standard circulation type

Fig 5.6.3b: Reverse circulation type Fig 5.6.3c: Parallel tubing completion type

158
 Table 5.6.1: Nozzle and throat diameters with respective areas.

Table 5.2
Sl No Pump Ratio Designation Nozzle area to throat area
1 A 0.410
2 B 0.328
3 C 0.262
4 D 0.210
5 E 0.168

Fig 5.6.4a : Area of nozzle is 60% of throat area Fig 5.6.4b : Area of nozzle is 20% of throat area

Conversely, if a throat is selected such that the area of A large number of combinations of nozzle and throat
the nozzle is only 20% of the throat area (Fig 5.6.4b) , areas are possible to match different production rates
more production rate is possible. However, since the and head requirements. The most commonly employed
nozzle energy is being transferred to a large amount of area ratios fall between 0.235 and 0.40. Area ratios
production compared to the power fluid rate, lower greater than 0.4 are sometimes used in very deep wells,
heads will be developed. Shallow wells with low lifts or when the power fluid pressures are low. Area ratios
are candidates for such a combination of nozzle & less than 0.235 are used in shallow wells or when very
throat sizes of the jet pump. low bottom hole pressures require a large annular flow
passage to avoid cavitations. Thus the higher ratio

159
pumps are suitable for low production rates and high production rates and low heads.( Fig 5.6.4c )
heads, while the lower ratios are suitable for high

Fig 5.6.4c : Volume/pressure relationships for different area ratios

Cavitation: Cavitation is the formation of vapour taken to the GGS for further separation. Chemicals
bubbles of a flowing liquid in a region where the (corrosion, scale or paraffin inhibitor) can be dosed into
pressure of the liquid falls below its vapour pressure. the suction side of the power fluid pump, if required. A
The throat and nozzle flow areas define an annular flow typical scheme of the surface facilities used with well
passage at the entrance of the throat. The smaller this fluid as power fluid is shown in Fig. 5.6.5.
area, the higher the velocity of a given amount of
produced fluid passing through it. The pressure loss of
the fluid in the annular passage is proportional to the
square of the velocity and eventually may reach the
vapour pressure of the fluid at high velocities. This low
pressure will cause vapour cavities to form. This result
in choked flow in the throat, and then, no more
production is possible at that pump intake pressure,
even if the power fluid rate and its pressure are
increased. Subsequent collapse of the vapour cavities
happens as pressure is built up in the pump diffuser.
This may cause erosion due to implosion of the vapour
cavities which is known as cavitation damage. Thus, for
a given rate of production and pump intake pressure,
there will be a minimum annular flow area required to
avoid Cavitation problem.
Fig 5.6.5 :
5.6.5 SURFACE FACILITIES FOR JET
PUMP SYSTEM:
Water as power fluid: - As per the existing and
Surface facilities for providing two types of power suitable conditions, external water source, such as
fluid are as follows: available high pressure water injection water can also be
used as power fluid. In this case, the separation of
Produced well fluid: - When power fluid is the well
power fluid at the well site is avoided as the same can
fluid, separation of the produced fluids at the surface is
done with a three phase separator, which also acts as a be done at the GGS
reservoir for the surface power fluid pump. The power
fluid from the separator is cleaned of solids by means of 5.6 SIZING OF DOWNHOLE
cyclone separators, before it is taken into the suction of HYDRAULIC JET PUMP:
high pressure power fluid pump. A centrifugal pump is The following method of sizing of Downhole Hydraulic
used to supply the power fluid to the inlet of the Jet Pump is adopted by downhole Jet pump
cyclone. The pressurised power fluid is then metered manufacturers. In order to select the appropriate pump
and sent to the well. Oil, gas and part of the water is design, they have drawn head ratio and efficiency Vs
160
 Fig 5.6.6 : Jet Pump Working Principle

flow ratio curves. Dr. Brown in his book “Artificial Lift

Methods” has provided the procedures for sizing of Now water cut in the return string is found as follows:-
downhole Jet pump in the similar fashion. With oil as power fluid: To calculate fwr
Let PP, Pf and PR are the power fluid pressure before qf
the nozzle, flowing bottom hole pressure and return From equation (2), that is, F = -----
fluid pressure ( all in psi ) respectively. (Refer qP
Fig.5.6.6) F qf (o)f + (w)f (o)f (w)f
------- = --------- = ------------ = ---- + -----
qP, qf and qr are the corresponding fluid rates in b/d. 1 + F q f + qP qr qr qr
So, qr = qP + qf ..………………. (1)
Also, it is considered that Jet pump is placed very near F (o)f qf F
to producing zone. ------ = ------ x ---- + fwr = (1 - fwf) x ------ + fwr
The ratio of qf and qP is termed as `Flow Ratio' and is 1 + F qf qr 1+F
designated here as F.
F F F
qf fwr = (------- ) - (--------) + fwf x --------
That is, F = ------ ………………. (2)
qp 1+F 1+F 1+F
GLR of the return fluid (GLR) r is calculated from F
`Flow Ratio’ = F. fwr = fwf x ------- ……………… (5)
1+F
From equation (2)
With water as power fluid: To calculate fwr
F qf qf F qf Now, considering power fluid as total water than water
-------- = ----------- = ------- or, -------- = -------- (3) fraction in the return fluid
1+F qP + qf qr 1+F qr qP+fwfqf qP+fwfqf
= ----------- = ----------
Produced gas Produced gas qf qf + qP qr
Now (GLR)r = ------------------ = ----------------- x ---
qr qf qr 1 qP
Now, from (2), -------- = ----- ………………… (6)
Produced gas Produced oil F 1+F qr
Now (GLR)r = ------------------ x ---------------- x ------
Produced oil qf 1+F Again, considering produced fluid contains water cut
then from equation (5), the contribution of water from
formation to the total water cut in the return string
F F
= (G.O.R.) x (Produced oil cut fraction) x -------- = fwf x ------- ……………… ( 7)
1+F 1+F

F Therefore, with water as power fluid, the final water in

= (G.O.R.) x (1 - Produced W/C fraction) x -------- the return fluid (fwr) will be
1+F 1 F
F fwr = ( ------- ) + ( fwf x -------- )
= (G.O.R.) x (1 - fwf) x ------- ……… (4) 1+F 1+F
1+F
161
 Where,
(1 + fwr x F) STEP - 2 By using the equation,
fwr = ------------------ ..…………………… (8) AN = Area of nozzle in
sq.inches.
( 1 + F) qP
AN = ------------------------ PP and Pf are is psig.
Pf is calculated from I.P.R of the well. 1214.5 PP - Pf qP in b/d
Pp is calculated from the published multiphase flow GP GP = specific gravity of
correlation, considering qP. power fluid.
Pr is calculated from the published multiphase flow STEP-3 The next higher nozzle size is selected from the
correlation, considering, qr list of sizes available with the manufacturer.
Then, the head ratio (HR) is calculated by using STEP -4 With this higher size nozzle, the new power
Pr - Pf fluid rate (qP) is calculated by using the equation as
HR = ------------ given in step - 2.
PP - Pr STEP- 5 HP (of the power fluid) = 1.7 x 10 -5qP PPs
It is therefore, logical that the values of HR will be less Where, PPs = surface operating pressure of the power
than 1. fluid.
The sizing calculation is first started with an assumed STEP -6 The flow is to checked to ascertain, where it is
value of F, which is equal to 0.5. That is, F = 0.5 "cavitating" or "non-cavitating" Flow must be "non-
cavitating".
After calculating "HR" the value of F is calculated by
using Head Capacity Curve as provided by the From the equation,
manufacturer, considering the best efficient part of the
curve. The value of F, so obtained, is multiplied by a
factor known as volumetric efficiency factor as obtained 1 - Rnt Pf
from M.B. standing's correlation. This provides a Fc = ---------  1 + Kc --------------------
corrected value of F. Now if the value of F is found very Rnt Ic (PP - Pf) + Pf
close to the assumed value, then this will be the final
value. But if this value is not close to the assumed
value, then the calculation is to be done again with a Where,
new value of F. In this iterative procedure, the Rnt = nozzle area / throat area
appropriate value of F is calculated.
Kc = nozzle loss coefficient = 0.15

Now, with this value of F, the procedures to calculate Ic = Cavitation Index = 1.35
Fc = New flow ratio to check
the pump sizing are as follows:-
qf
STEP - 1 : qP is calculated from F = ----- If F < Fc, then flow is non-cavitating, otherwise, if F>
qP Fc, the whole calculation is required to repeated with
another value of F.

162
5.6.8 Merits and Demerits of Jet Pump:

MERITS DEMERITS
Handles solids: The wear and tear is less in the jet pump, because The jet pump requires higher pump intake
primarily the pump has no moving parts. However, high velocity pressure than other conventional pumps to avoid
power fluid as the fluid ejects through the nozzle can cause erosion cavitation. A minimum of 20% submergence is
of pump parts. Therefore to minimise the erosion of pump parts, required at the pump intake under dynamic
the abrasion resistant materials like tungsten carbide is used in the condition.
construction of nozzles and mixing tubes.
Handling corrosive fluids: Simple construction of the jet pump The power fluid should be clean and free from
allows the use of corrosion resistant alloys, thus corrosive fluids solids.
too can be produced.
Use in crooked holes: Short length of the pump allows it to pass The mechanical efficiency is low in the jet pumps
through the tight spots created by highly deviated well bore as compared to the positive displacement pumps,
profile. Since only the high pressure fluid flows through the because of higher surface pump horsepower
tubing and there is no tubing movement as such, tubing wear does requirements.
not arise.
High volume pump: Jet pumps can handle high volumes of well The fluid handling capacity of surface facilities
fluid. (including the separation facilities) needs to be
increased to handle the increased fluid volumes
(i.e., produced fluid plus power fluid).
Adaptability to sliding sleeves: The size of jet pump is easily Use of diesel or other similar liquids as power
adaptable to sliding sleeves. fluid increases operating costs.
Handles gas: The simple mechanical design of jet pump with no Parallel string / concentric tubing completions
moving parts enables it to produce gassy well fluids with no may often be required for jet pump application,
damage to the pump. However, the volumetric efficiency of the when flow through casing-tubing annulus is not
pump goes down with the increase in free gas content at the pump desired. Parallel tubing completion increases the
intake. completion cost.
Adaptability to variation in well production rates: The jet
pump can be adjusted to the varying production rates by changing
the power fluid rate to the pump. Higher production rates can be
achieved by increasing power fluid rate provided the well is
capable of giving the higher rates of production.
Suitability to low gravity crude oils: Mixing of power fluid
(water or light oils) with formation fluid, especially in case of
heavy crudes, provides viscosity blending, which results in lower
viscosity of the overall mixture. This in turn reduces the frictional
pressure losses in production string as well as makes the handling
of produced fluid at surface easier.
Saves workover cost: "Free pump” that can be circulated in and
out of the well without the necessity of a workover rig under
normal circumstances reduces reinstallation / repair costs to a great
extent. For the case of "Free Pump", wireline job is also not
required.
Centralised surface facility: Considerable cost can be reduced
by a common surface set-up to generate power fluid for its use as
motive fluid simultaneously in number of near-by wells.

5.6.9 CRITICAL OBSERVATIONS ON  Hydraulic Jet pump appears to be very

HYDRAULIC JET PUMP: effective in deep and highly deviated well
like S-profile well.
 Hydraulic Jet pumps are extremely useful
 Since hydraulic Jet pump is very sensitive
to produce oil from very deep well, where
to surface pressure of return fluid (i.e.,
all other Artificial Lift Systems do not
tubing pressure or back pressure of the
perform properly.
well), this lift can be combined with
 Hydraulic Jet pumps can be very
continuous gas lift for significant reduction
economically utilised to produce oil from
in horse power and power fluid
marginal and isolated offshore oil fields /
requirement. However along with
wells.
sensitivity analysis, trial field application is
 Hydraulic Jet pump has also found its
required to establish all the benefits of this
applicability for de-watering to produce
type of combined lift in the same well.
coal-bed methane gas.
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5.7 SELECTION OF ARTIFICIAL LIFT  Characteristics of fluids
SYSTEM :  Surface Constraints
 Services available
 Economic considerations
5.7.1 Criteria for Selection of Artificial Lift Mode :  Operating ease
Some of the key factors that influence the selection of
an artificial lift method are : Artificial lift considerations should ideally be
 Well Completion & profile part of the well planning process.
 Geographical & Environmental conditions
 Reservoir characteristics & Future Overview of the different modes of Artificial lift with
Development Plans their features, benefits & limitations :
 Reservoir pressure & Well productivity

Mode Main Components Features & Benefits Limitations

Gas Lift  Gas Lift Valves  High degree of flexibility and design  Needs high-pressure gas source
 Mandrels rates or compressor
 Latches  Wireline retrievable GLVs  Single well operation may be
 Kickover Tools  Handles sandy conditions – to some uneconomical
 Surface Controls extent  Fluid viscosity – cannot easily
 Coiled-Tubing  Allows for full bore tubing drift handle viscous oil
 Surface wellhead equipment requires  Minimum submergence
 Gas Lift Equipment
less space requirements
 Pack-Off Equipment
 Multi-well production from single  High back-pressure – causes
compressor slippage
 Multiple or slim hole completion
Sucker  Pumping Units  High system efficiency  Potential for tubing and rod
Rod  Motors & Controls  Economical to repair and service wear
Pumps  Continuous &  Positive displacement/ strong  High Gas-oil ratios – Gas
Threaded Sucker drawdown Anchor can solve problem
Rods  Upgraded materials reduce corrosion  Most systems limited to ability
 Rod Pumps &  Flexibility - adjust production of rods to handle loads
Accessories through stroke length and speed  Lower volumes with increasing
 Pumping Unit  High salvage value for surface depth
Services &downhole equipment  Environmental and aesthetic
concerns
Electric  Wellhead Equipment  High Volume and Depth Capability  Electric power – High wattage
al Sub-  Power Cables  High Efficiency Over 1,000 BPD  Limited adaptability to major
mersible  Pumps  Low Maintenance changes in reservoir
Pumps  Gas Separators  Minor Surface Equipment Needs  Difficult to repair in the field
 Motors & Protectors  Good in Deviated Wells  Free gas and/or abrasives -
 Variable Speed  Adaptable in Casings > 4-1/2” problems
Drives  Use for Well Testing  High viscosity – cannot handle
viscous fluids
 Higher pulling costs
Progre-  Stator  Low capital cost  Limited depth capability
ssing  Rotor  Low operating cost,  High temperature
Cavity  Tag Bar  High efficiency mode of artificial  Sensitivity to produced fluids
Pumps  Rod String lift.  Low volumetric efficiencies in
 Rod guides and  Used extensively for Heavy and  High-gas environments
centralizers (optional) viscous oil production  Potential for tubing & rod
 Surface Drive system  Also used for CBM dewatering coupling wear
 Can handle significant quantities of  Requires constant fluid level
 No turn tool
solid particles above pump
(optional)
Mode Main Components Features & Benefits Limitations
Jet  Bottom hole  Positive displacement – strong  Solids handling
Pump assembly with seating drawdown  Requires specific bottom hole
nipple  Double-acting high-volumetric assemblies
 Standing valve efficiency  Medium volume potential (50 -
 Downhole jet pump  Good depth/volume capability - 1000 BPD)
 Power fluid & return +15,000 ft.  Require service facilities
 Operates in deviated wells  Gas handling limitations
164
 fluid conduits  Multi-well production from single  Requires high-pressure surface
 Lubricator surface package line
Plunger  Lubricators  Requires no outside energy source  Specific GLR’s to drive system
Lift  Plungers uses well’s energy to lift  Low volume potential (200
 Bumper Springs  Dewatering gas wells BPD)
 Controllers  Rig not required for installation  Solids handling
 Accessories  Easy maintenance  Requires surveillance to
 Keeps well cleaned of paraffin optimize
deposits
 Low cost artificial lift method
 Handles gassy wells
 Good in deviated wells
 Can produce well to depletion

5.7.2 Comparative analysis of Technical operation of the different modes is as listed

specifications : The various ranges for below :

Operating Parameters SRP PCP ESP Jet Pump Gas lift Plunger lift
Operating Depth
100 –15000 2000-4500 1000- 10000 5000- 10000 5000-10000 8000- 19000
(TVD) (ft)
Max.Optg Depth (TVD) (ft) 16000 6000 15000 15000 15000 19000
Operating flow 5– 5– 100- 50 –
100 - 10000 1-5
(BFPD) 1500 2200 30000 500
Max. Optg flow (BFPD) 6000 4500 40000 >15000 30000 200
Optg. Temp. (˚F) 100-350 75-150 100-275 100-250 120 120
Max. Optg.Temp. (˚F) 550 250 400 500 400 400
Max. Wellbore Deviation 0-90 0-90 0-90 0-90 0-90 0 -90
API Gravity / Fluid condition GLR>300
> 8˚ API < 35 º API > 10 º API > 15 º API > 8 º API
SCF/bbl/1000 ft
System efficiency 45-60% 40-70% 35-60% 10-30% 10-30% N/A

5.7.3 Artificial Lift : Selection Procedure : The method

for selection of the appropriate mode of Artificial Lift b) Elimination Process : This is in three parts:
follows a five-step procedure : Step-I : Compatibility Analysis : Here the
various modes are compared according to
a) Input Information : The data to be the chart given below :
processed includes the following :
(i) Historic data: This includes Well  Cases falling under POOR to be
details, Fluid characteristics, eliminated peremptorily
Reservoir data, Well history card etc.  Additional conditions imposed by
(ii) Latest trending data (as per Asset – to be considered here for
availability) : This embraces Gradient elimination
surveys, Bottom hole
Pressure, Dynagraphs (for SRPs) etc. Step-II: Selection based on well depth
(iii) Information on Surface facilities: This :Here, the well depth versus flow
features Wellhead data, Separator requirements are assessed using the chart
pressure, Gas lift pressure (for G/L) as given below :
etc.

165
 Performance Comparison
Characteristic SRP PCP ESP Gas Lift Jet
Rates Poor Fair Good Excellent Good
Gas Production Fair Poor Poor Excellent Good
Viscous Fluids Good Excellent Fair Fair Excellent
Emulsions Good Excellent Fair Fair Excellent
Solid Handling Fair Fair Poor Excellent Excellent
Wax Mitigation Fair Fair Fair Good Excellent
Corrosion Good Good Fair Good Excellent
Reliability Excellent Good Varies Excellent Good
Efficiency Good Good Fair Poor Poor
Capital Costs Moderate Low Moderate Moderate Moderate
Operating Costs Low Low High Low Moderate

three) most suitable modes of Artificial lift meeting the

requirement.

c) Systems Analysis : This is the design stage

where the selected modes are designed using
procedures as explained above and also using
various softwares such as :
 PROSPER & GAP : For Continuous Gas
lift and networking
 GLIDE : For Intermittent Gas Lift
 RODSTAR : For SRPs
 PCPUMP : For Progressive Cavity Pumps
 SubPUMP : For Electrical Submersible
Step-III: Selection based on flow volumes : The Pumps
requirement is split into High volumes & Low volumes
and the charts as given below are used. Once the systems are designed, the various
design features entail requirements such as
High pressure Gas, Power, special
equipment etc.
Where,
Rnt = d) Techno-economic analysis : This is the
commercial part, wherein the cost of the
artificial mode is weighed against the output
obtained.
The method given below is based on procedure
prescribed by Project Appraisal Section (PAS),
Delhi which is wing of ONGC. Terminologies
encountered are :

 CAPEX :
o Short form for Capital Expenditure
Higher Volume o Includes all types of expenditure
made to gain Assets which may be in
the form of :
 Civil constructions
 Equipment & Machinery
 Associated piping, electrical,
instrument etc. works
 Services associated – One time
 Patent rights charges
Step III is a cross-check over Step II. The aim of this o CAPEX is liable for
exercise is to determine either one or two (or at the most DEPRECIATION

166
  OPEX :  Corporate Tax rate : 33.22 %
o Short form for Operating Expenditure  For revenue calculations, PAS
o Includes guidelines provide the following
mechanism :
 Working Capital,
 4% VAT deduction on bare price :
 License fees
VAT = 4 x Bare price/ 104
 Cash outgo for Liabilities
 Post well head expenses to be
o OPEX is liable for Tax rebate retained : Rs.1251/MT
 Revenue: Earnings derived after deducting  Wellhead price = Bare price –
all taxes and OPEX Revenue is discounted VAT – Post wellhead expenses
in later years at a given rate called
 Royalty @ 20% on wellhead price
DISCOUNTING FACTOR.
: Royalty – 20 x Wellhead
As per ONGC, PAS guidelines to be price/120
followed require the following:
 Escalation rate for CAPEX @ 6% per  OIDB cess @ Rs. 2500/MT – to be
year deducted
 Escalation rate for OPEX @ 8% per  NCCD @ Rs. 50/MT – to be
year deducted
 Hurdle rates for crude oil (for ONGC  Educational cess @ 3% of OIDB
project) : Base : $ 70/ bbl cess + NCCD – to be deducted
 Gas rates to be computed from Gas Based on the above principles, the
NCV @ $8.5/ MMBtu Financial model is drawn which is a
EXCEL worksheet which has the
 Discounting factor for cash flows =
following columns :
14%
 WDV method of CAPEX depreciation
: 20% in first year & 15% yearly
therafter
TAXA- NET
ESCA- DEPRE- DEPR- ESCA- GAS OIL TOTAL PRESENT
ACTUAL ACTUAL BLE TAX CASH
YEAR LATED CIATED ECIA- LATED REV- REV- REV- VALUE
CAPEX OPEX REVE- @ FLOW
CAPEX CAPEX TION OPEX ENUE ENUE ENUE (PV)
NUE (NCF)
33.22
15.00% % 14.00%
R1 = TR1 = T1 = CF1 =
DC1= D1=0.2C PV1 = CF1/
1 A C1=A X O1 = X GR1 OR1 GR1+O R1-O1- 0.3322 R1-C1-
C1-D1 1 (1.14^1)
R1 DC1 x TR1 O1
D2=0.2C
DC2 = R2 = TR2 = T1 = CF2 =
C2 = 2+ O2 = 1.08 PV2 = CF2/
2 B DC1+C2- Y GR2 OR2 GR2+O R2-O2- 0.3322 R2-C2-
1.06B (0.15DC xY (1.14^2)
D2 R2 DC2 x TR2 O2
1)
D3=0.2C
C3 = DC3 = R3 = TR3 = T1 = CF3 =
3+ O3 = 1.08 PV3 = CF3/
3 C 1.06X DC2+C3- Z GR3 OR3 GR3+O R3-O3- 0.3322 R3-C3-
(0.15DC x 1.08 x Z (1.14^3)
1,06XC D3 R3 DC3 x TR3 O3
2)
x and so on ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,

From the above table, the Internal Rate of NPV = Ʃ (PV1 : PVx)
Return (IRR) and Net Present Worth The comparison is drawn between the
(NPV) is computed as follows: various modes of Artificial Lift in the
IRR = IRR (NCF1 : NCFx) following manner :

Artificial Lift Artificial Lift Artificial Lift Artificial Lift

Mode 1 Mode 2 Mode 3 Mode 4
CAPEX Rs. C1 crores Rs. C2 crores Rs. C3 crores Rs. C4 crores
OPEX Rs. O1 crores Rs. O2 crores Rs. O3 crores Rs. O4 crores
IRR R1 % R2 % R3 % R4 %
NPV Rs. V1 crores Rs. V2 crores Rs. V3 crores Rs. V4 crores

167
 NPV must be positive for a project to be e) Comprehensive Decision: This is based on
viable. Further, higher the NPV, more are a load of extraneous factors which dictate
the gains. However, IRR also must be the mode albeit selection is done through
higher to select the best of the lot. the above cycle. The factors are tabulated
below :

Technical Factors Local Factors Statutory Factors

1. Electricity supply at remote 1. Operation in urban areas – 1. Use of copper cables in open
locations limited access areas – DGMS requirement –
2. Continuous High pressure gas 2. Theft of lube oil from SRPs theft hazard
supply for Gas lift operations 3. Cable damages – due to 2. Venting of annulus gas into
3. Accessibility – for maintenance excavations atmosphere – environmental
4. Ability for regular monitoring/ 4. Deterioration/ loss of parts of issues
Online monitoring systems Artificial lift devices during
5. Availability of work-over Rigs prolonged storage

The selected artificial lift mode is then adopted.

168
Chapter 6

WELL REPAIR & MAINTENANCE

6.1 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT OF RIG o Production of water, gas or undesirable
materials from other Zones into the producing
 Once a well is completed, and put on
zone.
production/injection, at some stage of its
o Loss of hydrocarbon of present layer to other
operating life, it may produce/receive fluids
layer
below its capacity due to either formation
o Loss of injection fluid
related or mechanical problems or both.
 Well bore and reservoir problems:  Various types of well servicing activities based on
Reservoir problems: above identified problems are designed, planned
o Low permeability and executed. Based on various facts, an optimal
o Low reservoir pressure well servicing procedure & equipment are
o Small productive pay zone thickness selected that can result in a techno-economic
success. These operations can be broadly
Fluid problems: classified as follows:
o Improper and no compatible injection
Fluids  Periodic maintenance operations/Preventive
o Water conning / preferential mobility / maintenance (conventional rig not required)
thief zone/permeability strips Well scrapping
o Gas conning Steaming
o Formation of precipitate / scale Sand or bottom washing with or without CTU
o Heavy viscous formation fluid. Oil circulation (Hot or normal)
Paraffin or scale inhibitor treatment
Around well bore problems: Well stimulation treatment
o Accumulation of formation fines o Surfactant,
o Emulsion blocks o Acid wash,
o Water blocks o Matrix acidisation
o Poor perforation Water unloading
o Loose formations and Sand production
 Well servicing operations are the most
 Mechanical Problems: simple, well defined and minimum time
Casing or well head failures: consuming workover operations on the well
o Failure of sealing elements of wellhead to remove the problems /sickness of the well.
o Casing leakage / Damage These operations require deployment of a
o Bad casing Profile workover rig, Some specific jobs include;

Perforation problems:  Routine Workover jobs like Removal,

o In sufficient perforation replacement of defective downhole
o Plugging of perforation equipment such as
o No communication from well to reservoir o Packers, SCSSV, etc.
o Production of sand, paraffin and scale o Sucker rods, pump, anchors, etc.
deposition in flow string and/or well bore o Gas lift valves
o Failure of completion or A/L equipment o Electric submersible-pumps, motor, cable
joint, cables etc.
Bad Cementation and Channeling behind
casing
169
 o Tubing leaking or damaged or having  It is necessary to know what the normal IPR
paraffin or scale deposits. curve look like if we have to recognize
subnormal one.
 Major or capital repair jobs, which are o This means that every well should have an
complicated and time consuming: IPR survey run on it and plotted a
o Detection of channeling behind casing and minimum of twice a year- quarterly
recompletion survey would be better.
o Detection & repair of casing damage and o IPR curves are an excellent way to
recompletion evaluate workover regardless of their
o Fishing and removal of stuck tubing packers, category - major or routine.
and other downhole tools and objects. o If the pre-workover IPR curve falls below
o Testing of different objects and recompletion the normal (expected) IPR, the Pwf is
o Drilling and milling of packer and bridge plug lower than would be expected, then a
etc. major workover will be required.
o Deepening o An ordinary routine workover will be a
o Sidetracking total waste of money in this case.
o Plugging and abandonment
These repair required heavy workover rigs Thus, before planning for workover job following
should be reviewed.
 Use of workover rig involves high repair cost.  Well problem analysis
Its judicious utilization should be the prime  Environmental
motive of every planner and execution  Resources
engineer. Economic feasibility should be  Constraint
established for time consuming and uncertain  Workover Consideration
capital workover jobs.
 Well problem analysis
6.1.1 Planning of workover job:
 The planning of workover job is very The objective of a well problem analysis is to find
important step in workover operation. an optimum solution from various alternatives
Whatever the reasons there may be for solutions.
planning a workover (major or routine), there
The first point of analyzing well’s problem is to
is essentially only one objective and that is to
find whether the problem lies within the wellbore
increase profitability. Workover time is very
such as rod pump failure, plugged gas lift valves
important due to idling and high inventory of
or tubing, replacement/repair of BHA etc, or it is
sick well.
outside the wellbore such as a reservoir problem
 To meet those objectives, the workover needs
which may require a major workover.
careful planning, implementation and job
evaluation
In some cases, it might be possible that routine
 The reason for workover must be determined
workover follows a major workover operation and
before anything else-environment, constraints,
thus accordingly planning should be made.
resources etc.
 Basically a well needs workover when some
form of feedback (well test, fluid level When planning a major workover is in question
sounders, etc.) reveals that the well is not for a new well, that has no history of success or
meeting its objectives. failure, good practices prevailing in nearby fields
 Perhaps the well isn’t making the oil, it was or other fields and anticipation of exigencies must
several months ago, simply because of natural be taken into consideration.
decline in production or increase in water cut.
Maintaining up-to date well surveillance Well problems may be categorized as follows:
production decline curves will help with these o Mechanical problem (rod breaks, pump
kinds of determinations. failure, seals, packer or tubing leaks etc.).
 If the well has a low producing rate q, and a o Restricted producing rate with high wellbore
higher producing bottom hole pressure pwf , pressure (plugged tubing, pump, gas lift valve
then a routine workover such as unplugging etc.).
the tubing of a flowing well or repairing a rod o Restricted producing rate with low wellbore
pump, will suffice. pressure, (plugged perforation, skin effect,
 However if the rate and the BHP, both are sand movement, clay swelling and movement
lower than the expected, this would be etc.).
indicate that the IPR curve of the well is o Excessive water and gas production.
exhibiting some sub-normal decay, probably o Restricted injection rate with higher injection
the result of some form of inflow well pressure, Pinj, then normally formation or
damage. perforation plugging.

170
 o Restricted injection rate with normal injection  The environment of workover should be
pressure, Pinj, (Leaking flow lines or bypass, clearly outlined and necessary control and
bad injection). safety measures are listed and planned.
o Failure of the operational personnel’s to  In addition to the above, the following to be
adequately relate production to economics. thoroughly reviewed and understood as part of
the environment.
Problem well analysis, which adequately considers o Casing (size, collapse and burst
all aspects of the well system including strengths),
economics, will yield one of the following o Perforations (phasing, size and density),
recommendations: and
o Workover-major or minor o Bottom hole pressure and temperature,
o Continue production to predetermined well history (or that of nearby wells, if
economic limit. this is the first work over)
o Abandoned the zone or well  Major environmental parameters are used to:
o Implement improve recovery operation on a o Find out potential problems (before they
field wide basis occur) and establish differences between
the problem and their symptoms
The reservoir related problems are identified with o Establish the economic feasibility, cost
the help of: and payout period to aid in evaluating the
o Inflow performance and flow test success and failure of the program.
o Production system analysis and optimization o The need for additional information that
of inflow and outflow from well will benefit design and operation
o Pressure and temperature gradient and build
up surveys  Resources
o Decline curve analysis
o Pressure build up analysis To achieve objectives of any workover job in cost
o Dynamometer, echo meter, two pen pressure effective manner, proper selection of resources is
recorder and ammeter surveys very important. These resources are:
o Analysis of petro-physical properties from Use of IPR curve,
logs/cores Clear clean well servicing fluid
o Special production logging and evaluation The tubing packer system (if packer is
required),
With the above test some of the following Perforating tools
parameter should be determined Stimulation equipment
o The capacity of the formation to produce Materials and fluids
o The well/formation behavior Production logs (pre-and post workover)
o Petro physical properties and fluid saturation A properly equipped well servicing rig
in-situ Well trained well servicing crew and
o The well/ formation behavior changes due to
A well-qualified, conscientious workover
conning or preferential fluid movement
supervisor is important resources to be
o In-efficiency of the completion hook-up and
reviewed.
its malfunctions.
o Ingress of fluid from other zones Depending upon a particular job all these
o Undesirable changes in fluid saturation
parameters are reviewed, selected and accordingly
around the wellbore
mobilized in a planned manner.
o Wellbore damages, need for artificial lift and
its type
 Constraint
Constraints such as designed (upper strength
The available resources be then planned for limits) parameters of tubular and downhole
optimal usage with different alternative routine
tools available and required for a particular
operations.
application in the well is of prime importance.
Sometimes following may pose a constraints
 Environmental
for applying a certain procedure or job in a
 In both the cases, whether major or routine
well :
workover, it is likely to be necessary to kill
o Wellhead & X-mas tree rating
the well and thus a well servicing fluid is
o Casing shoe strength and
needed. This means that even for a routine
o Maximum allowable annular surface
workover the environment will include the
pressure (MAASP)
reservoir rock and the fluid contained.
o Available BOP rating etc.

171
 While planning a workover, proper o Safety and environmental protection steps
understanding and analysis for each step of are taken care-of
the workover job and other constraints that The job plan be well defined with minimum
could go wrong with the operation need to be ambiguity
considered. Also, consideration to be given to The final completion should be simple,
o Alternative way to precede that may have reliable, safe and flexible.
less risk. Though every workover program varies with
o When considering constraint and respect to the actual operations (major or
alternatives, also make some contingency routine), they generally have a common order
plan for what you will do if such and such of doing the various operations. These
does happen. common orders usually are:
o Preparation of approach road and well
 Workover plan, therefore, should include site for the transportation and placement
Operating mechanical details of well of material and rig equipment.
o X-mas tree type, make and operating o Selection of workover fluid and its
pressure transportation or preparation at well site.
o Wellhead type make and operating o Manipulation of downhole safety
pressure equipment, surface equipment etc.
o Casing profile with size, grade, o Killing or subduing of the well (direct,
thickness/weight, depth, cement rise reverse or bull-heading).
o Cement plug/bridge plug details o Removal of x-mas tree and tubing hanger
o Tubing and completion details and installation of BOPE.
o Artificial lift details o Removal of production equipment such
o Well inclination as rods, pump, wlreline tools, tubing,
packer etc.
In addition, consideration must be given that o Integrity test of mechanical conditions of
what potential production problem may arise casing, liner, open hole etc.
as a result of the successful workover. For o Run gauge ring, casing scraper, CBL,
example: pipe inspection log, production log,
o A major workover that stimulates a removal of scale paraffin, salt, sand etc.
producing zone may double the oil and o Running in of equipment for using
the water production, creating water workover operation, such as bridge plug,
handling problems in the central treating packer, workover tubing string, cement
system. retainer, perforating gun, wlreline
o Increased water may mean increased equipment etc.
scale, emulsion, and corrosion problems o Performance of desire workover
as well as increased gas dehydration operation (major or routine).
problems. o Examining the mechanical condition of
production equipment to be run back in
 Workover Considerations: the hole.
The above problem review and analysis step, o Run in production equipment, keeping
identifies the problem and its most appropriate detail and accurate records of what was
solution and thus finally a workover program run and where, along with its dimension
is formulated. and material
The following primary checks be made before o Putting well on desire status (production
the deployment of workover rig: or injection)
o The history and test data analyzed and the o Monitoring of results and economic
problem fully identified evaluation.
o The confirmatory investigation for the o Writing in a detailed workover
problem is completed history/completion report with a well
o The unit / rig necessary for the operation diagram, and ensuring that all items are
has been identified properly filled in the concerned well file.
o For on land, the rig foundation is
available at site. 6.1.2 Workover Evaluation:
o Necessary tubular / connections including
completion and artificial lift equipment  The objective of a workover job is to increase
are available production or profitability. The evaluation of a
o The completion /WO fluid has been workover job is to find whether a workover
identified and necessary chemical have performed is actually profitable? If not, why?
been available
The objectives of the evaluation are:

172
 Find out whether the job was profitable o This contain information on drilling
Improve the efficiency of rigs history, drilling fluid, fluid loss, open
Improve the techniques hole logging and log interpretation,
casing cementation, DST, well
 The main parameter used in evaluation of a deviations, initial testing of pay zones
workover job and workover rig efficiency include: with drilling rig and final completion.
Gain in production: The gain in production GTO of well
must be ascertained after cleaning of wellbore Initial testing of wellhead, X-mas tree and pay
& by producing the well for a long time. The zones
gain should further be substantiated with: Log and log interpretation reports
o BHS and flow test analysis Downhole completion including artificial lift
o Pressure build up analysis details
Initial reservoir study report (normally issued
 Mechanical integrity of repair: by Bottom hole study group)
The technical condition/integrity of all major Annual production and test records including
repairs must be confirmed through pressure BH Study results and optimization results.
testing, logging, flow tests, buildup analysis, All previous workover plans and workover
pressure and temperature surveys, dynamometer completion and test reports
surveys etc.  All these information should be preserved in well
files.
 Time loss analysis:  Every year, as a part of record verification, it
o The planned job should be compared with should be ensured that all previous records are
actual job properly maintained in well file.
o The deviations should be analyzed  Storage and updating of these information on
o The time lost in various major jobs over the computer database should also be ensured
planned time be analyzed  The summery of well file records should be
o The lessons learnt be identified and recorded maintained in well cards separately
for future improvements  Each workover plan and completion report should
o Safety and risk incorporate clearly
The calendar and actual well production time
 Annual statistical indices and trends include between previous workover job and present
Number of workover job per rig per year workover job
(Workover Index). The production rate history and total
Nos. of workover jobs per one hundred production in this period
operating/ producing wells. The total workover job days and approximate
Annual workover job cost per ton of oil gain expenditure on the workover job inclusive of
for self-flowing and artificial lift wells. all overheads
Maximum, minimum and average workover The test rate, additional gain and pay out
job days. period of these job cost.
Average mean time between repairs for the
wells worked over during the year (separately 6.1.4 Workover Unit/Rig
for self-flow and artificial lift wells)  After identification of well problem(s),
Average workover cost per ton of oil selection of suitable workover unit/rig to
produced. accomplish the job economically is equally
important. .
 The trend and values of these parameters will help  The following factors are generally considered:
to improve efficiency and reduce cost. Hoisting capacity:
Hoisting capacity or hook load capacity of
the rig should be sufficient enough to take
6.1.3 Well file and Well records care of the maximum load requirement
needed for carrying out operations
 The primary objective of a well file is to maintain including drilling, stuck up, fishing,
all pertinent well records in an easily retrievable milling, single string or dual string
and organized manner. Another objective is to completion, if planned.
keep the information complete, factual, brief and Requirement of drilling/milling:
concise. In certain operations like cement drilling,
 Each well files should be organized to contain the milling etc., rotary table or power swivel is
following information: necessary.
Initial well completion reports  Other parameters include the rig foundation
o This is normally prepared by well site available at site or the platform suitability for
geologist. the rig.
173
  Release of bottom hole packer if any
Type of Units  Tripping out all downhole completion tools and
 The types of units commonly used as strings including artificial lift equipment like rods
workover rigs include: & pumps.
Drilling rigs being used as workover rigs.  Servicing and replacement/redressing of the
Conventional workover rig. defective downhole tools and equipment.
Low capacity rig (tube well rigs)  Checking the well around perforations and its
Specialized non-conventional units : sump (if any) to confirm that there is no deposit of
o Coiled tubing unit (CTU) any foreign material and the perforations are clear.
o Snubbing units or Hydraulic If it is not clear, the same is cleaned by washing &
Workover Rig. drilling.

 For operation, rig up, de-rigging and 6.2.2 Detection and Repair of
transportation, the detailed manual of channeling
particular rig should be consulted along with
primary safety operations indicated in this The conventional job includes:
manual.  Detection of channeling after analysis of logs
CBL and VDL
6.2 WORKOVER JOBS: Thermo log / temperature gradient
Isotope survey (if required).
Various types of workover jobs based on these  Perforation & block ementing
identified problems are designed, planned and  Clearing hole and pay zone
executed. Based on various facts, an optimal workover interval
procedure & equipment are selected that can result in a  Reperforation in the pay zone (if
techno-economic success. Some of the important necessary)
workover jobs include:  Recompletion as desired.

 Well servicing for: 6.2.3 Testing and Transfer to Other Objects

Self-flow wells
SRP wells The normal job sequences are:
Gas lift wells  Testing of the present pay zone for its
ESP wells bottomhole pressure, temperature and fluid
Screw pump wells flow rates/influx. If the fluid production is not
Other wells in commercial quantity even after stimulation,
then transfer may be required.
Detection and repair of channeling behind
 Isolate the present pay zone by
casing.
Cement plug/cement
Testing and transfer to other objects.
squeeze
Fishing, milling and stuck-up removal
Bridge plug.
and re-completion.
 Perforate the desired pay zone.
Detection and repair of casing  Test this pay zone for pressure, temperature and
damage. Water/gas shut off. fluid flow rates / influx.
 Recomplete the well as required.
 The workover job begins with well
preparation which includes:
6.2.4 Detection and Repair of casing damage
Well site preparation
o Rig foundation The normal job sequence would be:
o Approach road and site surfacing  Detection and location of damage by
Closing and disconnection of Christmas C.C.L. and casing caliper logs.
tree from flow arm Hermetic testing with testing packer (if
Killing- and conditioning of well fluid to required). .
subdue the well Isotope survey (if required).
Erection of workover rig mast  Repair of casing leakage/damage include
Removal of Christmas tree Cement squeeze into the leaking
Installation of BOP point
The specific repair jobs are taken up Reperforation and block
thereafter. cementation.
Placement of casing patches (if possible)
6.2.1 Well Servicing
Isolation of the leakage by production
packer completion.
The conventional well servicing jobs include:
 Checking and cleaning the hole and perforating
174
 (if required). Wash pipe with specialised connections can be run
 Recompletion of the well after repair. in highly deviated wells. Jars, overshots, magnets
and junk baskets can also be used successfully.
6.2.5 Fishing
Cost-Benefit analysis of fishing vis-à-vis side
 In oilfield parlance, a ―fish‖ is anything that is left tracking
in a well bore. Once the component is lost, it is
referred to as ―the fish‖ Fishing should be an economical solution to a problem
 In open hole during the course of drilling, the fish in the well. The cost of the fishing job must be less
may be anything from a part of or all of the than the cost to re-drill or side track the well. The
drllpipe or tubing string, to small pieces of larger the capital investment in the well, the more time
equipment such as bit cones, pieces of tools or any and expense can be devoted to a fishing solution.
material accidentally dropped into the well.  FISHING TOOLS
Similarly, in cased hole, there are various types
and kinds of problems that occur which create the The key enabling technologies for successful
fishing jobs, such as objects being dropped into the fishing operations are cutting, milling,
well, packers to be retrieved, parted tubing, catching/engaging and pulling.
collapsed casing, dropped pipe and wlreline tools Based on the kind of fishing operation, a variety of
either parted or stuck. Fishing refers to the fishing tools are available. The use of appropriate
application of tools, equipment and techniques for fishing tool for any particular job will largely
removal of lost or stuck objects from the well depend on the type of fish in the hole, whether the
bore. fish is stuck or free, whether it is in an open hole
or in a cased hole, the condition of the hole at the
 Causes leading to fishing operations site of break and condition of the top of the fish.
Human error in a majority of cases Based on intended application, the fishing tools
Corroded tubing and equipment can be classified into:
Stuck packers. The stuck up can be due to
External catch Tools
either differential or mechanical reasons
Damaged casings above the packers that result The external catch tools engage a fish on its
in packer stuck up during pulling out the outside body. Some of the commonly used tools
string. are;
Work string stuck up in open hole
o Overshot
Logging tool stuck up in tubing/casing due to
scale deposition or damage. The overshot is one of the most widely used
Premature setting of cement during fishing tools. There are several types of
cementation. overshot; however, each overshot is designed
to engage a specific size of tubing, coupling
 Consideration for fishing tool joint, drill collar or smooth O.D. tool. The
overshots are designated by a series number
The key considerations for a fishing operation include: that indicates their application for fishing
Knowledge of down hole tool configuration certain types of fish, e.g. Series 70 overshots
are used to release a fish with short space to
An understanding of the dimensions and nature of engage the tool on it. Similarly, Series 150
the fish to be removed is essential for designing a overshots are used to release fish with
successful fishing operation. Typically, anything sufficient neck length and allow for
that is lowered into the hole is accurately circulation too.
measured sketched so that appropriate fishing
tools can be used if required to fish.
Wellbore conditions
The wellbore conditions need to be understood
clearly to determine the cause of stuck-up. Based
on Hook’s law that stretch is proportional to strain,
the free point/stuck point in the string are
determined.
Well profile
Successful fishing is much easier in a relatively
vertical well than in a highly deviated wellbore.
However, it is still quite possible to perform a
successful fishing job in a highly deviated or Figure-6.1: Overshot Figure-6.2:Overshot
horizontal well bore if proper approach is taken. with Basket Grapple with Spiral Grapple
175
 A major disadvantage of die collar is that the
disengagement, in case the stuck-up is not
released, is extremely difficult and may
further complicate the fishing operations. This
is one of the reasons for which the die collar is
typically used for mechanically backing off
the string after just engaging the fish.

Basket Grapple Spiral Grapple o Milling tool for plug & packer

Description of tool The C J milling tool enables retrieval of

packers and bridge plugs used in the well. The
The basic overshot (from top down) consists tool, after milling the top slips of
of a top sub, a bowl, grapple, control and packer/bridge plug, latches on to their collet
guide. In addition to above, some overshots for pulling them out. Mill out extension may
can be dressed with either spiral grapple (fig.- additionally be required for packer.
6.2), used if the fish diameter is near the
maximum catch of the overshot or basket Internal catch tools
grapple (fig.-6.1), used if the fish diameter is The internal catch tools engage a fish on its inside
considerably below maximum catch size body. Some of the commonly used internal catch
(usually ½‖) tools are;
When circulating pack off is used the annular o Taper tap
space between the top outside of the fish and
the inside of the lower part of the overshot is The taper tap operates in an exactly
packed off, diverting the fluid flow down into opposite manner to a die collar and is
the fish. If circulation can be diverted through basically designed to retrieve tubular
the fish, it is easier to release and recover the members from the wellbore. It is the most
fish. economical tool of its kind for freeing
fish. The taper tap is also manufactured
o Die Collar from high-grade alloy and specially heat
The die collar is designed to retrieve tubular treated. The cutting teeth (wickers) are
members from the wellbore. The die collar is carbo-nitrided and machined on a shallow
manufactured from high-grade alloy and taper to provide an excellent grip for light
specially heat-treated. The hardened cutting duty pick-up jobs (fig.-6.5). For
teeth (wickers) are machined on a shallow operation, the taper tap is run to the top of
taper to provide an excellent grip and positive the fish and rotated sufficiently to allow
engagement (fig.-6.3 & 6.4). For operation, the wicker threads to get embedded into
the tool is run to the fish top and minimum the interior surface of the fish.
weight and sufficient rotation is applied to o Grapple releasing spears
allow the wicker threads to become embedded
in the exterior surface of the fish. The grapple releasing spears are rugged,
dependable and inexpensive tools used to
retrieve casings for side tracking purposes
or tubing left due to free fall. The basic
tool consists of a mandrel, a grapple, a
bull nose nut and a releasing ring (fig.-
6.6). The simple design assures positive
engagement throughout the fishing
operation is easy to release and re-engage
if necessary and may be run with other
equipment such as pack off attachments
and internal cutting tools.

Figure-6.3:Die Collar Figure-6.4:Die

with Lipped Guide Collar

176
 o Washover Pipe
In cases where the fish is a stuck up pipe, the
fish may surround with settled mud, cement
and other debris. This will not allow proper
engagement of the fish with tool. The
washover pipe is used to clear the outside area
of fish.
The washover pipe is run at the bottom of
work string. The cleaning is done using
circulation as the washover pipe is lowered
over the fish.
Figure-6.6:Releasing
Figure-6.5:Taper
Spear with Bull Nose
Taps Junk catcher Tools
Nut
The catcher tools are used to remove junk/debris
Milling and wash over tools
from the wellbore prior to/during fishing/milling
o Junk mill (Fig.-6.8)
operations.
Junk mills are used to mill up, almost
o Boot basket
everything, that falls or becomes stuck in the
hole. Pipe that has become cemented both Boot baskets are used to catch cuttings that
inside and outside can only be milled with this are too heavy to be carried out of the hole by
tool. Loose or rotating junk can be pounded normal circulation. They can be used when
down to break it into small pieces and hold it drilling up bridge plugs, retainer production
in place so that the mill can cut it. A good rule packers, cement retainers or other drillable
of thumb to give weight on junk mills is 1000 material.
pounds per O.D. inch of the mill.
The basket is normally positioned in the
For use inside a casing, a mill with stabilizer drilling string just above the bit or mill. In
pads and a smooth O.D. is used so that the operation the basket gather cuttings into the
casing will not be damaged. The O.D. of the cylinder over its upper lip as circulation
mill should be same or slightly smaller than slows, allowing the denser materials to fall
the drift diameter of the casing. out.
In open holes, a mill without stabilizer pads is o Junk basket (Fig.-6.10)
used. The O.D. of the mill should be about ¼
inch less than the hole diameter. The junk basket is a highly successful fishing
tool that incorporates a mill with double sets
o Taper Mill (fig.-6.7) of free fingers type catchers. It will catch
small objects that may be dropped into the
Taper mills are used to ream partially
hole. It is used to catch bit cones, slip
collapsed or damaged casing to clean up
fragments, wire line, hand tools, etc.
ragged holes or windows and generally to
enlarge and smooth rough and jagged o Reverse circulating Junk Basket (RCJB)
surfaces.
The conventional junk basket/catchers employ
forward/direct circulation at the bottom to lift
the cuttings and trap them shown in figue-
6.11. In RCJB also forward circulation is
applied in the string that gets converted to
reverse circulation at the tool due to a ball.
The RCJB is a better junk catcher tool since
the junk needs to travel a short distance only
before it gets trapped in the catcher sub.

Figure- Figure- Figure-

6.7:Taper 6.8:Junk 6.9:Pilot Mill
Mill Mill
177
 not normally easily releasable such as a tap or
die collar.
The safety joint can be released from the fish
by applying a tension load to the string to
shear the screws. Once the screws are sheared
and the tension on the line is released, the
string is picked up while applying slight left
hand torque. The safety joint lugs will then
shift onto the release slot and the fishing
string is released from the safety joint.

Figure-6.11:Reverse
Figure-6.10: Junk
Circulation
Basket
Junk Basket

Accessory Tools
o Wire catcher/Wireline spear
The wire line catcher is used to retrieve wire.
o Fishing Magnet (figure-6.12)
The fishing magnet is used to retrieve all
types of small objects having magnetic Figure- Figure- Figure-
attraction, e.g. bit cones, bearings, slips, tong 6.12:Fishing 6.13:Fishing 6.14:Fishing
pins, mill cutting, etc. Magnet Bumper Sub Jar
o Lead Impression Block (LIB)
The LIB is used to determine the 6.2.6 WATER CONTROL
configuration of the fish top and to locate its  Water cuts in oil producing wells are increasing as
position in the well bore. The LIB is lowered time passes and oil fields become mature.
on the end of the fishing string to  Sources of water
approximately 5 feet above the fish.
Formation water
Circulation is used to clean the top of the fish
Injected water used for reservoir pressure
and the string is then rapidly slacked and set
maintenance
in fish with 15,000 to 20,000 pounds of
weight on the fish to get good impression of
 Causes of excessive water production
the fish top.
Completion accidents:
o Hydraulic Fishing Jar (figure-6.14) o Tubing /casing/Packer leaks(easiest
problem)
The hydraulic fishing jar is used when a
o Flow behind Pipe
powerful upward blow is required to release
the stuck fish. The hydraulic jar is placed Reservoir problems:
directly below the drill collars in the fishing o Layered reservoirs with vertical flow
string. The intensity of each blow is controlled barriers.
by the amount of stretch given in the drill o Individual fractures between injectors and
string. More the pull harder is the blow. producers.
o 2-D coning through fractures.
o Bumper Sub (Figure-6.13) o Channelling through naturally fractured
reservoirs.
It is used below hydraulic jar to prevent
o Layered reservoirs without vertical flow
transmission of impact generated by jar to
barriers
tubing.
o Wormhole development.
o Safety Joint o Channelling through high
permeability/hairline fractures due to
The safety joint provides a simple means of
heterogeneities encountered in reservoir
releasing and re-engaging fishing tools during
rocks
many fishing operations. It is especially useful
in operations requiring a fishing tool that is

178
 o Near wellbore water conning due to o Leak test / casing integrity test (i.e. hydro
limited reservoir thickness or excessive testing)
pressure drawdown o Temperature surveys
o Flow profiling tools (i.e. radio-tracer flow
 Effects of excessive water production on well logs, spinner surveys, PLT)
Scaling problems in susceptible wells o Cement bond logs
Induced fines migration or sand face failure o Borehole tele viewers
Increase corrosion of tubular o Noise logs
Kill wells by hydrostatic loading
 Problem caused by fractures or fracture-like
features
 Information required for Water Control study Diagnostic Methods
Reservoir Characteristics - i.e. Pressure, temp, o Injectivity/productivity calculations
reservoir drive, fluid type. (linear or radial flow?)
Reservoir information (OWC, OGC, or GWC o Core and log analysis
& Lithology, composite logs) o Pulse tests / pressure transient analysis
Porosity, Permeability and Saturation Profiles o Inter-well tracers studies
PI or Injectivity
Reservoir Pressure profile for life of well (i.e.  Problem caused by cross flow in the reservoir
what is max diff pressure that isolation will strata (matrix-radial flow)
likely see). Diagnostic Methods
Well history o Pressure test between zones
Well test data / Historical production o Various logs for determining fluids
performance. saturation, k, porosity, and lithology
Completion Diagram including perforation o Injection/production profiles
data o Simulation
Deviation Survey o Seismic methods
Composite log showing perforated intervals
and what zone requires shutting off  Analytical Evaluation Techniques
PLT (Flow splits, BHP, BHT), CBL-VDL, Analysis before and/or during a treatment effect
TDT, Flowing Surveys success
Any liner calliper data.
Production Chemistry (water analysis, scale, Laboratory Analysis/Evaluation
hydrate & chemical injections data) Oil & water residual resistance factors
Any environmental and / or cost constraints from core experiments
 Factors that help determine water-production Analysis of chemical reaction
mechanisms are Production / Injection with Profile Analysis
Reservoir drive mechanism Production testing - production analysis
Production rates (reservoir and well) Production logs - logging analysis
Connate water and irreducible oil saturations Multi-rate injection with profile analysis
Porosity Determination of injection ratios
Permeability heterogeneities Analysis of daily injection profiles
Vertical and horizontal permeability Modified Hall plot
Relative permeability/mobility to water and Analysis of pump-in testing (reservoir
oil or condensate and near wellbore effects)
Location and continuity of impermeable Analysis of pressure leak-off tests
barriers - Reservoir Model Development - Profiles -
Reservoir dip Placement
Original water-oil or gas contact Use of prediction software
Portion of productive interval completed
Completion (perforated, open hole, etc.)  WATER CONTROL TECHNIQUES:
Completion position relative to water-oil or Mechanical isolation:
gas contact This is the most widely used method in
Quality of primary cement job oil fields.
 Problem Diagnostic Mechanical isolation can be in the form
of squeezing of cement to water bearing
Problem caused by casing leaks or flow behind zone and selective perforation in the zone
pipe? of interest.
Diagnostic Methods

179
 Water production through channelling presence of hydrocarbons as they would do in
behind casing that is remediated through a water environment. The net effect is a
block cementation jobs. reduction of water relative permeability by a
Isolation of water producing interval by larger factor than that of oil. Mechanical
the use of packers and plugs. In case any isolation will be required in the same way as
other layer is producing water, then a with permeability blockers. Preferred water
bridge plug and cement retainer are used base type materials are rosin wood derivatives
in conjunction to isolate the water that form a colloidal precipitate which
producing zone. agglutinates forming a gelatinous mass in the
 Use of through tubing run bridge plug presence of water. These materials do not
that is set on the top of water producing react in the presence of hydrocarbons. Other
layer to isolate it. Cement is then dumped similar materials, for use in oil based fluids
on top of bridge plug using wlreline include tetra methyl orthosilicate (TMSO) and
dump bailer. This method can be ethyl silicate.
successfully used in case the bottom most Recently new system based on viscoelastic
layers in a well is contributing water and anionic surfactant (VAS) has been introduced
can be resorted to without pulling out the for water control purpose. These systems are
string. unique, and completely different from those
use previously, with respect to placement and
 Chemical water control treatment pore plugging. VAS produces extremely shear
Chemical water control treatments are not thinning gels in the presence of cations. It can
permanent and any stimulation treatment be pumped and injected into the reservoir at
performed later in the well will partially full viscosity and high matrix rates. Once in
destroy the relative water barrier the formation pores, the viscosity could
Well conditions change with time, affecting increase as high as 100 times, thereby
water control effectiveness, and these jobs do restricting fluid movement. Hydrocarbons
not produce permanent results break VAS on contact due to the unique
 Three main types of chemical gel type chemistry of these special VAS systems and
treatment they revert to the base brine viscosity.
Permeability blockers or gellants
Disproportionate Permeability Reducers  Relative Permeability Modifiers (RPM)
(DPR) or Selective Permeability Blockers These are water soluble, hydrophilic polymer
(SPB) systems that when hydrated, produce long
Relative Permeability Modifiers (RPM) polymer chains that, in the rock, will loosely
occupy the pore spaces. Being strongly
 Permeability Blockers or Gellants hydrophilic, they attract water and repel oil
These materials plug the pore spaces and, as a net result, they exert a drag force on
preventing fluid movement, usually by means water flow in the pores with minimal effect on
of a controlled, delayed chemical reaction that oil flow. Polymers in use for this purpose
allows deep penetration of the material before included high molecular weight
it reacts to form a three dimensional to form a polyacrylamides and scleroglucons. However,
pancake type barrier. E.g. sodium silicate temperature limitations, shear sensitivity, and
solutions activated with urea esters or amino poor tolerance to calcium and magnetium ions
plast resins, latex or polymer solutions that gel undermine their effectiveness. Charged
up in response to temperature, salinity, or pH radicals have been added to polyacrelamides
to form three dimensional gels. (Poly-DMDAAC), improving their shear
sensitivity, temperature and salt tolerance as
The best known systems are based on
well as their adhesion to the rock. Idealy,
polyacrylamide crosslinked with chromium
and PAV crosslinked with glutaraldehyde. RPM materials should be liquid (hydrolysed
in water) and their concentration proportional
They are low concentration solutions pumped
to the formation permeability. RPM’s produce
in an uncross linked state, thus having low
a resistance (drag) to water flows. These
viscosity. They activate in situ, trigerred by
treatments are the safest with respect to oil
temperature and controlled by buffers to form
production maintenance and once that have
a high viscosity plugging gel. They require
placement aids to avoid plugging off the oil higher success ratio in controlling water when
placed correctly. Environmental changes such
producing zone.
as pH, salinity or drawdown pressure will
affect the effectiveness and durability of the
 DPR or Selective Permeability Blockers
treatment.
These materials also plug the pore spaces,
restricting fluid movement, but they don’t
 Chemical Treatment placement methods
precipitate, swell or viscosify as much in the
180
 Permeability blockers are usually injected  Since the compressibility of the gas serves as a
below the oil water interface or at the bottom major driving energy for oil production, excessive
of the perforated interval or in the water zone gas removal will reduce the ability of the reservoir
itself. The objective is the creation of an to produce oil.
impermeable barrier, around the well bore to
suppress vertical upward water movements.  An alternative is to conduct a workover where the
The use of mechanical diversion (a packer or well is plugged back and sidetracked with the new
retainer) is a necessity to void invasion of gel hole drilled horizontally through the lower part of
through the upper perforations or to the ones the reservoir avoiding the gas cap. In a layered
that produce oil. These gels must be reservoir, gas-producing zones can also usually be
formulated at very low concentration and be effectively squeezed off with cement.
solid free. They must be pumped at very low
rates to preferentially flow into the water  Again, most cement squeezes can be accomplished
channels, reducing gel invasion in the rock with C/T methods using through tubing tools.
matrix containing oil. However, these types of
treatments could be effective if near wellbore  The common method of controlling excessive gas
conning is the only factor inducing water coning is to squeeze the gas producing zone and
production. For channelling, or high water re-complete the well structurally down.
saturated zones in mature wells, these
treatments are always associated with a  Regardless of the control methods, constant
reduction in oil production, and are short- monitoring is required to avoid a repeat of the
lived. problem.
DPR or Selective Permeability Blockers that
only affect water relative permeability ought 6.2.8 SAND CONTROL
to be bull-headed at maximum radial rate into The incursion of formation sand into a well is one of
the formation to obtain complete zone the oldest problems plaguing the oil & gas industry
coverage. For SPM systems should be because of its adverse effect on well productivity &
effective, 10 to 20 feet radial penetration is equipment. It is normally associated with shallow,
required in the complete zone. geologically young formations that have little or no
Relative Permeability Modifier treatments are natural binding material to hold the individual sand
the best and safest to control water gains together. As a result, when the well-bore pressure
production, regardless of cause. They must is lower than the reservoir pressure, drag forces are
enter the complete zone and strongly adhere applied to the formation sands as a consequence of
to the rock. Surfactant package be fluid production. If the formation restraining forces are
incorporated into the formulation for exceeded, sand will be drawn into the well-bore.
removing heavy oil deposits in the near
wellbore and oil films in the pores spaces.  Types of formation sands
Treatments should be bull-headed radially at
maximum allowable rate below fracturing Consolidated sand
pressure. A good sign of treatment response is o Cementing agent between sand grains
an increase in treating pressure. RPM prevents sand movement
materials start working immediately after o Pore spaces between grains permits oil
contacting the rock, producing self-diversion. and gas flow
Unconsolidated sand
6.2.7 CONTROL OF GAS Quick sand
 The most common reason for excessive gas o No cementing agent, sand flows
production is the growth of the gas cap as oil is readily
produced. A gas/oil contact will gradually move
downwards causing an increase in the production Packed sand or partially consolidated
of gas. o Little cementing agent
o Cavities form around well bore
 The gas production is inevitable in all oil o Formation collapse around casing
reservoirs. As the pressure is reduced below the Friable sand
bubble point (pressure at which gas bubbles begin o Sand will crumble
to form), gas is evolved in the reservoir. o Sand gets eroded by fluid or gas
production forming large cavities
 This gas will segregate from the oil to form a gas o Formation collapse around casing
cap above the oil or increase the size of a Clayey sands
previously existing cap. o Extremely small in size
o Can swell
o Reduce permeability or completely
plug
181
 down course downstream of the well head
chokes.
 The general causes of sand production are Production rate can be optimized when a sand
tabulated in table-6.1below: probe is used. If the well yields sands at a
high production rate after producing sand free
Table- 6.1 : General Causes of sand production at a lower rate of production, the maximum
Factor Reason sand free production rate can be achieved by
Geographic & Geologically young & shallow reducing the high rate in 20% increments until
geological depth probes no longer fail, production is then
factors Miocene age sands are most increased gradually to the maximum sand free
prone to sand production rate.
Rock strength Sonic travel time ( s/ft) Sonic Probes
 > 150 Quicksand The acoustic sand probes, a development of
 > 130 Unconsolidated Mobile Oil Company, detects the noise of
 100 – 130 Semi-consolidated sand impinging on the sensor and gives signal
 70 – 110 Consolidated proportional to the amount of sand for a given
 60 – 80 Moderate hard line size, fluid density, gas oil ratio and sand
 50 - 65 Hard size. This probe is very good at showing
Fluid flow Drag by fluid flow due to fluid changes in sand production but because of the
velocity and viscosity many variables involved and its erratic
Time Decreasing reservoir pressure behavior in multiphase systems, it is difficult
dependence increases overburden stress. to calibrate accurately for more than one well
Water saturation Water production dissolves at a time.
cementing material. The probe is mounted in a surface flow line.
Thermal effect Destroys inter-granular bonds Acoustical "ringing" of impinging sand is
converted in the probe to an electrical signal
 Sand Detection Technology proportional to the energy created by the
Well Head Shakeouts impingement. The signal can be calibrated to
A well head sample of produced fluid is determine the concentration of solids in terms
placed into a graduated cylinder and of pounds per day as function of fluid
centrifuged. Sand settles to the bottom & can velocity. Both the mass concentration of
be read as a percentage of produced fluid. solids is the flow stream and the rate of sand
Although this is an accurate method for production is provided.
measurement of the sand in a given sample, it Corrocean's Sand Monitoring System
may not be representative of the actual This is advancement in the erosion kind of
overall production of sand. sand probes as it utilizes the electrical
Sand Collection Traps resistance (ER) principle to monitor material
Sand traps, such as production separators or loss resulting from sand erosion.
flow expanders, are commonly used to simply CORROCEAN offers a complete system that
knock sand out of the production stream by detects and quantifies sand production in oil
reducing the flow stream velocities. While & gas as well as in multiphase flow.
these devices are generally effective in This probe is based on measuring the change
separating sand from hydrocarbon, they are in resistance of thin sensing elements as these
not convenient for directly determining sand are eroded by the sand. The system can
production rates. measures metal loss with a resolution better
Erosion Sand Probes than 5 nanometer ( 1 nm = 10-9 m) and
The sand probe is a hollow, stainless steel transform this measured metal loss into a sand
cylinder sealed at one end. It is inserted into a production rate with high accuracy. This high
flow stream with an open end protruding from resolution is one of the key assets of the
the pipe wall. When the produced sand erodes systems, which will have almost infinite
the wall of the probe, flow stream pressure is sensitivity given a long enough measurement
transmitted to pilot valve, which closes the interval.
surface safety valve and shuts in the well. Some certain advantages are :
This equipment is an applicable primarily to
o The sand probe needs no onsite
flowing wells. It serves as a safety device, as
calibration
an aid in optimizing production rates, and as a
o It works for all possible flow patterns
tool in the selection of work-over candidates.
o It is not affected by variable noise
It has been instrumental in reducing erosion
associated with multiphase flow and
and has decreased costs, associated with
changes in production rate
equipment failures related to sand erosion.
These probes are installed on the vertical

182
 Sand Control Methods completion configuration, the three primary
There may be different ways to combat the objectives of any gravel pack are
problem of sand production which may differ o Sand Free Production
from field to field & operator to operator. Some o High Productivity
of the methods which have been used are : o Completion Longevity
Limit Production To Maximum Sand
Free Rate :
Sand control by limitation of production to
max. sand free rate can be initially
successful however, the sand free rate may
not be economically acceptable. Sand free
rate tend to decline with the depletion of the
well. In particular, the beginning of water
production may affect the max. sand free
rate. When the sand free rate is not
economical, other sand control methods will
have to be considered.
Chemical Consolidation
Sand control by "Insitu" consolidation of the
formation sand is not new & has been in use
for more than fifty years. The consolidating
material is typically a plastic resin and Figure-6.15: Gravel packing completion
various resin systems have been developed
including phenolic, epoxies & furanes.
Effective control reducing a good gravel-
Plastic consolidation can be successful;
pack design & execution, including
however for various reasons it is not popular
obtaining representative samples of the
at present. Problems include permeability
formation sand, analyzing the formation
reduction near wellbore, inability to
grain size distribution, selecting an
consistently treat all the perforations & cost
optimum gravel size in relation to formation
involved thereof.
sand size to control formation sand
Perforation Optimization & Selective movement, and using the optimum screen
Perforation : slot width to retain the' gravel. Others items
By increasing the perforation density and/or that effect the gravel pack are proper well
perforation hole size, some times the sand preparation procedures, choice of an
production can be avoided. This will effective placement techniques and
basically decrease the draw down across the implementation of procedures that will not
perforation & hence the drag force on the impair productivity. Hardware of a Gravel
reservoir rock. Also the rock strength from Pack completion involves a top packer,
the logs may be used to interpret the sanding blank pipe, metal screens, a sump packer
tendency of that formation sand. It has been and crossover tool.
suggested that the sonic log is the basic
Laboratory analysis of the formation sample
indicator thus in itself may be a predictive
is done with appropriate tests as follows:
tool & where sonic transit time exceeds 90
- Sieve Analysis
microseconds per foot, sand control is
- Clay Content & Mineralogy
frequently required. Thus selective
- Acid Solubility
perforation may be done to avoid probable
- Fluid Compatibility
sand production as far as possible.
Saucier's Design Criteria:
Gravel Packing :
The gravel should be selected on the basis
Gravel packing involves running a
of 50 percentile grain size of the smallest
mechanical device such as a screen or
productive formation sand of the core
slotted liner in the well & placing accurately
within the interval that is to be gravel
sized gravel around the screen or slotted
packed. The selected 50 percentile size of
liner (Fig-6.15). This placement allows the
the gravel should be less than six times the
entry of fluids through the gravel but filters
50 percentile size of the smallest grained
the formation sand from the flow stream so
productive formation sand size.
that sand free production is possible. In most
Saucier’s Plot :
gravel packs, however, a finite amount of
- Plot grain size vs cumulative weight
solids are produced, but they consist of the
% on semi-log paper (Figure-6.16)
very fine particle~ that can move through
- Determine median grain size i.e. 50
the gravel pack. Regardless of the
% point
183
 - Recommended median grain size of wellbore by a mechanical device called gravel
gravel : Six (6) times larger than or pack screen. Single, wire wrapped screens
equal to the median grain size of the with keystone shaped wire have been used to
formation sand i.e. D50 gravel < control sand production in oil and gas wells
or = 6 X D50 formation The design criterion of a single wire wrapped
screen is basically a function of the
relationship between gravel particle size and
SI E VE A NA LYSI S PLOT screen slot width. Ideally, slots should be as
100 wide as possible while retaining sand grains
90 without restricting flow of fluids and minute
Cumulative Wt. %

80 fines. Because all the gravel must be tightly

70
60
packed and retained, the screen slot width for
50 a gravel pack should be about one half the
40 smallest gravel diameters. The slot should not
30 be wider than 70% of the smallest gravel size
20 D50 = 0.11 diameter to avoid the production of gravel.
10
0
Theoretically, a slot width greater than 70% of
1 0.1 0.01
the smallest gravel size will retain it. Because
the flow capacities of screens are high, sizing
Sand Grain size (mm)
the slot width on the lower side will not
restrict productivity and will tend to ensure
Figure-6.16: Sieve Analysis saucier Plot
that the gravel remains outside the screen.
Selection of gravel size
o D50 point on sand grain : 0.11 Equipment for gravel pack
The GP equipment can be categorized into:
mm
o Uniformity co-efficient (D40/D90): Surface equipment that consist of:
1.71 o Tanks
o Largest gravel size (8 X D50): 0.88 o Filtering units
mm o Pumping/Blending units
o Smallest gravel size (4 X D50) : Down hole equipment comprising of:
0.44 mm o Bull plug/Shoe
o Corresponding gravel size : - 20 + o Screen
40 US mesh o Blank pipes (60' to 300')
o Selected commercial gravel : - 20 + o Tell tale screen
40 US mesh o Centralizers
o Packer
o Over-the-top system
Median size: o Cross over
o Wash pipe
- 20/40 US mesh gravel , D50 = 0.025‖
- Formation sand, D50 = 0.00433‖ Sequence of operations
(0.11mm) (From Sieve analysis using The sequence of operations in a typical
Sauciers plot) cased hole GP job hole are as follows:
Ratio : Median gravel size/ Median sand o The hole is cleared up to bottom.
size = 0.025/0.00433= 5.77 o The prospective/producing layer is
Ratio is less than 6, hence 20/40 mesh perforate/e—perforated.
gravel is suitable & will effectively stop o The casing is scraped.
formation sand. o Bridge plug is set below the
All the gravel that is used for gravel perforations with appropriate sump.
packing should meet or preferably exceed, o The kill fluid is then circulated &
all API RP58 specifications for gravel conditioned.
packing sand, including the specification o The GP assembly is then run up to
that no more than 2% of the gravel grains the required depth.
should be larger than the designated gravel o The GP packer/cross over tool is set.
size range and not more than 2% smaller o The circulating / Squeeze / Reverse
than designated gravel size grain position modes are marked.
o The gravel slurry is pumped till
screen out/pack off.
Screens
o The excess gravel is reversed out.
In gravel packing, accurately sized gravel is
used as filtering medium. The gravel is
retained in an annular region with in the
184
 o The seal assembly is then stabbed out psi above the fracture extension pressure is
and GP assembly is pulled out of normally observed.
hole.
o Well is then completed for
production. Frac Packing:
In this technique the formation is
hydraulically fractured and then packed with
Screen or Slotted liner without gravel well-designed gravels in a single treatment.
For many years liners and screens were used The treatments are designed to create
by themselves to control formation sand with relatively short highly conductive fractures in
some success. The openings of these screens reservoirs of moderate to high permeability.
were best determined by using the 10 In low permeability reservoirs producing high
percentile formation sand size as the criterion viscosity fluids, or layered reservoirs with low
for wire spacing. The liner openings should be net to gross pay intervals the technique of frac
equal to the 10 percentile sand grain size. packing has been widely successful. They
Since the larger 10 percent of the sand grains offer the advantages of fracture stimulation
will be stopped by the openings of the screen, combined with the benefits of sand control,
the remaining 90 percent of the formation and can be used to:
sand will be stopped by that larger sand.
When this technique is used to control o Bypass near wellbore damage that matrix
formation sand, the screen diameter should be stimulation treatment cannot remove.
as large as possible. o Increase formation support in compacting
reservoirs, where there is potential for
severe casing failure in perforated
Combination Chemical & Mechanical intervals.
Methods: o Vertically connect productive intervals in
These methods accomplish both mechanical thin, laminated sand-shale sequence
packing & chemical consolidation o Improve productivity in low permeability
simultaneously. These methods are often reservoirs
referred to as 'consolidated packs' & normally o Control sand production and fines
use slurry consisting of a carrier fluid, resin, migration in poorly consolidated or
coupling agent, & pack sand. The coated sand unconsolidated reservoirs.
is then pumped through the perforations o Like conventional gravel packing, fluids
where the plastic cures on the pack sand. A and proppants for frac packing are
variation of this method is a sand pre coated injected through tubing and a gravel-pack
with a partially cured phenolic resin which packer with a service tool. The suitability
can be placed like gravel & cured thermally in of treatment largely depends on the well’s
place. mechanical integrity, including its ability
For execution, the gravel pack tool is placed to withstand increased packer forces
in circulating position. Pumping is stopped resulting from the injection of cold
when 150% of the propped needed to pack the fracturing fluids, the presence of tubing
casing/screen annulus remains above the anchor, the adequacy of the perforations,
crossover tool. As a prerequisite acid job is the wellhead and tubing pressure
done prior to pumping gel. limitations and hardware requirement.
High Rate Water Pack: Frac pack is not a good treatment option
In high rate water pack jobs, gravel/water for wells in highly depleted reservoirs,
slurry is pumped above fracture pressure wells having high water/gas cuts or wells
which creates short narrow fractures. These producing in close proximity to the oil-
fractures fill up & net pressure in the wellbore water or gas-oil contact.
/ fracture increases until another portion of the
interval breaks down. If the gravel Expandable Sand Screens (ESS):
concentration in the well bore is low enough Expandable sand screen is an emerging
& the wellbore does not completely filled, completion option especially for intelligent
then this process is repeated until the well completion in sand control environment.
complete interval that can be fractured at the
available pressure & rate, are treated. This
process will fill open non-damaged
perforations & creates conductive paths
through damaged perforations by breaking
them down. Numerous pressure increases &
break backs are observed during high pressure
water packing. Pressure increase of 200-500
185
 Table-6.2: Selection Criteria of sand control

Sorting Uniformity Fine Completion

Coefficient, Coefficient, contents Option
(D10/D95 ) ( D40/D90 ) (Size < 44
µm)
< 10 <3 < 2% SAS (WWS)
<5 < 5% SAS, (Pre-
packed/
Premium )
< 20 <5 < 5% GP/ HRWP
>5 >10% Frac-pack

Figure-6.17:Expandable sand 6.2.9 Deepening:

screens (ESS) The shallow wells sometimes require deepening to tap
oil and gas from lower formation and to prevent offset
o ESS constriction comprises three drainage.
sandwiched layers; the base pipe, the  Deepening requires that all well-control
filter media and the outer protective information for drilling operations be understood
shroud (Fig.-6.17). The base pipe unlike and applied.
all other forms of mechanical sand  If the well has been on production before
inclusion technology, is slotted rather deepening, the perforations are squeezed off with
than perforated, as is the outer shroud. cement.
These slots open during expansion to  The well is then deepened, logged and tested.
accommodate the change in diameter,  When the new depth is reached, a liner is usually
while overlapped layers of filter media run from a point above the bottom of the casing to
slide across each other to maintain sand total depth.
integrity. The use of slots allows  This liner is cemented in place and the well is
expansion ratios up to 80% greater than perforated in the new interval.
the original diameter and provides a  The new formation is then put on production after
larger inflow area than perforated pipes. run a packer and tubing.
o ESS has the ability to control sand
production without a pack and in addition 6.2.10 Side Tracking:
overcomes the plugging and erosion Sidetracking is a way to abandon or bypasses the lower
problems of sand alone screens. The best part of an existing well.
application of ESS is sandface  Many reasons for sidetracking exist:
completion in high angle or horizontal o Damaged or collapsed casing
wells. In openhole application, ESS o Irretrievable junk in the hole
eliminates the annulus between the screen o A damaged production zone in the old well
and the sandface. Therefore it stabilizes o A less depleted drainage area lying adjacent to
the sandface and minimizes the a depleted drainage area.
movement, thus reducing the sand failure  To sidetrack an old well, the first step is to cut a
and screen erosion caused by sand window in the old well’s casing.
production.  When cutting a window in an old well, it is easier
to cut the casing if it is backed up with good
sheath of cement.
 Selection criteria of sand control option  If no cement is opposite side of the window,
cement should be squeezed and circulated into
Selection of sand control options suggested by D place.
L Tiffin & G E King is given in table-6.2.  A window is cut into the casing after the kickoff
tool or a whip stock packer is set at the proper
depth.
 Drilling is then directed out of the hole and to the
desired location by setting the tapered whip stock
at different point to change the route of the new
hole.
 When the desired depth or targets are reached, the
new hole is logged and a liner is run and cemented
in place.

186
 Completion is then carried out in the normal Bean housing is to be tightly closed after cleaning.
manner with a packer and tubing. Proper tool must be employed for tightening the
bean housing.
6.2.11 Plugging and Abandonment: Flow arm valve should be opened followed by
 A time comes in the life of every well when it will immediate opening of line valve.
never be produced again or when it is
uneconomical to continue production. 6.3.2 Tubing Scrapping
 An operator can simply close the master valves on Regular scrapping of tubing is necessary to
the Christmas tree and declares the well maintain desired level of production in case of
abandoned. paraffinic oil. As oil and gas moves up in the
 There are many reasons, however why simply tubing from bottom, there is reduction in
closing valves to abandoned a well is not good temperature due to heat loss. Also reduction of
practice: pressure results in evolution of solution gas which
If the well is left as it is, the casing eventually further causes cooling effect. As a result, paraffin
deteriorates and fluid migrates from the one starts separating out from oil at certain depth.
zone to another. Normally deposition of paraffin is up to about
Pressured formation eventually contaminates 300-500 meter depth from wellhead.
fresh water zones. Tubing scrapping is a mechanical means of
Blowout could occur; creating pollution and removing paraffin deposited on inner walls of
endangering lives. tubing. The system consists of following
Abandoned well located offshore could components:
become navigation hazards. o Scrapping winch
 In effective abandoned practice, the producing o Piano wire
perforations are squeezed cemented. o Scrappers of various sizes
The required cement plug is placed in the o Sinker bar
casing and the tubing, or work string, is o Lubricator
pulled out of the hole. o Stuffing box
Often the upper, uncemented portion of the o Piano wire, scrapper and sinker bar from
casing are cut off and recovered; then cement scrapping assembly.
plugs are set in the upper area of the hole. The following steps are required to be taken
The wellhead is removed, as required by during scrapping:
most regulations. o Lubricator is fitted on top of crown valve ofX-
mas tree.
6.3 WELL MAINTENANCE OPERATIONS o Cap of the lubricator is removed and scrapper
Remedial operations are carried out in wells to assembly is lowered inside lubricator while
maintain desired level of production consistently. crown valve is closed. Stuffing box is fitted
These operations include:- firmly on lubricator. Crown valve of X-mas
 Bean cleaning tree is opened and assembly is lowered
 Tubing scrapping slowly.
 Flow line flushing o In case obstruction is felt while lowering, the
 Oil circulation scrapper is moved up and down to give a soft
 Steaming hammering effect. In case scrapper assembly
 Nitrogen application does not go down even after hammering, the
 CTU operation same should be pulled out and smaller size of
scrapper should be lowered. While lowering,
6.3.1 Bean Cleaning the wire should always be in tension to avoid
The following precautions should be taken in bean any twisting.
cleaning operations:- o After lowering scrapper assembly up to the
Flow arm valve should be closed, followed by desired depth, the same should be pulled out
closing of flowline valve. slowly with the help of power of scrapping
Trapped line pressure should be released by winch.
opening sample cock valve. Bean housing should o Tentiometer or weight indicators and depth
be removed only after releasing the line pressure meter fitted on winch should be in working
completely. Bean housing should be opened condition and should be monitored during the
slowly. job.
Bean should be cleaned properly and refitted. o Pulling out should be done at slow and steady
Cleaning of bean should be done by soft cotton rate.
soaked in cleaner. No hard /sharp tools should be o After scrapper assembly reaches at top and
used which can damage the bean inside the lubricator, crown valve should be
profile/surface/contour. closed and trapped pressure in lubricator be
Sample cock valve should be closed. released through cock valve in the lubricator.

187
 Cap of lubricator is unscrewed after release of tubing. However in case of sand removal, the oil at
pressure and scrapper assembly is then ambient temperature is pumped from annulus to
removed. tubing.
o Length of lubricator should always be more  In case of wells completed with packer, oil
than the length of scrapper assembly. circulation jobs are taken up with coil tubing unit
o During scrapping the well should be kept in (CTU).
flowing condition. In case of severe  Following precautions should be taken while
deposition of paraffin, the bean size in the carrying out oil circulation.
well should be increased suitably for a period In case return fluid is collected at GGS, prior
of 2 to 3 hrs. to remove cutting of paraffin intimation should be given to GGS for taking
during scrapping. up return fluid separately.
o Assembly of sinker bar and scrapper with In case the return fluid is to be taken in the
wire should be made by an experienced well pit, the flow line laid from well to the pit
operator only. should be properly anchored.
o Bean/choke of well taken for scrapping should At no stage should pumping pressure exceed
invariably be checked before and after the test pressure of casing or fracturing
scrapping as paraffin cuttings are likely to pressure of formation.
plug the bean. Bean/choke should be removed while carrying
o Scrapping operations should not be carried out out oil circulation and it should be installed as
on non-flowing wells or during the night. soon as well become active.

 Hot Water Circulation:

6.3.3 Flowline Flushing It is similar to hot oil circulation. Hot water
 Deposition of paraffin and sand etc. in flow line has advantage of having higher heat (thermal)
increases pressure loss and hence increases capacity, no fire or explosion hazard and is
downstream pressure of choke/bean. Increase in easier to handle.
downstream pressure beyond certain limit reduces Circulation of hot water should normally be
the production rate of well. Therefore periodical avoided because of the following reasons:
flushing of line to keep the line pressure within the o It is not a solvent for paraffin
limit is essential. Flowline flushing should be o Chances of emulsion formation
taken as a preventive measure rather than o Chances of well getting subdued due to
remedial. accumulation of water in tubing thereby
 Following precautions should be taken while requiring activation.
carrying out line flushing with hot oil/water: o Possible damage of some formations due
o After bean pressure should be recorded before to clay swelling.
taking up flushing job.
o Well should be closed just before flushing 6.3.5 Steaming
(Intimation to concerned production  Steaming is the one of the methods for removal of
installation should be given regarding closing paraffin from tubing and Flowline. Steam is used
of well and staring of flushing operation). to heat the paraffin for making it soft and easily
o Pumping unit line should be tested at pressure removable. Portable steam boilers, taken to well
higher than maximum anticipated pressure. site, should have all safety devices as required by
o Pumping should be started at slow rate and boiler act and be inspected as per IBR act from
increased gradually. time to time. Boiler operators, deployed for
o Pumping pressure should not exceed the steaming operation, should have valid IBR
tested pressure of flowline. certificates.
o Pumping should be continuous and  Steaming of flowlines
uninterrupted. The following steps should be taken while
o Well should be opened immediately after steaming flow lines:
completion of flushing operation.
Record ABP of well
o ABP should again be recorded after
Keep mobile unit at a safe distance
completion of flushing.
Lay the steam line with NRV and test it at a
pressure higher than tested pressure of flow
6.3.4 Oil / Water Circulation
line
 Oil circulation job in wells are taken up to clear
any obstruction in tubing due to paraffin and sand. Do not close the well while steaming flow
Oil circulation job is also taken up to remove line.
accumulated water in tubing for activation and In case of longer flow line, steam injection in
removal of gas lock or pump jamming of SRP. the line should be carried out at more than one
 For removal of paraffin, normally hot oil point. For this purpose steaming points are
circulation job is taken up. Oil is heated up to 50 given in flowline at the time of laying line.
to 60 degree Celsius and pumped from annulus to
188
 Steaming of flowline should invariably be In case well does not become active after
followed by line flushing with oil to remove removal of paraffin, it should be activated by
molten paraffin. application of nitrogen.
In case of multiple points steaming, it should After well starts flowing, mechanical
be started from the steam points near the scrapping of tubing should be taken up with
installation side and the operation should be suitable size of scrapper to remove left over
moved towards well side in stages. paraffin on the wells of tubing.
Steaming should not be taken up in the line
which has severe deposition. 6.3.7 Coiled Tubing Unit
The Coiled Tubing Unit (CTU) is a second-generation
 Steaming of wells hydraulic system for well servicing under pressure. It is
Steaming in wells is carried out to remove paraffin a versatile tool and its use has many advantages such
deposited on inside walls of tubing. Steam is as:
applied through annulus. It heats outer surface of Allows live well servicing.
tubing and heat is transferred to inside of tubing by Since kill fluid is not used, there is no formation
conduction. This softens the paraffin scale, which damage
is removed during oil circulation and scrapping. Allows circulation while RIH & POOH
 This method is applicable for wells where annulus Faster method with maximum handling speed of
is not packed off. 250 ft/min.
 The following steps should be taken in steaming of Only method for packer completed wells.
wells: Logging & perforating of highly deviated wells.
 Annulus pressure should be recorded. If it is more
than working pressure of boiler, annulus gas Due to its numerous advantages, the CT has been used
should be bleed off to bring the pressure in diverse applications.
sufficiently below to that of working pressure of Some of the applications of CT are:
boiler.
 NRV should be fitted on steaming line which Conventional CT Applications
should be set at higher pressure than maximum o Jetting for bottom clean out, screen clean out
working pressure of boiler. and foam clean out
 Annulus valve should be opened only when line o Activation for production
pressure of steam becomes higher than annulus o Paraffin removal
pressure. o Stimulation
 Steaming should be done continuously without o Emergency Well control
any interruption.
Advanced CT Applications
 It should be followed by oil circulation and
o Packer setting
scrapping, if required.
o Use of PD Motor for Scale Removal
o Velocity String Completion
6.3.6 Coiled Tubing Unit for De waxing of tubing o Cementation
 Coiled tubing unit (CTU) is used with hot oil or
o Zone Isolation
hot water for removal of paraffin. This is
o Zone Evaluation
especially useful in wells where annulus is isolated
Specialized CT Applications
with a packer.
o Logging and Perforations
 Hot oil or hot water is pumped through coil tubing
o Sand Control
and taken out from annulus of CT and tubing. Oil
o Drilling Side tacking, window cutting, under-
temperature is normally kept at 60 to 70 degree
balanced and multilateral wells
Celsius. Circulation of hot oil and lowering of
o Cleaning of Flow lines
CTU should be taken up simultaneously.
o Servicing of Horizontal Wells
 The following precautions should be taken during
o However, CT has certain limitations. Some of
operation:
them are listed below:
Tubing BOP is to be installed and tested prior
 Lower yield strength of the pipe which
to starting the job.
limits its use in certain special
Circulation of oil should be done at maximum applications
possible rate and lowering of CTU should be  Pumping pressures through CT. Normally
done slowly so as to avoid stuck up. CT of 1 1/2" and 1 1/4" size are used with
Circulation should be maintained at least for typical pumping pressure limits of 7500
two hours after reaching the desired depth and 5000 psi
(normally 100 meters below the paraffin  Can be safely used where wellhead
deposition zone) pressures are up to 2500 psi
Extreme care should be taken while handling  CT string cannot be rotated
hot oil. Fire-fighting equipment should be In spite of these limitations, the use of CT has
kept as stand by. become very popular in recent years and this has
189
 largely contributed to the induction of CT-friendly hydraulic fluid. The Coil Tubing Well Control
completions in oil industry. Assembly Rig up is shown in.
The following sections describe the basic CT
equipments and its application in stimulation jobs. Down hole tools:
Other well services related applications of CT are Down hole tools of some-type are used on
discussed under relevant chapters. almost all coiled tubing operations. Most tools
can be categorized in to:
 Basic CTU Equipment o Primary tools such as CT connectors and
The CT system comprises of following check valves that are essential for any CT
equipments: operation and are hence invariably used.
Tubing reel o Support tools such as release joint and jar
The CT reel is used to store and transport the to enhance or support the basic tool string
coil tubing. The major components of CT reel functions or provide a contingency
include reel drum, reel drive system, level release function.
wind assembly, reel swivel and manifold. o Functional tools are some special tools
that are selected to perform a particular
Injector operation such as wash over tools, jetting
The injector allows the CT to be run in or out tools etc.
of the well. Major injector—head components
include hydraulic motors; drive chains, chain  Stimulation Jobs through CT
tensioners, gooseneck or guide-arch and The stimulation jobs, mainly acid applications:-
weight indicator. and nitrogen placement, are carried out through
CT because:
Pressure Control Equipment Eliminates requirement of rig
The pressure control equipment consists of No need of killing the well
stuffing box, stripper elements and BOP of Increases production tubing's life
various designs depending on a particular Facilitates accurate placement
application. Spent acid removal is easier & faster
The stripper is designed to provide a pressure- Provides continuous well control
tight seal or pack-off around the coil tubing as
it is being run or pulled out of a well under However, stimulation job through CT has certain
pressure conditions. This seal is achieved by following limitations:
energizing the stripper packer that forces the High concentrations of acid cannot be pumped.
inserts to seal against the tubing. The BOP Maximum Working Pressure limited to 5000
consists of blind rams, shear rams, slip rams, psi.
pipe rams, equalizing valves, top and bottom
CT life reduces to 1/3 rd.
connections etc.
Through CT only Matrix Acidisation can be
The BOP rams are hydraulically operated
done and not Acid Fracturing.
from the control cabin using the BOP
hydraulic circuit and accumulator. The
 The use of CT in high-pressure wells requires
accumulator provides a reserve of hydraulic
additional considerations with regard to pressure
energy to enable the BOP to be operated
control equipment, burst & collapse rating of the
following an engine shutdown or circuit
CT, capability of injector head to push the CT
failure.
against high wellhead pressures and possibility of
CT buckling.
Control console
 During CT operation in high-pressure wells, the
The control console is used to continuously
collapse of CT can be avoided by using smaller
monitor the operational parameters of various
diameter, heavy walled CT and maintaining
components of the CT system. pressure inside CT. In addition, the CT is run
without check valves to prevent emptying of the
Power pack string.
The power pack provides the hydraulic energy
to operate, the CTU functions and controls.  Safety & Precautions during CTU Operations
Generally, it consists of a diesel engine The following safety precautions need to be
driving an array of hydraulic pumps supplying adhered to during CT jobs:
each system or circuit with the required • Position the unit in upwind direction.
pressure and flow rate. The major components • Units must be fitted with spark arrestor.
of power pack include engine, pumps, • Check BOP and stripper.
pressure control valves, hydraulic reservoir, • Perform pressure test.
filters & strainers, heat exchanger and • Do not exceed 5,000 psi pressure on CT.
• Check the condition of crane.
190
 • Ensure availability of first aid box & Safety o 5AX :P-105
kit. C-75 and L-80 are suitable for H2S service; L
• Never use rubber flow lines. grade steel further has hardness restriction of
• Don't allow visitor in operator's cabin. not exceeding 23 HRC.
• Operate in day time only.  Colour Code:
• Before starting, ensure controls are in proper J-55 - Green
position. K - 55 - Two green
• Do not design for circulating pr. > 3,500 psi. C - 75 - Blue
• Do not RIH CT @ > 30ft/min. L - 80 - Red with brown band.
• Do not allow CT to stay stationary. N-80 - Red
• Do not RIH, if circulation stops.
C- 95- Brown
• Do not stop pumping till CT is POOH.
P - 105 - White.
• Do not wash out very fast.
• Use check valves in live wells.
 Tubing Connections
• Pressure across CT should be < 1,500 psi.
Standard API Coupling:
• For proper maintenance of CT, Acid
API Non-upset (NU)
Corrosion inhibitor must be used in acid job.
o 10 round thread form
• Crude oil must be flushed out after de waxing
o Joints have less strength than pipe body.
job.
• Never try to squeeze cement while cement is API External upset (EUE)
still in CT. o 8 round thread form
o joint has greater strength than pipe body.
CT Job Planning
The planning for a CT job must consider various Extra Clearance Coupling
factors such as wellhead and flow line o without loss of joint strength.
connections, dimensions of down hole tools, well o have greater clearance for critical
depth and pressure, tools required for carrying out applications.
intended job etc. After careful consideration of all Internal Joint Connection
such factors, a job is designed. Several soft wares o have greater clearance.
are available for this purpose that enable to carry o there is no separate coupling.
out: -  Premium Joints
o Pre job simulation o have metal to metal seals, much higher
o Post job evaluation pressure rating than API joints,
o Fatigue analysis. o suitable for high pressure/corrosive
o Force and stress analysis environments ,
o Buckling o various types are available.
o Life of CT o used in special cases like gas wells

6.4 GENERAL WORKOVER PRACTICES  Care and Handling of Tubing

6.4.1 Tubing and Drill pipe Handling All tubing whether new, used, or
reconditioned, should always be handled with
 Handling of tubular thread protectors in place.
Tubing and drill pipes are major equipment Elevators should be in good conditions and
used in workover. The operating personnel should have links of equal length. .
should be made aware about their material Tubing tongs which will not crush the tubing
and physical properties. should be used on the body of the tubing and
The following API standards pertain to should fit properly.
tubular: The length of each piece of tubing shall be
API specification 5 A - Casing, tubing and measured prior to running in.
drill pipe. Do not remove thread protector from field end
API specification 5 B - restricted yield until ready to stab.
strength casing and tubing. Stab vertically, preferably with assistance of
API specification 5 AX - High strength man on stabbing board. .
casing, tubing and drlllpipe After stabbing, start screwing by applying
API Bulletin 5 C 2 -Performance properties of regular or power tubing tongs slowly.
casing and tubing Joint life of tubing under repeated make-up is
API Bulletin 5 C 1 -Care and use of casing inversely proportional to the make-up torque
and tubing. applied. Therefore, in wells where leak
The normal API Steel grades for tubing are resistance is not a great 'factor, minimum
o 5A :H- 40, J-55, K-55, N-80. torque values should be used to prolong joint
o 5AC :C-75, L-80, C-95. life.

191
 Finding well bottom should be accomplished Avoid putting excessive weight on drill pipe,
with extreme caution. Do not set down tubing while drilling. .
heavily. Some of the recommended practices of
Break-out tongs should be positioned close to handling tubing are also applicable to drill
the coupling. Hammering the coupling to pipes.
break the joint is an undesirable practice.
6.4.2 Care and Handling of Wire Rope
Great care should be exercised to disengage
all the threads before lifting the tubing out of  Wire ropes- have many applications in workover.
the coupling. Do not jump tubing out of the Main applications of wire rope includes-
coupling. casing line system for lifting loads,
Tubing stacked in the derrick should be set on Hoisting of mast,
a firm wooden platform and without the Safety line,
bottom thread protector since the design of Guy ropes for mast,
most protectors is not such as to support the Slings for lifting and dragging.
joint or stand without damage to the field  Construction
thread.
Tubing set back in the derrick should be Wire rope is made from cold drawn carbon steel,
properly supported to prevent undue bending. of various grades, depending •on the strength
When tubing is stuck, use a calibrated weight required. The API classifies various grades as
indicator. Do not be misled, by stretching of follows:
the tubing string, into the assumption that the Extra improved plow steel (EIPS),
tubing is free. Improved plow steel (IPS)
 Drill Pipes Plow steel (PS)
Drill pipe is used to:
Mild plow steel (MPS)
Transmit power by rotary motion from ground  The first two higher grades are used for rugged
level to the bottom of the hole for drilling. services.
Convey flushing media to the cutting face of  Wire rope is usually described by type of core, the
the tool. number of strands wrapped around the core, and
API Recommended practice API RP 76 gives the number of individual wires per strand.
guidelines for pipe classes.  The lay of the rope describes the direction of the
Drill pipe is available in several length ranges. strands wrapped around the core and the direction
Range: Length, ft. of the wire rope within the strands. The strands can
o 18-22 be right or left lay.
o 27-30  Care of Wire Rope in service
o 38-40 Factor of safety: The factor of safety should
o However, range 2 is most common. be determined by the following formula:
 Handling Drill Pipe
Use only rotary table slips with fine Factor of safety = B/W
serrations, in order to prevent circumferential Where:
cuts on the drill pipe.
Slip cut, or excessively scratched drill pipe B= Nominal breaking strength of the wire
should be immediately discarded. rope, in pounds,
Drill pipe bent in handling or in use should be W= Calculated total static load, in pounds
straightened before re-running.
Kelly should be maintained perfectly straight When a wire rope is operated close to its
at all times. minimum factor of safety, care should be
In handling stands of drill pipe, note carefully taken that the rope and related equipment are
the condition of the shoulder of the box and in good operating condition. For minimum
pin of the tool joint. Slight burrs extending factor of safety refer API recommended
into the face of the shoulder should be filed practice 9 B.
off. Wire rope life varies with the factor of safety.
Box and pin connections should be made up Therefore, longer rope life can generally be
to the required tightness. When drill string expected when relatively high factors of safety
becomes stuck, it is necessary before giving a are maintained.
hard pull to be sure that the weight indicator is The wire rope service is dependent on number
in good working order, since there is of stress reversals. Therefore, wire rope
sufficient power in the draw works to stretch service should be calculated before start of
small sizes of drill pipe considerably. operations at new well to ensure that it has not
Discard lengths that are thin, or that have thin exceeded its limit.
couplings or tool joints, and avoid the use of Winding on Drums: rope should be kept
severely worn kelly subs. tightly and evenly wound on the drums.
192
 Application of Loads: sudden, severe stresses o Formation Density
are injurious to wire rope and such o Formation Porosity
applications should be reduced to a minimum. o Acoustic Travel Time
Excessive speeds when blocks are running up o Formation Pressure /Fluid
may damage wire rope. For existing drum Sampling/Coring
conditions a maximum rope speed of 4000 fl;
of rope travel per minute for hoisting or  Natural Gamma Ray
lowering is recommended. Earth formations are radioactive due to
Care should be taken to see that the clamps presence of naturally occurring radioactive
used to fasten the rope for dead ending do not isotopes of Uranium, Thorium and Potassium
kink, flatten, or crush the rope. Gamma Ray logging measures the natural
Wire ropes are well lubricated at the factory Gamma radiations
and have a certain amount of reservoir Applications:
lubricant. If no lubricant is apparent, ropes o To identify permeable zones, lithology
may he lubricated with a good grade of o Shale volume calculation
lubricant which will penetrate and adhere to o Well depth correlation
the rope, and which is free from acid or alkali.
Roughly worn drums may cause excessive  Formation Resistivity
wear on the rope. Resistivity is the physical property of a
All sheaves should be in proper alignment. formation which impedes the flow of electric
current. Resistivity is measured by the
6.4.3 WELL LOGGING Resistivity Logging Tools like DLL, HRI,
HRAI etc.
Well Logging is the technique of making petro Based on Induction or Latero-log (current
physical measurements in the sub-surface earth focus) principle
formations through the drilled borehole in order to Applications
determine both the physical and chemical o Determine the True Resistivity of the
properties of rocks and the fluids they contain. formation and depth of invasion.
 The primary objectives of the wire line o Indicate the presence of movable
logging are hydrocarbons
The identification of reservoir
 Formation Density measurement
The estimation of hydrocarbon in place.
Formation Bulk Density is measured by the
The estimation of recoverable
Density Logging Tool
hydrocarbon.
Tool uses high energy gamma ray source
(Cesium 137, 1.5 Curie) to allow interaction
 Well Logging Techniques
of gamma rays with formation atoms
Well Logging Measurements are carried out Applications:
through the drilled borehole, may be either an o Determine accurate formation porosity
Open Hole or a Cased Hole o identify lithology
Open Hole: All basic petro physical o delineate thin beds
measurements for Formation Evaluation o indication of gas when used in
Cased Hole: Measurements mostly combination with a neutron log
concern with Reservoir Development &
Production  Neutron Porosity Measurement
Porosity can be estimated from a variety of
 Basic Formation Evaluation ―porosity logs‖ (sonic, density, neutron, or
magnetic resonance log)
To estimate Hydrocarbon potential of a reservoir, Neutron porosity logging is a nuclear
we need to know technique based on neutron-nuclei interactions
Porosity in the borehole environment. Neutrons are
Permeability emitted into the formation by an external
Water Saturation Neutron source (Am Be 241, 18.5 Curie)
Well Logging measurements aim at determining mounted on the tool.
these three main Petro physical parameters of the Applications:
earth formation o To measure total porosity of formation
for saturation calculation
 Basic Well Logging Petro physical o Gas detection in conjunction with density
Measurements: log
o Natural Gamma Radioactivity
o Formation Resistivity  Acoustic (Sonic) Logging
193
 Based on propagation of sound waves in the
reservoir rock matrix and fluid filled pores Applications:
Measures a number of formation sonic o Detailed stratigraphic and
parameters like compressional & shear sedimentological analysis
velocities and travel time using both o Thin bed delineation
monopole and dipole transmitters & receivers o Potential secondary porosity
Uses: identification & Fracture analysis
o Find porosity, identify lithology, gas o Quantitative high-resolution resistivity
detection for improved net pay estimation
o study rock mechanical properties, o Fault mapping & general structural
anisotropy analysis Analysis
o seismic correlation & AVO study
o Hydro-fracture evaluation etc.  Cased Hole Logging Techniques
Cased hole logs are run to assess well
 Magnetic Resonance Imaging Logging (MRIL)
integrity, improve reservoir management and
Like its counterpart in Medical sciences,
scan the well for bypassed production before
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)
plugging and abandoning.
technology is used in well logging to find:
o Total fluid-filled porosity  Basic Cased Hole operations include:
o Provide fluids-only measurement Cased Hole Completion Logs
o Identify low-resistivity pay within Production Logging
immovable water volumes Cased Hole Formation Evaluation Logs
o Determine Permeability, fluid types and  Cased Hole completion Logs include:
fluid contacts
Cement Bond Log : To evaluate quality
of cement bond between casing to cement
 Carbon/Oxygen (C/O) Logging Technique and formation to cement
Carbon/Oxygen (C/O) Logging is a pulsed
Gamma ray Log & Casing Collar Log:
neutron logging technique for monitoring and
For depth correlation
managing the production of hydrocarbon
Neutron Log: To know oil-water contact
reserves.
Pulsed Neutron Log: For reservoir
Used widely to:
saturation determination
o Accurately determine oil and gas
saturations Temperature Log : For cement top
o Identify bypassed reserves determination
o Pinpoint fluid contacts
o Identify lithology and mineralogy  Casing Collar Locator
o Detect water flow behind casing Pipe The CCL detects casing collars and
perforations in tubing and casing.
 Electrical Micro Imaging Technique
Based on measurement of formation micro Description
conductivity with pad-mounted button
electrodes (Fig-6.18). The CCL is a magnetic devices that
Provides a core-like image of the borehole detects changes in metal mass, such as
wall with direction and orientation those induced by the relatively high mass
of a casing collar vis-a vis the casing.
The disturbance to the magnetic field is
detected as a voltage difference.
The CCL detects changes in metal
volume as it moves through tubing or
casing.
The tool detector is comprised of a coil
mounted between two opposing
permanent magnets. As the tool passes a
collar, the lines of magnetic flux between
the magnets are disturbed, inducing a low
frequency voltage in the coil. The signal
is amplified and gated onto the wire line.
Purpose: To determine the location of
casing collars.
Figure-6.18: electrical Micro-imaging Tool Applications: Depth correlation.

194
  Cement Bond Logging o Tool Deviation
o Relative azimuth
The main purpose of cement over the o Real‐time chamber temperature
production interval is to provide isolation o Real time spot interpretations
between neighboring zones. Features and Applications
Failure in isolation can cause problems like o Internal tubing and casing inspection
water production, depletion of gas drive o 3D visualization tools aids interpretation
mechanism, loss of production to neighboring of the data:
zones, contamination of fresh water sands etc. o Verifying well construction
o Mapping perforations
Description o Identifying casing drilling damage
o Easy assembly and disassembly for
The CBT evaluates cement bond preventive maintenance and repair
integrity. The tool typically has a single o Hardened fingertip for long service life
omnidirectional acoustic transmitter and o Combinable with Casing Inspection Tool
two receivers. One receiver at three feet for internal and external corrosion
and another receiver at 5 feet. The tool analysis
has no azimuthal capability; instead the
received signal is an average from all  PRODUCTION LOGGING
around the pipe.
An accurate knowledge of the potential production
Principle of any well site is absolutely essential to avoid by-
passing a good well or the waste of thousands of
The CBT measures based upon the
dollars in the attempted production of a non-
principle of sonic wave train attenuation,
commercial well.
detecting the amplitude of a sonic signal
passing along the casing as an analog Production logging is undertaken to provide
waveform. The signal is reduced where information on downhole production activity.
the casing is bonded to the cement, Downhole malfunctions are often not detectable
clearly identifying cement bond. The by surface measurement. Logging equipment is
primary amplitude is detected at 3 feet lowered through tubing to make accurate
receiver and variable density log is measurements under actual operating conditions.
generated at 5 feet receiver. These measurements are recorded on equipment at
the surface and are interpreted by trained
Purpose: Cement bond integrity is specialists.
requisite to hydraulic isolation.
Applications: Cement bond evaluation Production logs provide basic information on
. well activity including:
 Multi‐Finger Caliper (MFC)  Evaluation of the Production Mechanism
The Multi‐Finger Caliper (MFC) has 24 to 56 o Information concerning field-
high resolution calipers which measures the reservoir behavior.
internal radii of the wellbore tubing and o Production profiles.
casing. Accurate measurements can be made o Correlation of active zones.
in tubular sizes from 1.75 inches to 13.8 o Performance of pressure maintenance,
inches in diameter (with extended fingers kit). gas storage, gas cycling and steam
The MFC uses a series of ―contactless‖ flood projects.
displacement sensors and a corresponding  Evaluation of the Mechanical System in
number of measurement fingers. When New and Old Wells
moving along the inner casing wall, the radial o Integrity of packers, plugs, tubing,
displacement will be changed into an axial casing and cement.
displacement of the sensor, which is then o Location and performance of
processed, coded, and transferred to surface perforations.
system where the image of the casing will be o Performance of artificial lift.
obtained.  Diagnosis of Production Problems in
The MFC can be used to detect casing Flowing or Pumping Wells
deformation, bending, fractures, holes, scale o Problems resulting from too little
deposition, paraffin build‐up, and inner wall production.
corrosion with high accuracy. o Problems resulting from the wrong
o 24/40/56 Arms kind of production.
o Max, Min, and Average borehole o Logs run early in the life of a well or
diameter curves reservoir to aid in the analysis of
o Temperature Curve future problems.

195
  Evaluation of Injection Systems casing. The transmitter-receiver spacing
o Determination of injection profiles. for the amplitude curve is three feet. This
o Evaluation of stimulation operations. amplitude is maximum in unsupported
 Tools for Reservoir Auditing pipe, and minimum in well cemented
Gamma Ray Logging casing.
 Uses: o The variable density log (VDL) is a
o To log lithology changes through steel useful companion to the CBL. It provides
pipe. information about the quality of the
o To provide accurate depth control when formation bonding. The transmitter-
run with a casing collar locator. receiver spacing for the VDL is five feet.
o To locate radioactive tracers. o CBL/VDL logging achieves a high
o To indicate shale content in sands. degree of reliability because of the
 Principles of operation. efficiency and repeatability of the sound
transducers, the accurate calibration of
The gamma ray instrument measures the the measuring system, and the
variations of natural radioactivity of the quantitative interpretation methods which
formations. Since shales are generally more have been developed. A gamma ray log
radioactive than sands, the gamma ray log may be run simultaneously with the
often resembles closely the spontaneous CBL/VDL.
potential curve-thus providing another log for Dual spacing TDT
correlation studies and for lithology, depth,  Uses:
and bed thickness determinations. o To locate hydrocarbons behind pipe.
o To correlate with other cased-hole or
Neutron Logging
open—hole logs.
 Uses:
o To monitor reservoirs.
o To log lithology through steel pipe.
o To evaluate fluid saturations.
o To obtain an index of porosity.
o To provide porosity data thru-casing.
o To locate gas—liquid contacts.
o To provide fluid type identification.
o To log formation depth and thickness.
 Principle of Operation.
o To monitor gas storage wells.
o A neutron generator in the sonde
 Principles of Operation.
repeatedly emits pulses of high-energy
The neutron log is the recording of powerful neutrons. Following each burst the
gamma rays of capture, which are induced by neutrons are rapidly slowed down in the
the bombardment of neutrons from a source in hole and formation to thermal velocities.
the tool. The major variations in the neutron o They are then captured by nuclei with
curve are caused by changes in the hydrogen corresponding emission of gamma rays.
concentration within the formations. Thus the Relative changes in the thermal neutron
neutron log, when used in conjunction with population in the media are sampled by a
the gamma ray or other logs, supplies data for gamma-ray detector placed at a short
evaluation of possibly productive horizons. distance from the source. During the
period of measurement the thermal
 Gamma Ray-Neutron Logging neutron population decreases
exponentially.
The gamma ray and neutron logging tools can be
o The thermal decay time measurement T is
run in combination to give a simultaneous
the corresponding decay time constant.
recording of both parameters.
The decrease is due to either neutron
Cement Bond Variable Density Logging capture or neutron migration. The capture
 Uses: process is by far the most important in
o To determine the effectiveness of the producing thermal neutron decay. Hence
cement sheath in the casing-formation T reflects essentially the neutron capture
annulus. properties in the formation. T is related to
o To check effectiveness 0f squeeze Sigma which is the capture cross section.
cementing. o The dual spacing TDT has a second
o To check possible damage to cement by detector which also provides porosity
high pressure testing or injection. information and in conjunction with the
o To locate the cement top. first detector a count-rate display for fluid
o To study various cementing techniques. identification. A quality curve is also
 Principles of Operation. provided to check the validity of the
o The CBL curve is a continuous sigma curve and the ratio curve which
measurement of the amplitudes of sound provides the porosity information.
pulses after they have traveled a length of Pipe Inspection Logging

196
 Uses: can be detected by a gamma ray log run
o To locate corrosion damage in casing. just after perforating.
o To evaluate economic life remaining in o The treat fluid washes away the
casing. radioactive material during injection and
o To monitor effectiveness of anti— a second gamma ray log, run after
corrosion systems. treating, indicates, by comparison to the
 Principles of Operation. first log, which of the perforations took
o The pipe inspection logging tool is fluid during treatment.
composed basically of a sonde with two
coils. The upper (transmitter) coil generates Formation Interval Tester
an electromagnetic field in the borehole,  The formation interval tester provides a safe,
casing and formation. economical and reliable method for testing a
o For all practical purposes, only the field potential producing zone behind casing. It is
passing through the casing in front of the an excellent companion service to the thermal
coils and through the medium behind the neutron decay time log. All necessary
casing between the coils creates an operations are accomplished with a single trip
electromotive force into the lower (receiver) in the hole with the tool.
coil. This electromotive force is out of  These operations include:
phase with the transmitted signal. o Correlation or casing collar logging.
o This difference in phase is recorded and is o Perforating.
proportional to the average thickness of the o Sealed sampling of reservoir fluids
casing in front of both coils. suitable for PVT analysis.
o Changes in average casing thickness can o Surface recording of pressure records for
generally be attributed to corrosion or other entire test.
damage. o Squeeze cementing of test perforations if
o Interpretation is greatly enhanced by having desired.
a base log, run early in the life of the casing,  Uses:
for comparison with subsequent logs. o To identify fluid in potential pays.
o To determine gas—oil ratios.
Precision Identified Perforating o To obtain oil gravity.
 Use: o To locate gas-oil or oil-water contacts.
o To provide a record of the position of o To measure reservoir and hydrostatic
perforations with respect, to casing pressures.
collars and/or formation boundaries.  Principles of Operation.
 Principles of Operation. o Placement of the tester is controlled by
o Special shaped charges fired at top and use of a casing collar log or a gamma ray
bottom of the perforated section leave log, either of which can be run with the
traces of radioactive material within the tool. A hydraulic multiplier system
perforations. The top and bottom actuates a backup shoe which pushes the
perforations are then identified by sharp tool against the casing and causes sealing
pips on a gamma ray curve run after of the small circular packers. One or two
perforating. holes are perforated through the area-
o Small size, low activity and short half-life sealed by the packers.
of radioactive material used in the special o An initial shut-in measurement is
charges prevent significant contamination recorded and then the sample is opened to
of produced fluid. flow. A recording of flowing pressure is
o When run with gun, gamma ray tool and made and when the chamber is filled with
hollow carrier perforators, no additional formation fluids a final shut-in pressure is
rig time is required other than that needed recorded. The chamber is sealed and
to log through the perforated interval. cement may then be injected into the
perforations as a repair.
Treat Evaluation Logging o The backup shoe is retracted and the
 Use: formation tester is brought rapidly to the
surface.
To evaluate qualitatively zones taking fluid o The surface metering equipment
after injection or treatment has taken place. incorporates many safety features such as
a low pressure pop-off valve on the
 Principles of Operation.
plastic separator and low burst strength
o Special shaped charges are used to
plastic tubing to eliminate high gas
perforate the zone of interest. These
pressures from building up within the
charges leave traces of radioactive
system. The positive displacement gas
material within each perforation which
meter is fitted with a flame arrester. The
197
 control head on the chamber has a sand
trap and multiple valves and pressure Gradiomanometer
gauges for complete control of the gas
transfer while metering. Surface The gradiomanometer is used for recording a
measurements of gas and liquid volumes, specific gravity profile. The tool is a differential-
oil gravity, and water resistivity and pressure measuring device with a two-foot spacing
chloride, as well as all recorded between membrane-type pressure sensors.
pressures, are presented.
 Uses:
o Adapters are available to permit the use
o To provide accurate depth determinations
of pressure gauges where more accurate
of pressure gradient changes.
downhole pressure data are required.
o To locate gas entries in oil wells.
o To define fluid contacts.
Fullbore Flowmeter o To assist continuous flowmeter
The full bore flow meter is used for recording interpretation in two-fluid flow.
production or injection profiles. The tool is a o (For absolute accuracy, corrections must
spinner-type veloci meter. be made for pressure and temperature.
Maximum error is at 350° F. and 15,000
 Uses: psi; this error is +-0.03% gm/co.)
o The full bore flow meter employs a  The Recording Shows:
spinner which nearly covers the casing o A specific gravity profile.
cross—section, thus it is little affected by o Casing collars (simultaneous recording).
viscosity changes in multiphase flow. High Resolution Thermometer
o Flow rates as low as 50 bopd in
monophasic fluid e through 3 1/2-inch ID The high resolution thermometer is used to record
pipe can be accurately measured. a temperature profile for the study of temperature
o Multiphase fluids and/or larger pipe anomalies as small as 0.5° F. The tool is an
require higher flow rates; e.g., 200 barrels electrical bridge system using an exposed sensing
of oil per day for multi-phase flow in 5 ½ wire as the fourth arm of the bridge.
inches pipe. Upper limits of up to 50,000
 Uses:
barrels of oil per day can be measured.
o To locate fluid entries.
Continuous Flowmeter o To define lowest depth of production or
The continuous flowmeter is used for recording injection.
production or injection profiles. The tool is a o To determine bubble point depths.
spinner-type velocimeter. o To check gas lift valves.
o To locate gas leaks in tubing.
 Uses: o To define geothermal gradients.
o To determine contribution of each zone to o To locate fluid flow behind pipe.
total production or injection.
o To indicate changes of the flow pattern  The Recording Shows:
with: o A sensitive temperature profile and a
compressed scale profile.
a. Flowing conditions (rate, pressure, choke) o A Casing Collar Log (simultaneous
b. Time (plugging of perforations, depletion) recording).
c. Type of completion (gas lift) Thru-Tubing Caliper
d. Stimulation process (fracturing, acidizing)
The thru-tubing caliper is used to record a hole
 Generally, this tool finds application with size profile. It is a three arm averaging caliper
high flow rates. It can measure very high flow utilizing a variable resistor.
rates, up to 60,000 barrels per day, depending
on pipe size. The high flow rate measuring  Uses:
capacity makes it particularly applicable for o To give hole size for interpretation of
gas wells. flowmeter survey.
 The tool is primarily applicable for single- o To select packer seating points.
phase flow. o To locate casing deterioration.
 The Recording Shows:  The Recording Shows:
o A profile in percentage of total flow, for o A hole size profile.
either up or down flow. Radioactive Tracer Tool
o Cable speed (simultaneous, recording).
o Tension on the cable (simultaneous, The radioactive tracer tool is used for recording
recording). injection profiles and detecting travel paths of
o Casing collars (sequential recording). injected fluid outside of casing (See Figure 4-
25).The tool can also be used for recording
198
production profilels but since radioactive o Tension on the cable for each profile.
contamination of produced fluids is not desirable, o Casing collars for each profile.
this process is not recommended. The tool is a
multi-shot liquid tracer ejector with dual gamma Production Array Log
ray detectors. There is complete flexibility in Compared to traditional tools with a single,
placement of ejector and detectors on the tool centered sensor, Halliburton’s multi sensor
assembly. Capacitance Array Tool (CAT) and Spinner Array
Tool (SAT) offer several features that provide
 Uses: important benefits.
o To deltermine travel paths of injected  Features
fluids. o Multiple sensors along with tool rotation
o To locate flow of injected fluids in and relative bearing measurements
channels behind casing. increase wellbore coverage
 The Recording Shows: o Processed data easily shared between
o A base gamma ray log. Halliburton and clients using Emeraude
o A gamma ray log runs after ejection of features
tracer material. o Interpretation options based on data
o A profile in percentage of total flow availability and quality
plotted from velocity measurements of o Linked with Kappa Emeraude to provide
tracer material. seamless processing
Production Combination Tool o Horizontal and vertical displays showing
The production combination tool is used for phase segregation
recording a variety of production or injection data o Allows three dimensional imaging with
during one trip into the well. The tool combines a Halliburton software.
continuous flow meter (or Fullboreflowmeter),  Benefits
manometer, high resolution thermometer, o Accurate holdup and velocity
gradiomanometer, collar locator, and thru—tubing measurements at any inclination
caliper. The capability of making all o Downhole flow rates determined
measurements pertinent to diagnosis during one independently of slip velocity
well trip enhances interpretation. Shorter time o TVD displays allow visualization of
intervals between measurements lessen the wellbore undulations and effects on
likelihood of changes in flow regimes. holdups and velocity
Stabilization time requirements are minimized. o Links with Emeraude to provide complete
Since the production combination tool can provide interpretation including phase flow rates
profiles of fluid velocity and specific gravity along both downhole and at surface
with bottom hole pressure, inflow performance o Customized interpretation based on
studies are possible for each zone in a producer. available data: CAT/SAT alone or with
Isochronal testing methods often eliminate the other sensors.
need to wait long periods for stabilization.
High-Temperature Production Logging
 Uses:  The Scientific Drilling High-Temperature
Memory Production Logging Tool (MPLT)
All listed for the following tools: [1.44 inch (36.5 mm) diameter 600°F
o Continuous flowmeter. (315°C)] sets the memory production and
o Full bore flowmeter. geothermal logging performance standard.
o High resolution thermometer. This high-temperature modular system
o Gradiomanometer. packages the following optimized sensors:
o To provide means for making all needed o Casing Collar Locator (CCL)
diagnostic measurements in one well trip. o Gamma Ray
o To study inflow performance of o Pressure
individual producing zones. o Temperature
o Spinner
 The Recordings Show: o Capacitance
o A profile in percentage of total flow for o Nuclear Fluid Density
either "up" or "down" flow. T o Tuning Fork Density
o A specific gravity profile.  The compact MPLT is 1.44 inches in diameter
o A sensitive temperature profile and a by 18 feet long. Its reduced cross-section has
compressed scale profile. less tool weight and less effect on flowing
o A differential temperature profile. well characteristics (less choking effect) than
o A bottom hole pressure profile. larger-diameter systems. MPLT’s memory
o Cable speed for each profile.

199
 logging features have distinct advantages over o Non-Volatile Log Data Memory retains
conventional wireline logging. data during power loss.
 Multi-Faceted Applications o Self-checking software reloads after
o Has full production logging capabilities power failure.
o Establishes flow profiles o Easy to use PC software for programming
o Establishes fluid types and mixes and data retrieval.
o Detects leaks o Total flexibility over sample rate.
o Identifies production problems o Long duration production/injection
o Measures downhole steam quality with profiling.
sophisticated pressure, temperature, o High capacity, long life Lithium batteries
spinner, and nuclear fluid density sensors in separate battery holder.
o Measures downhole mass flow rate with o Current consumption < 0.5mA on
high performance spinner and nuclear standby.
fluid density sensors o Sampling interval
o Tuning Fork Density
 Advantages 6.4.4 CEMENTING OF OIL AND GAS WELLS
o Pressure control is simplified in slickline  Cementing is an important operation in well
high-pressure (gas) well operations completion. The functions of cementing includes;
o Short tool strings permit use in height- Restriction of fluid movement between
restricted areas (offshore) permeable zones
o Less weight is required with slickline Provision of mechanical support of the casing
resulting in less lubricator, easier rig up string
and lower costs Protection of casing from corrosion
o The need for high-temperature logging Support of the well-bore walls to prevent
cables is eliminated, thus eliminating collapse of formations
those costs
o Horizontal wells are easily logged using  American Petroleum Institute (API) has classified
any standard coiled tubing unit since no the cement in nine classes
expensive wlreline is needed Class A: For use from surface to 6000 ft
o Has proven, successful reliability in wells (1830 m) depth, when special properties are
worldwide not required.
o Software provides onsite data Class B: For use from surface to 6000 ft
presentation and interpretation (1830) depth, when conditions require
o Gathers data easily and cost-effectively moderate to high sulfate resistance.
o Can be used with any downhole
Class C: For use from surface to 6000 ft (1830
conveyance system
m) depth, when conditions require high early
o Is highly reliable in slick line and coiled
strength.
tubing applications
Class D: For use from 6000 ft to 10,000 ft
depth (1830 m to 3050 m), under conditions
Memory Production Logging Tool (MPL) of high temperatures and pressures.
 Memory tools enable the use of downhole Class E: For use from 10,000 ft to 14,000 ft
logging sensors without an electric wireline. depth (3050 m to 4270 m), under conditions
Slickline, coil tubing or PCL are common of high temperature and pressures.
conveyances for memory tools. A downhole Class F: For use from 10,000 ft to 16,000 ft
battery pack is required. depth (3050 m to 4880 m), under conditions
 The MPL tool supports standard Ultrawire of extremely high temperatures and pressures.
Production Logging tools including the Class G: Intended for use as a basic cement
Capacitance Array Tool. It is programmed at from surface to 8000 ft (2440 m) depth. Can
the surface for sample frequency and duration. be used with accelerators and retarders to
A PC running Windows via a USB port, cover a wide range of well depths and
Sondex interface kit and software are required temperatures.
for this task. Class H: A basic cement for use from surface
 After programming, the tool string is to 8000 ft (2440 m) depth as manufactured.
controlled by the MPL tool, while logging Can be used with accelerators and retarders to
data is sent to the MPL where it is stored in cover a wider range of well depths and
flash memory. When the toolstring is returned temperatures.
to surface, the MPL is downloaded to a laptop Class J: Intended for use as manufactured
and the data can be processed using a variety from 12,000 ft to 16,000 ft (3600 m to 4880
of software. m) depth under conditions of extremely high
 Features temperatures and pressures. It can be used

200
 with accelerators and retarders to cover a o Retarders are calcium lignosulphonate,
range of well depths and temperatures. pozzolan and CMHEC.
o Accelarators are used to cement shallow
 Cement additives wells and surface casings.
Cement additives are used with oil well cement to o Retarders are used for cementing deep
perform cementation job at temperatures ranging and hot wells.
from below freezing temperature to 350deg o In practice the thickening time should be
centigrade in high temperature well. at least 25% higher than the time
Categories of cement additives necessary to accomplish the
Accelerators: Reduce the setting time of
cement system Cement Strength
Retarders: Delay the setting time of cement o Cement in oil wells is subjected to static
system and dynamic stresses
Extenders: Lower the density of cement o Static stress due to dead weight of pipe;
system compressive stresses due to the action of
Weighing agents: Increase the density of fluid and formations
cement system o Dynamic stresses resulting from drilling
Dispersants: Reduce the viscosity of cement operation, especially the vibration of drill
slurry string
Fluid loss control agents: Control fluid loss o To withstand these stresses a compressive
from cement system to formation strength of 500 psi after 24 hours period
Lost-circulation control agents: Reduces loss is needed
of cement slurry to weak formation o High early strength possesses strength
higher than ordinary strength in the first
Specialty additives: Reduce foaming, impart
30 hours.
resilience to set cement
o Density reduction materials always
decreases cement strength
 Properties affecting selection of cement type
o Retarders reduce both early and late
strength
Slurry density
o Fine sand increases final cement strength
o Should be the same as mud to minimize
o Strength retrograte between 80 to 120 C
the risk or blowouts or lost circulation
o Silica flour is added to prevent
o Measured using mud balance
temperature effect
o Low density are prepared with bentonite,
pozzolan, gilsonite, perlite, Diatomacous
Filtration
earth
o Water loss of neat cement is very high
o Bentonite is used in concentration up to
o Laboratory tests show that up to 50% of
35%, the reduction is due to water added.
mixing water is lost by filtration through
o Each 1% of bentonite needs 4% of water.
rock or filter papers
o One sack cement equals 94 lbs (50 kg)
o Presence of small thickness mud cake
and measure 1 cu. ft
reduces filtration
o Density increases by adding barite, iron
o High density slurry results in higher
ores or galena
o Each 1% of needs 0.2% increase in filtration loss
o Additives to reduce filtration are
mixing water.
bentonite, organic colloids (CMHEC)
Thickening Time
Permeability
o Determine the length of time the slurry
o Naturally, permeability of set cement
can be pumped
o It is the time necessary for the slurry should be the lowest possible.
o Bentonite cements are known to be very
consistenecy to reach 100 poises under
permeable (values up to 10 md are
stimulated bottom hole pressure and
reported, while special cements (latex
temperature
cement) have permeabilities as low as
o Measured using cement consistometer
one micodarcy.
o Thickening time is affected by:
o Pumping rate: eddies and currents o The following factors influence the
permeability of the set cement:
resulting from turbulent flow increases
 Water/cement ratios: High W/C ratio
thickening time.
increases the permeability
o Fineness to which the clinker is ground
 Downhole conditions: high pressure
o Additives: accelerators to decrease
and confinement due to their
thickening time, retarders to increase it.
o Accelerators are calcium chloride.
201
 compacting effects decrease the more uniformly through the mixture.
permeability of set cement Perlite cements are very expensive.

Perforating Qualities Diesel Oil Cements (DOC) [Latex +

o Ordinary cements, when they are CMT + water]
completely hardened, fracture excessively o A portland cement to which; a
when perforated. surface active agent is added, it is
o Low strength cements are usually less designed for, mixing with diesel oil.
brittle and have less tendency to shatter o Will not set and hardens unless it
upon perforating. comes in contact with water.
o Shattering of cement is not a desired o Used for shutting off; water
quality when near an O.W.C. or O.G.C. production from completion interval
o Additives such as bentonite, pozzolan and of a well.
latex increase the ductility of set cement.
Latex cement [Latex + CMT + Water)
Corrosion Resistance o Composed of latex, cement and
o Set cement could be penetrated by water.
corrosive liquids especially those o Used for plug back jobs for water
containing CO3 or SO4 irons. exclusion.
o Cement corrosion decreases the final o Especially resistant to oil and mud
compressive strength render the cement contamination.
more permeable. o Gives a high strength bond with
o Reduction of the hardening time casing and rocks.
improves the cement resistance to
corrosion by corrosive fluids. Foam cement
Foam cement offers a versatile. and
Bond Requirements economical means of cementing
o For clean surfaces (rock or metal) the wells with low density, high strength
bond increases with time and moderate material. Several common
temperatures. applications of foam cement include
o Mud cake and dirty casing surfaces placing strong-cement across weak or
reduce markedly the bond between casing highly fractured zones without losing
or rock and cement. circulation; filling vugs or porous
o Additives such as salt and fine sand thief zones or simply as an
increase the bond between casing and the inexpensive light weight cement
set cement. slurry. Weightless slurry In the foam
cement, nitrogen can be used as a
 Other Cement Types light weight additive.
Pozzolanic Cements (pozzolan + Portland
CMT or lime pozzolan cement)
o Pozzolan (siliceous rocks of volcanic o Thickening time
origin) is added to Portland cements It is concluded that foaming makes
or used with lime (lime-pozzolan little noticeable effect on thickening
cement). time and also that foam should
o Pozzolan cements have higher follow the accelerating effect of
permeability times than most pressure. For field use, the
conventional. thickening time as determined in a
o Pozzolanic cements are light ductile pressurized consistometer using the
and they are proved to be satisfactory appropriate schedule can be used to
deep well cements. obtain the thickening time of the
foamed cement.
Perlite Cement (Perlite + ordinary
portland + bentonite) o Compressive strength
o Perlite cements are prepared by The compreseive strength of various
adding perlite to ordinary portland. foam denaities were determined by
o Perlite is a light volcanic ore, when making foams of the desired density
heated to fusion it gives rise to a very in a blender jar by air entrainment.
low-density product (13 lb/ft3). The densities were measured using a
o Bentonite is usually added to perlite pycnometer. The formulation of each
cement slurries to disperse perlite of these foams was just neat cement
and 0.75% of foaming agent. The

202
 foam cement were then poured into from the bottom to the top of the
2" cylindrical moulds and sealed. cement.
The moulds were then cured for 8, 12 o In the latter technique the result is
and 24 hours in a water bath kept at constant density cement achieved by
140 0F. increasing the nitrogen flow as the
In general, all three classes of cement pumping progresses.
developed at least 500 psl (3447 kpa)
compressive strength in 24 hours at  PRIMARY CEMENTATION
density of 7 ppg (893 kglm\ The 8 The typical procedure for a single stage
and 12 hours strength were primary cement job is the conventional two
significantly lower for the 7 ppg plug method. Neat cement with additives is
cement except for class G, which introduced in a hopper where it is mixed with
developed 512 psi (3530 kpa) water by a high velocity jet mixer
compressive strength. (computerised pumpers are also available).
The resulting slurry is then pumped down the
o Fluid loss casing between two rubber plugs with wiping
Additives for foamed cement are fins which are placed in the system at the
same as in unfoamed cements. In the proper time via a cementing head.
foam cement system, the only mode When the bottom plug reaches the float collar.
of water loss is around the bubble of' it stops, a pressure builds up which quickly
nitrogen. A13 the density decreases, ruptures the plug's diaphragm and allows the
the surface area of the bubble slurry to pass.
membranes are increased, thereby The top plug, however, has a solid core, so
increasing the distance the fluid must that when it seats in the float collar, the
travel in order to leave the slurry. surface pump pressure builds up sharply.
There by signalling the pump operator that the
o Rheology job is complete.
The behaviour of foam slurries is The position of the top plug may also be
more complex than unfoamed ones. checked either by metering the displacing
Due to the interaction of water to fluids (since the casing volume is known) or
cement ratios, bubble size, gel forces by following the plug with a wire measuring
and chemical additives, the rheology line.
of foam cements are difficult to Numerous variations of primary cementing
predict in regard to turbulence, gel techniques aloe in use. One or both of the
strength and thixotropy. These plugs are sometimes omitted. Practices also
effects have not yet been fully depend on the depth and particular string
evaluated. being cemented.
It should be apparent that if the cement slurry
o Porosity & Permeability
density is different from that of the mud
The permeability of foam cement
and/or the displacing fluid, a considerable
becomes a critical value for design
pressure unbalance will occur between the
purposes when densities become
fluid columns in the casing and annulus. This
low.The practical limitation to give a
situation has numerous possible
foam product with 1 md permeability
consequences:-
or less is about 7 ppg (839 kg/m3),
o Excessive pump pressure may be required
At densities lighter than this, the
to obtain a high full up.
resistance to fluid or gas intrusion
 If cement density is higher than the
would be unacceptable.
mud, this greater pressure may break
down formation behind the pipe and
Field procedures circulation may be lost during the job.
o Once the correct slurry has been This is of particular importance in a
designed, it must be pumped into the well which has already experienced
well correctly to achieve the desired lost circulation.
results.  If cement density is less than the mud,
o Foam cement jobs are conducted in the displacing fluid should not be mud,
two separate ways. Constant nitrogen since the pressure unbalance may move
rate throughout and constant density the slurry completely around the shoe
throughout the pumping time of the and, up the annulus.
cement.
Other factors which are also required to be
o In the first technique, the finished
kept in mind for a good primary cementing
cement job has a variable density
job are:

203
 o Use non thixotropic (little or no gel
strength) cement with low plastic Classification of cement squeeze jobs
viscosity and yield strengths to maximise The squeeze job can be classified by pressure
displacement efficiency and minimise requirement:
swab-surge pressures. o High pressure squeezing:
o Low weight with low solid content and High pressure squeezing involves fracturing
low filtration loss with a thin cake to the formation with cement until a required
minimize likelihood of differential surface pressure is reached. The importance of
pressure sticking. high pressures at the end of the job, although
popular with many companies, is actually of
 SECONDARY CEMENTATION little importance and should be well below 1
Secondary cementation is the cementing operation psi/ft. The high pressure squeeze uses "neat"
performed after the primary cementation, to repair cement (no additives) with very high fluid
some segments in the well bore having poor loss. The best use of the technique is usually
cement in annulus and is called remedial to shutoff depleted zones and to seal
cementing. perforations.
The cement squeezing and cement plugging are o Low pressure squeezing:
the main two types of secondary cementing The low pressure squeeze technique is
processes. probably more efficient in placing a controlled
amount of cement in a problem area of the
SQUEEZE CEMENTING well. With this technique, formation fracturing
is completely avoided. The pressure is
Squeeze cementing forces cement slurry behind achieved by pressuring up on the cement and
the pipe to repair leaks or shut of fluid loss. allowing the cement to filter out on the
Squeeze cementing is normally thought to be a formation creating a block in the annulus.
repair step, but is also used to seal off depleted Once the cement slurry has hardened or
zones or unwanted fluid production. dehydrated to a sufficient extent, no more
fluid will be displaced. The excess cement that
Major uses of squeeze cementing for repair and is still the drill pipe or the annulus can be
recovery control purposes: displaced from the well by opening the casing
o To control high GOR. By squeezing the top valve and flushing with a displacement fluid.
section of the perfs, gas production can be The advantages of the low pressure squeeze
made to pass vertically through the top part of are less pressure exposure to tubing and casing
the formation matrix, slowing the gas and special cementing tools, and a smaller
production by the contrast in vertical vs. quantity of cement.
horizontal permeabilities.
o To control excessive water, squeezing lower For either of the squeeze cementing process, a
perfs can delay water production. Only if an relatively low water loss, strong cement is part
impenetrable barrier separates the oil and of the design. Most operations use non-
water or if vertical permeability is very low, retarded API Class A, G or H, which are
will effective water reduction be achieved. suitable for squeeze conditions to 6,000 ft
o Repairing casing leaks. Cement can be without additives.
squeezed through holes in casing. This is best For deeper wells, Class G or H can be
accomplished by very small particle cement. retarded to gain necessary pumping time.
o To seal thief zones or lost-circulation zones. In hotter wells (above 230°F), additives
Cement slurry may penetrate natural fractures should be considered at high temperature to
for only a centimeter or two but may develop increase strength.
sufficient blockage to help control leak off.
The cement slurry bridges on the face of the Squeeze techniques
matrix. Sealing off natural fractures is often
difficult. o Bradenhead squeeze method
o To stop fluid migration from a separate zone.  In this method drill pipe or tubing is
This is usually a block squeeze or channel lowered without packer upto the
repair operation. perforations.
o Isolation of zones. Selective shutoff of  A predetermined amount of slurry is
depleted or abnormally low or high pressure mixed and pumped to the specific
zones. height outside the tubing or drill pipe
o Repair of primary cement job. Filling voids or to make a balance plug.
channels, and repair of liner tops are common.  The tubing or drill pipe then pulled
o Abandonment squeezes. Shutting off depleted out of the slurry and BOP is closed at
reservoirs or protecting fresh water sands. the surface.

204
  The displacing fluid is pump down  If shut in pressure is not more than
the tubing /drillpipe until the desire the first period, a longer waiting
squeeze pressure is reached or until a period is needed.
specific amount of the fluid has been  As shut in pressure increases,
pumped. hesitation period can be shortened,
 Usually, this method is used for continue pump hesitation-pump
squeezing shallow wells. cycle until squeeze pressure is
attained.
o Squeeze packer method  A tight formation will need only
 This method uses retrieval or non- short hesitation period, possibly five
retrievable tool run on tubing to a minutes in first time.
position near the top of the zone to be  When the pump is allowed while
squeezed. placing slurry against the formation
 It confines pressure to a specific face, it is common to have shut in
point in the hole. pressure on the first hesitation that is
 Before the cement is placed, a higher than the injection pressure.
pressure test is conducted to  Again when pumping is resumed
determine the formation injectivity slowly pump the slurry while
pressure. monitoring the pressure.
 In certain cases the section below the  In the event squeeze pressure is not
perforation to be squeezed must be attained when there is no more slurry
isolated with a bridge plug. in the casing, the slurry inside that
 When the desired squeeze pressure is covers the perforations should be left
obtained remaining slurry is reversed in place.
out.  A successful squeeze could very well
be achieved if the perforations were
o Building Squeezes Pressure/Hesitation left covered.
method:
 One common denominator to Squeeze job evaluation
successful squeezing is reduction of o Any test of a squeeze job after WOC time
the pump rate as cement slurry starts should be determined by the requirements
passing through the perforation. of subsequent well operations.
 Hesitation technique involves o Positive differential pressure is not a
alternation of pumping and conclusive test but it will discover gross
hesitation. failure of the job.
 The hesitation encourages cement o In order to confirm the ability of the
filter cake build up. plugged perforations to hold formation
 The alternation of pumping and fluid under production conditions a
hesitation is continued until the negative differential pressure test must be
desired final squeeze pressure is performed.
obtained. Once slurry enters the o In cementing job where cement has been
perforation it can contact the face of placed behind the casing to repair
the formation. primary cementing failures, CBL-VDL
 Depending upon the permeability, run after cement drill out will give an
slurry cake can begin to build indication of the quality of isolation
immediately. achieved.
 The rate should be reduced to allow
this build up without un-necessary CEMENT PLUG JOB
fracturing. Cement plug is a relatively small volume of
 A loose formation will need a long cement slurry placed in the well bore for
hesitation period to begin building various purposes. Following are the reason for
the squeeze pressure. setting a cement plug:
 A first hesitation period of 30 o To stop loss circulation during drilling.
minutes or more is not unreasonable. o Directional drilling and side tracking
When pumping is resumed after this o To plug back a depleted zone.
period the slurry should be moved as o Abandonment
slowly as possible. o To provide anchor for open hole test tool.
 Monitor the pressure gauge on the
cementing unit and continue Cement plugging techniques
pumping as long as the pressure There are two plug placement methods:
steadily increases. o Balance plug method

205
 o Dump bailer method For securing good cementation, cementing
engineers should be associated with casing
Balance plugs Method running in and fixing centralizes and other
This is the most commonly used procedure for mechanical aids at the casing pipes.
setting a cement plug. By reciprocation / rotation of casing, the mud
o Drill pipe or tubing is run in the hole as cake will be removed and good cement bond
far as the desired plug base. can be achieved. For this, scratchers are
o The washer and spacers are pumped placed over the casing pipe against pay
ahead and behind the cement to avoid horizons. The spacing should be such that the
mud contamination. distance between the two scratchers should be
o Displacement is completed to the top of less than the length of reciprocation.
the calculated length and allows reaching By reciprocation/rotation of casing pipe, a
hydrostatic balance. perfect and uniform cement sheath can be
o It is a common practice to under displace obtained and will provide good cement
the slurry to avoid any back flow. bonding condition, with the cement at the
o Once the plug is balanced the pipe slowly formation along with the casing surface.
pulled out up to the plug’s desire top and
excess slurry is reversed out.  CEMENTING HIGH TEMPERATURE WELLS
Deep wells having static formation temperatures
Dump bailer method above 230 F - 250 F are considered to be critical
o Before taking up the dump bailer situations. Major problems involve displacement'
methods it should be thoroughly of mud by cement slurry, design of slurry to
circulated for conditioning the mud. provide adequate rheological properties and pump
o In this method the cement is placed by ability time, attainment of desired slurry properties
running a dump bailer containing a during the mixing process, and control of
measured quantity of cement on a subsequent strength retrogression. The following
wireline. factors should be considered:
o A permanent bridge plug placed below
the desired plug interval and the cement Formation temperature:
is dumped on the plug by raising the Accurate knowledge of formation static or
bailer. Usually this method is used for bottom-hole circulating temperature is the
setting plug at shallow depth. starting point for slurry design. A particular
o Advantages: design problem exists with a long cement
 Depth of cement plug is easily column due to temperature difference between
controlled. the top and bottom of the slurry. Overstating
 Relatively cheap temperature to provide safety factor is a poor
o Disadvantages: practice. Safety factor should be provided by
 Not easily adoptable to setting deep adjusting pump ability time.
plugs. Slurry history:
 Quantity of cement is limited to Anticipated temperature-pressure-time
volume of dump bailer history of the cement slurry as it is mixed and
pumped into place must be established with a
 PLANNING OF A CEMENT JOB: view to fix additives requirement.
With close coordination of drilling engineers, a Laboratory tests:
detail program of whole preparation, casing Slurry design tests must be run with
running in and cementing procedure are to be cementing materials, additives, and mix water
formulated which should include: which will actually be used on the job.
Required drilling fluid, having proper plastic Fluid loss:
viscosity and yield point Slurry design should provide for controlled
Leak proof casing joint make up and fill ups. fluid loss. Viscosity reduction to permit
Type of floating equipment and their turbulent flow at reasonable displacement
operation. rates should be considered.
Hole condition prior to running in of casing Slurry mixing:
and after completion of casing. Batch - mixing of cement slurry promotes
Selection of surface equipment, their testing uniformity of mixing and permits actual tests
schedule of slurry properties and, if necessary,
Mechanical aids, centralized position. adjustments of properties before pumping
Lowering rate of casing to prevent damage to slurry into well.
formation.. Strength retrogression:
Reciprocation and rotation of casing during
cement pumping and displacement.
206
 To inhibit strength retrogression where A Completion and workover fluid is a fluid placed
formation temperatures are above 230 OF, against the open formation during various
silica flour could be used. operations such as well killing; clean out, drilling
Mud displacement: in, plugging, back, controlling sand, or perforating
Adequate displacement of mud by the cement the formation.
slurry is a major problem due to high Fluids used during working over of a well after
temperature gelation of mud, small annular their initial completions are termed workover
clearances, and difficulty in moving a long fluids.
heavy string of casing or liner. Aids in
displacement of mud include centralization,  Common fluid property:
movement of casing, and reduction of mud Density:
plastic viscosity and yield point, slurry The density of a fluid is defined as mass per
displacement rates as high as possible into the unit volume of the fluid. Minimum, maximum
turbulent flow range etc. and practical densities of major fluid systems
used in the workover are given in table-6.3
6.4.5 COMPLETION AND WORKOVER FLUID below: -

Table-6.3: Densities of different Workover fluids

Fluid Approx. min. Density Approx. max. Density Practical Max. Density

(ppg) Kg/m3 (ppg) Kg/m3 (ppg) Kg/m3

Oil 6.0 719 8.5 1018 8 958
Diesel Oil 7.0 839 7.0 839 7.0 839
Fresh Water 8.2 996 8.3 998 8.33 1000
Sea Water 8.4 1006 8.6 1030 8.5 1018
Brine (NaCl) 8.4 1006 10.0 1198 9.8 1174
Brine ( KCl) 8.3 995 9.8 1174 9.7 1162

Brine- (CaBr2) 11.7 1402 15.1 1809 14.6 1750

Brine (CaCl2) 11.0 1318 11.6 1390 11.5 1378

Solid content: Viscosity

In order to avoid formation damage, a work over It is the property of fluid by virtue of which fluid
fluid should ideally contain no solid. It is observed offers resistance to movement of one layer of fluid
that plugging of sand stone (450-md brine over an adjacent layer.
permeability) with salt-water fluids containing
various sizes and concentration of solids.
o Dynamic Viscosity, μ, is defined as the shear
o Particles greater than 5-micron size caused
force, per unit area, required to drag one layer
significantly more plugging than particles less
of fluid with unit velocity past another layer a
than 2 microns size. In both cases plugging
unit distance away.
occurred within the core pore channels.
o Particle larger than about one half the average Units: Viscosity, μis expressed in poise, P where 10P =
pore diameters should quickly bridge at the 1 kg /m/s
entrance to the pore.
o Kinematic Viscosity
o These larger particles can be removed by
backflow or treating with chemicals (acid Kinematic viscosity is defined as the dynamic
etc.). viscosity divided by the density of the fluid.
Kinematic viscosity is the preferred unit when
Rheological Properties the shear stress and shear rate of the fluid is
Rheology is the study of the flow of fluids, which influenced by the density.
is considered as the resistance to flow. The
measurement of the rheological properties is o Absolute Viscosity
important A term used interchangeably with viscosity to
o For calculating frictional pressure losses distinguish it from either kinematic viscosity
o Determining the mud ability to lift cuttings or commercial viscosity. Absolute viscosity is
and the ratio of shear stress to shear rate. It is a
o Carrying to surface and determining pressure fluid's internal resistance to flow. The
changes in the well during a trip. common unit of absolute viscosity is the
poise. Absolute viscosity and kinematic
207
 viscosity are expressed in fundamental units. Avoiding damage to down hole and surface
Commercial viscosity such as Saybolt equipment.
viscosity is expressed in arbitrary units of Avoiding damages to personnel and the
time, usually seconds. environment.
o Apparent Viscosity
The viscosity of a fluid measured at a given  Types of Completion / Workover fluid:
shear rate at a fixed temperature for Non -
Newtonian fluids. Gas fluid
o Gas can be used as completion and
Yield point workover fluid in some low-pressure
Yield point is the measurement of resistance to reservoir. During operation, flow from
flow caused by the attractive forces between the well is controlled only by surface
particles in the fluid. Yield point is measured in backpressure.
pounds per 100 square feet. o Gas is generally used in operations such
as hole cleaning by foam, well activating,
Gel Strength proppant transportation, DST, dry
It is the ability of the fluid to develop a rigid gel perforation and nitrified acidisation etc.
structure when the fluid is not moving or at rest.
o The shear stress measured at low shear rate Oil Base Fluid
after a mud has set quiescently for a period of In most producing areas, oil is plentiful and
time (10 seconds and 10 minutes in the economical to use as workover /completion
standard API procedure, although fluid.
measurements after 30 minutes or 16 hours It is usually non-corrosive and does not cause
may also be made). clay swelling in producing zones.
o A definite area of rapture or sliding within the It weighs about 7 ppg, which is excellent for
material is involved, and force necessary to low pressure oil field
produce such sliding is determined in the o Disadvantages:
measurement of gel strength.  It contains wax, fine particles of
sand, solid or asphalts that can
 Completion and Workover fluid damage the formation.
characteristics:  It is corrosive if H2S or CO2 is
A work over & completion fluid should be : present
Dense enough to control well pressure but not  It is a fire hazardous and difficult to
so heavy that it fractures the formation and handle
flow into it. In other words, the fluid should  Oil may not be compatible with the
balance formation pressure but not fracture reservoir oil if it is obtained
the formation. elsewhere in the field.
Cost effective: Sometimes, expensive fluids
are necessary to prevent damage to especially Oil Emulsion Fluid
sensitive formation, less expensive fluids may o Commonly used oil emulsion fluid in
also be available that cause little or no workover/completion is an oil water
formation damage. emulsion. In this, oil is dispersed as small
Free of solid particles as possible, solid can droplets in water.
plug perforation as well as reduce production. o The water phase may be fresh or salt
Non-corrosive to prevent failure of tubular water. To keep the emulsion stable,
goods and subsequent fishing job. emulsifying agent, such as starch, soap or
Stable if the fluid is to be left in the hole for organic colloids are used.
an extended period. o Diesel oil is the most commonly used oil
phase. The advantage to use diesel to
 Function of Workover fluid workover well is that it is less damaging
Transportation of wanted & unwanted to the productive formation than are other
materials into and out of the well oils.
Suspension of wanted and unwanted material o Water-in-oil emulsion fluids are
when circulation is stopped sometimes used as completion and
Pressure control to prevent blow out. workover fluids.
Absorption of heat and lubrication of pipe, bit o Water in oil-emulsion is the opposite, or
and mills, transmission of hydraulic forces. inverse of an oil-in water emulsion and is
therefore called an inverse emulsion
Provision of suitable medium for wire-line,
fluid, water is dispersed as droplets in oil.
logging and perforation tools.
o This type of emulsion is very unstable
Avoiding damage to producible formation
above 200 F and if it contains lot of

208
 solids, the solids can cause formation
damage. o When the brine densities greater than
11.6 ppg are required, two or more salts
Water Base Fluids are usually employed.
 The most common two salt brine is
o Fresh Water calcium chloride/ calcium bromide
 Low salinity water are occasionally (CaCl2 / CaBr2).
used as drilling, workover and  The base ingredients of CaCl2/CaBr2
completion fluid. Water is brine are a calcium bromide solution
inexpensive, relatively accessible in of about 14.1 to 14.3 ppg. The pH
most areas, and requires few special range is 7.0 – 7.5.
additives.
 The primary disadvantage that often Water base mud
negates its use is the clay Water base muds are a combination of water,
dehydration type of formation clays and chemicals that are sometimes used
damage that readily occurs with fresh in completion and workover operation.
water filtrates. o Some water base muds are, however,
laden with solid and as a result, can cause
o Brine extensive formation damage by causing
 Addition of various salts to fresh water loss and blocking pore spaces.
water has several beneficial effects. o These are cost effective and easy to work
Salt will increase the density of the with.
fluid for greater hydrostatic pressure o Moreover, water base muds control high
control without increasing the solid pressure, high permeability gas wells in
concentration. much simpler way.
 In addition, salt in fresh water creates
an inhibited fluid that minimizes clay  PACKER FLUID
hydration and results in less Fluids left in the tubing casing annulus above the
formation damage. production packer are termed packer fluids. The
packer fluid usually remains in the well until the
o Single Salt Brine well is reworked or abandoned. A packer fluid is
Brines are those made with fresh water used to:
and one salt such as potassium chloride Control fluid pressure and corrosion
(KCl), sodium chloride (NaCl) Calcium Prevent the casing from collapsing
Chloride (CaCl2) or calcium Bromide Prevent the production string or tubing from
(CaBr2) bursting
 Potassium chloride (KCl) brines are
excellent completion fluid for water  Criterion for selection of packer fluid:
sensitive formations where densities It should be:
over 9.7 ppg are not required. o Cost effective
 Corrosion rates are reasonably low o Non corrosive
and can be reduced even more by o Remain pump able for a long period
maintaining the system pH between o Stable with time and temperature
7- 10 and using a corrosion inhibitor. o Possesses sufficient density to control
 The most commonly used brine is well pressure.
sodium Chloride (NaCl) in water. o Capable of keeping solid suspended in it
 The maximum density of sodium so that they cannot settle on top of the
chloride brines is 10 ppg at 60 F .The packer
preparation of brines up to 9.7 ppg is
fairly easy.  PLUGS OR PILLS
 Calcium Chloride (CaCl2) brines are Plugs or pills are used to treat, solve or control
easily mixed at densities upto 11.6 many downhole problems. For example, plugs
ppg. seal casing leaks, correct the injection profile in
 At densities greater than 11.6 ppg, water injection or disposal wells and stop lost
there may be operating problem in circulation in highly permeable sands.
winter because of freezing point of Plugs or pills can also divert acid during well
the solution. At a density of 11.6 ppg cleaning or stimulation and shut off saltwater
the freezing point of CaCl2 brine is flows.
44 deg F. Plugs can stabilize unconsolidated gravel
 Corrosion rates for CaCl2 brines are zones, seal fractures and improve cement job
approximately the same as for KCl
and NaCl brines.
209
 by sealing thief zones into which low o The criteria that govern their use, as
viscosity cement would be lost. workover fluid is high flash point and/ or
Plugs can also be used to kill underground low vapor pressure at operating
blowouts. conditions.
Many types of pumpable, soft plugs are:
o Neat cement Foam fluids:
o Thickened oil-base mud Foam (table below) acts like a pseudoplastic
o Diesel oil cement fluid and its stability is hardly affected as long
o Diesel oil bentonite as it is in the dynamic state.
o Bentonite o Foam can be used for sand washing,
o Silicate clay polymers recompilation and CTU jobs.
o Various lost circulation plugging and o Use of foam requires special equipment
treating chemicals. like foam generator, compressors, well
Weighting materials and viscosifiers are often packing assembly, rotating head BOP (for
added to plug and to make them dense and high- pressure operations) spring floats
highly viscous. etc.
Depending on temperature and pumping times o Portable foam units are available in the
a retarder or an accelerator may be added to market.
slow or speed up setting time. o Air foam has been used successfully as
Sometimes, a time delayed self complexing completion and work over fluid in
plug may also be required. Texas/Oklahoma,Panhandle and Western
If necessary, a breaker can be added to Kansas in USA to deal with low-pressure
provide a predictable plug break down times, gas wells.
usually 1 to 10 days. o Densities that can be achieved by various
To get a predictable break down time with aerated system are given in table-
polymer pills, an enzyme is used as a breaker, 6.4below:
which reduces the large polysaccharide or
sugar, molecules to low molecule wt polymer Table-6.4 : Densities of various aerated fluids
and simple sugar. Sl No. Description Fluid Density (ppg)
Sometimes viscosifiers are used to support 1 Gas 0.01 -0.1
density additives or to increase cutting 2 Mist 0.1 -0.3
carrying capacity of the brine. 3 Foam 0.3-3.54
A common viscosifier is HEC (Hydroxyethyle 3.5 - 6.95 withback pr.
cellulose) polymer. Its advantage is that it is 4 Gasified liquid 4.0-6.95
acid soluble and effective upto 250 F. 5 Liquid 6.95-19
HEC does not build high gel strengths often
required to support weight material such as o A "polymer enhanced foam" is a specific
CaCO3. type of oilfield foam comprising a gas
Different polymers such as XC polymer are dispersed in an aqueous surfactant
applicable for this purpose. solution.
o The surfactant of the polymer enhanced
 WORK OVER FLUID FOR SUB- foam is substantially any water-soluble
HYDROSTATIC WELLS: foaming agent suitable for oilfield use that
There are two types of fluids: is compatible with the specific polymer.
Circulating fluid: As such, the surfactant can be anionic,
Pills cationic, or nonionic. A preferred
surfactant is selected from the group
consisting of ethoxylated alcohols,
Circulating fluid:
ethoxylatedsulfates, refined sulfonates,
Circulating fluid either oil (petroleum or
petroleum sulfonates, and alpha olefin
petroleum product or synthetic/vegetable oil)
sulfonates. Foam generation requires
or oil based (emulsion) can be formulated in
mixing the liquid phase and the gas either
the range of sp gr between 0.9 t0 1.0 or more.
at a high velocity or through a small
But lower sp gr fluids are difficult to
orifice as can be provided by any
formulate.
conventional artificial foam generator.
o Use of oil and oil-based fluid is limited
o Polymer enhanced foams are prepared
due to difficult handling and disposal.
using 7,000 ppm PHPA and 2,000 ppm
o Apart from above it has risk of fire and
surfactant in a brine and with different
explosion,
gases. Foam qualities range between 85
o Use of synthetic & vegetable oils as work
and 90 per cent with Nitrogen 85 and 89
over fluid apart from above limitations is
per cent foam had no significant effect on
not cost effective.
210
 the polymer enhanced foam viscosity o For the most part, these limitations are
performance. The stable foam region is governed by the viscosity of the glass
given in fig-6.19. bubble-filled fluids and vary only slightly
for different bases. As a general rule, the
upper limit concentration of HGS is 50%
by volume.

Fig-6.19: - Stable foam region

Limitations of use of foam fluid
o Serious limitations of foam as work-over
fluid are the stability of foam in static
condition and initial cost of equipment.
o Apart from above limitations, safety is of Figure- 6.20: HGS floating in
prime important as foam is applied in base fluid
under-balanced conditions. Characteristics of HGS
o Application of foam as work over fluid is o Low density range 0.32-0.60 g /cc with
not a question of technology but a question varying particle size and grade
of safety and safety awareness. o Collapse strength varying from 4000psi
o Air foam has a risk of fire/explosion also. to 8000 psi
These limitations of foam, limit the use of o Chemically stable and inert with high
foam as work over fluid. temperature and pressure resistance
o Foam can be used as work over fluid as it o Non compressible and non-porous with
does not invade the formation in under- light weight spherical shape
balanced condition and hence avoid o Lower surface area and substantially
formation damage. greater strength to weight ratio
o Application of foam as work over fluid will o Compatible with most of the chemicals,
need acquisition of foam generation and providing stable viscosity and long shelf
application technology with lot of life.
infrastructure for surface handling of the o Greater survivability under pressure and
same. temperature conditions.

Hollow glass spheres (HGS) based fluid

o Hollow Glass spheres are made of soda Particulate loaded circulating fluids:
lime borosilicate which contains air Particulate (Calcium carbonate, resins,
inside. These bubbles are sized from 10 micronised cellulose fibers etc.) loaded
to 80 microns. circulating fluids use the increase of viscosity
o Hollow glass microspheres, a density of fluid by addition of polymer and temporary
reducing agent that can be added to water plugging of formation pore throats.
based mud to produce fluids with the o The effectiveness of the system is a
density of between 0.75-0.95 g/cm3 that function of quick formation of a thin cake
are environment friendly. The HGS around the well bore.
particles in water based fluid are shown o Particulate loaded viscosified fluid suffer
in figure-6.20. setback of severe solid settling in well
o The density reduction is directly bore in static state and cannot be easily
proportional to the concentration of these re-suspended uniformly in the fluid.
HGS in the fluid, so increasing HGS o Due to this reason use of such type of
concentration decreases fluid weight. work over fluids is very limited.
o There are practical limitations as to how o High permeable and water sensitive
much weight reduction can be formations are good candidate for such
accomplished for a given HGS density fluids.
grade.

211
Non Circulating system: o Temporary plug or bridge can be
Apart from above-mentioned various removed by washing or dissolved by
circulating fluids, so called pills (linear, cross chemical treatment.
linked gels and particulate) are used o Besides restricting the flow of fluid near
worldwide to control fluid loss in well bore, polymer in the pill consolidates
depleted/sub-hydrostatic wells. Pills are very bridging particles on pore throats of
cost effective and easy to prepare and apply in formation.
the wells. The various non-circulating fluids o Guar gum, CMC, HEC, Xanthan etc are
are: common polymer used.
o Polymer pills o Bridging material are typically sized
o Particulate pills  Calcium carbonates
 Salts
Polymer pills:  Resins and
Various polymers commonly used are guar  Micronised cellulose fibers.
gum, CMC, xanthan, HEC etc. Whether the
linear or cross-linked gel will enter the A typical pill contains –
formation or not is generally dependent on: o Sized bridging material.
o Polymer type and concentration o Polymer solution in brine
o Pore throat sizes
o Over balance head and To have a non permeable filter cake, the
o Bottom hole temperature. particle size distribution of bridging material
should be wide, with 5 % volume equal to or
Salient feature of polymer pill are: greater than one third of the median pore size
o Pills (gels) can be removed from the of the formation. The system should be
throats of pores of formation by washed out by fluid or a chemical (acid)
application of a breaker (internal or treatment.
external).
o Longer break time may be achieved but is Bridging Particle Material:
a risk as minor chemical variation may Selection of particle material (carbonate,
not allow a total breakdown of the gel resins, sodium chloride and micronised
and hence permanent formation damage cellulose fibers) is based upon many factors
may be caused. such as:
o Success of linear or cross linked gels in o Economics
controlling fluid loss is marginal because o Formation pressure
the polymer molecules have a very high o Temperature and
affinity for each other and their attraction o Type of expected production.
for the formation grains is low.
o Polymer pill may fill the well bore, their o Resins:
ability to form a low permeable plug is  In case temperature is well below
limited and fluid passes between gel plug 162 deg C (resin softening point) and
and the wall of the bore hole in the formation produces either aromatic
formation. crude or condensate, oil soluble sized
resin bridging particles should be
Particulate pill: considered because of the assured
As the polymer gels (linear or cross linked) do self-removal by dissolution.
not completely stop the fluid loss in the  Resins have sp. gr. of 1.02.
formation, temporary plugging of pore throats  Loss of oil soluble resins in an oil or
by addition of sized solid particles in polymer condensate producer would not be a
gel becomes the choice of preference and such great concern since such materials
type of pill is called particulate pill. will eventually dissolve.
o Solids particles used for
plugging/blocking formation are called o Sodium chloride:
bridging or blocking agent.  NaCl has more versatility than either
o Blocking agents act as inert particle in the calcium carbonate or resins but its
pill and are least damaging if properly use in low pressured formation is
sized. limited by its high saturation density
o Blocking agents with polymer, forms a (1200 kg/m3).
temporary thin plug like mud cake and  Sodium chloride (sp. gr. 2.18) as
seals formation pores. bridging particle are truly no
damaging.

212
  Sized salt particles have same agent for application in sub
thermal stability as calcium hydrostatic wells.
carbonate.
 Bridging Particle Size:
o Micronised cellulose fibers: Particle size of bridging particles is
 Micronised cellulose fibers have determined mainly on three
good sealing characteristic and principles:
effectively to stop fluid loss.  Particle should have a wide
 Length of these fibers is normally 2- range of sizes.
200 micron and diameter 20 micron  Smallest particles should be
and is used for seepage and whole large enough to be stopped at the
fluid loss control. surface of the formation, so that
 Orient themselves in pack bundles in they can be easily removed,
low pressure zone and form a seal  Particles with a median diameter
very quickly and do not allow-fluid one-third to one-seventh of the
to pass in formation. size of the formation pore throat
 But lack of acid solubility restricts are sufficient enough to plug the
their use, as complete removal of pore channels, Wider the range
fibers is not ensured. The use of of particle sizes, the more likely
these fibers is restricted in producing that an impermeable filter cake
formations because of their general would formed.
lack of acid volubility.  Formation median pore size can
 They are soluble in strong alkaline be estimated by:
solution. Median pore size (micron),
Dpore (micron) = (Permeability
o Calcium carbonate: in md)1/2
 Calcium Carbonate (sp. gr. 2.7) is Median Particle size (micron)),
widely available (in brands also) and DPar = 1/3 of Median pore size.
less expensive than resins. o In fractured or very high permeability
 It has good temperature stability. formations larger particle must be added
 Fluid system temperature sensitivity in the pills to initiate the bridging
would be limited only by the process.
tolerance of the polymer o Continual loss of even acid soluble
approximately 149 deg C to 177 deg. carbonate particles deep into the
C for pills and circulating systems. formation is not recommended. It is
 CaCO3 as bridging particle has many uncertain that an acid cleanup would
advantages: actually be able to contact the particles if
 Commercially available in penetrate deep into formation.
various sizes
 Nontoxic Selection of Polymer for Pill:
 Non-corrosive and Polymers are generally used as viscosifiers in
 Act as inert particles in the pill. drilling and workover fluids. The most
 Salient feature of CaCO3 pill common polymers are cellulose products and
systems are: polysaccharide. These include CMC (Corboxy
 CaCO3 is least damaging if size Methyl Cellulose), HEC (Hydroxy ethyl
of particles is suitably chosen Cellulose), guar gum, xanthan gum polymers
and the pill is placed properly. and others. Polymer in particulate pill helps to
 This has proved a very cost consolidate the bridging particles and restricts
effective, easily operative pill fluid flow through the cake due to adsorption
system and is widely used all of polymer on the surface of bridging particles
over the world. and thus, the polymer fills the remaining
 Calcium carbonate is insoluble spaces between solid particles. HEC is the
in formations fluids and can be most common polymer used as viscosifier
completely dissolved by 15 % because;
HCI. HEC is:
 It is also available in brands in o A semi synthetic shear thinning polymer
wide particle size distribution in o Readily hydrate in most of the
the market. commercial brines
 Keeping in view the superior o Due to nonionic unaffected by the salt
quality of CaCO3 as bridging composition of brine except Zn.
material, it is considered to be o Non-damaging if hydrated properly
most suitable fluid loss control
213
o Non-toxic and has good thermal stability.  MECHANICAL FLUID LOSS CONTROL
Keeping in view the superior quality of SYSTEMS:
HECover other polymers, HEC is considered Mechanical fluid control systems are
to besuitable polymer for application in sub- essentially down hole equipment, which are
hydrostatic wells for loss control. installed in a well for either temporary or
permanent blocking of fluid flow in the
Hydration of HEC: formation.
o When water-soluble polymers like HEC They are expandable or sliding sleeve type of
is added to water, some HEC gets communication device installed for future
partially hydrated and becomes semisolid application.
called ― fish eyes‖ Elastomeric and metallic components of these
o Depending upon the process of addition devices must be compatible with formation
of polymer powder to brine, fish eyes of fluid.
sizes from several microns to several Such devices are glass disk assembly,
centimeters are formed; these fish eyes frangible flappers, ball- dropper fluid loss
are potential source of formation damage. device, tubing latched plug, hydraulic reverse
o A non-damaging fluid loss control pill operated flapper, packer plug, tubing plug,
may be very damaging to the formation if acid soluble plugs etc.
not properly processed to remove fish
eyes.  COMPLICATIONS IN FLUID HANDLING
o Fish eyes formation is avoided by
dispersing the HEC powder prior to Hydrates
hydration. This is done in two ways: o In deepwater operations, hydrates can
 Dispersing the HEC powder in liquid sometimes form in the choke and kill
phase (alcohols, glycol, lines when a well is shut in on a gas kick
hydrocarbons etc.) in which and circulated to the surface
hydration of HEC does not take o Hydrates are a mixture of natural gas and
place. water that form a solid substance.
 Controlling the pH of brine, o This solid looks and behaves very much
hydration of HEC can be slowed like ice.
down greatly at low pH and this o Under the pressure and temperature
permits the HEC powder to disperse encountered in deepwater, conditions are
prior to hydration. favorable for the formation of hydrates.
 KCI / NaCL is dissolved in o They can plug choke and kill line and
potable filtered water. interfere the normal operations of BOPs.
 PH of the brine is adjusted to 5.5 o Plugging and partial plugging of choke
-6.0 by adding HCL or Citric lines as a kick is circulated out could
acid cause bottomhole pressure to get so high
 HEC is added to this brine and that the formation breaks down.
allowed to mixed for 15 o Crew should therefore be alert to the
minutes. possibility of the hydrate plugging and be
 After HEC powder is properly prepared to stop pumping if the pressure
dispersed in brine, the pH of the rises too high.
of brine is raised to 8.0-8,5 by o High salinity drilling mud suppresses
adding sodium hydroxide at hydrate formation.
shear rate of 100/sec. o In any case, in areas in which hydrate
 0.05 % (vol/vol) commercial formation is likely, planning should
bactericide is added to gelled consider the possibility of hydrate
brine for bacterial inhibition. formation during well control operations.

HEC Gel Breakers: Crystallization

For the breaking of HEC gel a number of o Beyond the saturation point, the salt fails
breakers are used. Such breakers are: to go into solution and either crystallizes
o Various oxidants or settles out as a solid.
o Acids (HCl), Formic acid o Multi salt brines, in which two or more
o Sodium perborate + citric acid salts are added to water, can be used
o Acetic acid, where higher densities are needed.
o Ammonium per-sulphate o The formation of crystals in a completion
o Cellulose enzyme. and work over fluid can be a real hazard.
o Most commonly used breaker is HCI o When mixing a fluid, many different salts
and mineral combinations may be used to

214
 get the desired fluid weight at the most o Should the temperature of the fluid in the
economical and safest condition. The tanks be reduced by a change in weather
mixture often contains all of the material or other conditions, crystallization can
water can hold at a given temperature-the occur, reducing not only the fluid density,
saturation point. No further weight is but also its ability to be pumped.
gained by adding more material. o Variations in temperature and in brine
o Should more material be added and the solutions themselves affect the
temperature held constant, one of two crystallization point; it is vital, therefore,
things happens: to get the crystallization point for a
o Either the material falls to the bottom of particular solution from the fluid supplier.
the tankor crystallization occurs. o Any decrease in temperature causes solid
o Crystallization in a completion or salts to crystalize and settle down.
workover fluid looks like ice forming and (Figure-6-21).
is sometimes called freezing.

Figure-6.21: Crystalization of various brines with their densities

o Increases in temperature decreases brine

Stability of brines density and may leave the brine under-
o The stability of the brines at high salt saturated to salt.
loadings can be very ―touchy‖ with o Additions of gas, alcohol, some
temperature drops causing salt surfactants, shear and reduction in
precipitation. temperature can lead to salt precipitation.
o Salt may affect the way polymers hydrate
or disperse.

215
Figure-6.22: Change in density of NaCl and KCl brine with temperature

(60 F) when downhole temperature

o Downhole density can be calculated by increases to 230 F ?
the formula; DDH = (16.4)(1 + 0.000252 (60-230)
DDH= DS (1 + 0.000252 (TS-TDH)) DDH = 15.7 lb/gal

 What is downhole density (DDH) of a o The density of various brines at

16.4 lb/gal surface density (Ds) brine downhole temperature conditions is
shown in Figure-6.22 to 6.25.

Figure-6.23: Change in density of CaCl2 brine with temperature

216
 Figure-6.24: Change in density of CaBr2 brine with temperature

Figure-6.25: Change in density of ZnBr2 brine with temperature

 COMPLETION/WORKOVER FLUID FOR In HPHT application, the base fluid used for
HPHT WELLS these types of completion fluids is weighted
brine based on NaCl, KCl, CaCl2, CaBr2,
HPHT Reservoirs have been defined where ZnBr2 or their combinations as per the density
the undisturbed bottom hole temperature at requirements of the final fluid.
prospective reservoir depth is greater than For effectively suspending the bridging and
149oC (300oF) and the formation to be drilled weighting agents in the completion fluid, it is
through exceeds (0.8 psi/ft) or around 10,000 viscosified by adding soluble non-damaging
psi) polymer viscosifiers

217
A defoamer like aluminium stearate or 2-ethyl o The temperature limitation of weighted brines is
hexanol is required to control foaming of the set by thermal stability of the viscosifier used.
brine due to the presence of polymer Presently, temperature limitation is indicated
viscosifiers. Listed below are the advantages upto 300 F (150 C).
and drawbacks of weighted brines. o Some difficulties may be encountered in the
Advantages operation of downhole tools.
o When used as a packer fluid, solids will settle
o The sized, degradable solids bridge on the on packer, creating, problems during workover.
formation face and can be removed by
washing (NaCl) or acidization (CaC03). Problems with the high density halide brines :
Hence, the wellbore will be brought in an o ZnCl2 brines are highly acidic (1-1.5 at 1.92
essentially unplugged condition. S.G), reactive and corrosive. Not possible to
o The perforations, after raise the pH as precipitation of Zn(OH)2 takes
washing/acidization, will be clean and place.
open for maximum production. o CaBr2-ZnBr2 brine forms scale of calcium
o Due to effective bridging, invasion is not salts in CO2 environment
deep. Hence, problems due to water o CaBr2-ZnBr2 brine is having some tolerance to
blocks, emulsion blocks and migration of H2S. A heavy influx of H2S would, however,
formation fines are less. precipitate ZnS.
o Good fluid loss control due to the sized o CaBr2, ZnBr2 are highly expensive.
bridging solids. o It is not safe to discharge ZnBr2 containing
o Good solids suspending and carrying brines in sea, river or other surface waters.
properties. o These halide brines are associated with serious
o Inhibitive to formation clay hydration and corrosion and SCC causing failures of tubular in
dispersion and avoids formation damage HPHT wells.
due to these factors. o Acidity, associated corrosion, iron accumulation
o Excellent as a drill-in fluid. and handling problem
o Preparation, storage and handling o The pH of CaCl2/CaBr2can not be raised
comparatively easier and safer than clear beyond 8.0 due to precipitation of Ca (OH)2
brines since highly concentrated brines and reduction in the specific gravity of the
are not required for density (part of the brines.
density is made up by degradable solids). o The pH of ZnBr2 brines must be less than 6 to
o Expensive filtration equipment not prevent the precipitation of Zn (OH)2.
required on well-site. Base brines are
filtered only in the brine plant.  FORMATE BRINES
o Less corrosive than clear brines, again
due to weighted base brines being less
Formate brines are the aqueous solutions of
concentrated than clear brines of
the alkali metal salts of formic acid. These
equivalent density.
salts are readily soluble in water, yielding
o Cost is substantially less when compared
high-density brines with low crystallization
to clear brines of equivalent density.
temperatures. The formate anion is the most
hydrophilic of the family of carboxylic acid
Drawbacks anions yet it retains significant organic
o Due to invasion into formation, water characteristics when compared with the
blocks, emulsion blocks and blocking of halides.
pores due to migration of formation fines
The alkali metal cations (Na+, K+, and Cs+)
may occur. The damage, however, is not
are all monovalent, giving them their unique
deep due to good bridging property.
compatibility with biopolymers while at the
o The compatibility of formation fluids
same time contributing to their non-damaging
with the brine must be checked before
behavior in reservoirs.
use.
Formate brines offers clear advantages over
o Weighted brines will have to be properly
the traditional halide family of brines in that
inhibited against corrosion at high
their use is not just limited to completion and
temperatures.
packer fluids, but includes solids-free drilling
o Requires proper training of personnel and
fluids, which offer exceptionally good flow
precautions during preparation, handling
characteristics over the whole density range.
and use.
o Corrosive and toxic to personnel, though This means formate brines in general can
to a less extent than clear brines of provide thermally-sensitive solutes, such as
similar density. water-soluble polymers, with considerable
o Zinc containing brines are protection against oxidative degradation at
environmentally hazardous high temperatures.

218
 The formate brines cover the entire fluid
density range normally required in drilling
and completion.
Completion fluids based on formate brines
(sodium, potassium, and cesium salts of
formic acid) have been found temperature
stability, good hydraulics, shale stability, and
tolerance to contaminations, material
compatibility, reservoir compatibility and
recycling possibilities.

The densities of the three formate brines are

shown in Table-6.5.

Table- 6.5 : Typical densities of Formate Brines

Max. density Typical
Brine
(ppg) density (ppg)
Sodium formate 10.8 8.5-10.8
Sodium bromide 12.8 10.0-12.5
Potassium formate 13.3 10.8-13.1
Calcium chloride/ 15.1 11.7-15.1
calcium bromide
Calcium bromide 15.3 11.4-14.2
Cesium formate 19.2 13.1-19.2
Zinc bromide/ calcium 19.1 14.2-19.1
bromide/calcium
chloride
Zinc bromide / calcium 19.2 14.0-19.2
bromide
Zinc bromide 21.0 19.2-21.0
Potassium formate (1.57 18.30 13.10- 18.3
SG / cesium formate (
2.20 SG)

Benefits of Formate Brines

o Formate brines are safe to handle and
environmentally benign product,
delivering lower risk of an HSE incident
or compromise well integrity.
o Formate brines are powerful anti-oxidant
and maintain rheological stability at very
high temperature (more than 180 0 C).
o Formate brines have been in regular use
in HPHT applications worldwide for
downhole temperatures as high as 236°C
/ 457°F and pressures of 14,000 psi.
o High density brines are very expensive
fluids as much as twenty to twenty-five
times the cost of a water-base mud of
equivalent density (in the higher density
range). So, fluid recovery, reuse and
resale must be considered.

219
Chapter 7
FORMATION DAMAGE
AND
WELLBORE TREATMENTS

OVERVIEW OF WELL STIMULATION Solvent treatment

Scale treatment
7.1 OBJECTIVE
7.2 FORMATION DAMAGE
Reservoir stimulation is one of the main activities of
production engineers in the petroleum industry. The Formation damage, broadly speaking, is any process
prime objective of well stimulation is restoration and/or causing a reduction in the natural productivity or
enhancement of well‘s productivity or injectivity by the injectivity of an oil and gas production or injection well.
faster delivery of the petroleum fluid and/or to increase This is usually the unnatural restrictions in the wellbore
ultimate economic recovery. or the adjacent formation, which reduces the production
or injection of desired fluid. The problems associated
Wells drilled to access petroleum formations cause a with formation damage are:
pressure gradient between the reservoir pressure and that
at the bottom of the well. During production or injection Reduce production rates of oil and gas
the pressure gradient forces fluids to flow through the Reduce injection rates of water and gas
porous medium. Driving force to this flow is the Increase drawdown or injection pressure
permeability k, a concept first introduced by Darcy in Reduction in ultimate economic recovery
1856 that led to the well-known Darcy‘s law as given
below: Many reservoirs can be affected by many different types
. of damages. Understanding the formation damage
7.08kh(Pr - Pwf) mechanism is essential for deciding the stimulation
q treatment for any well.
μ O BO ln re /rw 3/4 S
The first sign of formation damage is lower than
Presence of skin factor, S, reduces the productivity of the expected productivity and accelerated production decline
well as is evident from above equation. Stimulation in affected well. Damage can occur during essentially all
technique (like matrix acidization) is applied for downhole operations including drilling, completion,
restoration or enhancement of well‘s productivity by production, well stimulation, workover, well service and
reducing or bypassing this value of skin factor. various types of liquid or gas injection operations.

In a low permeability condition, the well‘s potential is In past the petroleum industry has focused on piecemeal
inherently low. Therefore, suitable stimulation technique solution to its problems. For example, the drilling activity
(like hydraulic fracturing) aims to reduce the ‗re/rw‘ focused on practices, which gave high rates of
factor in the above equation. To sum up there are two penetration and minimum wellbore problems. The
main objectives of well stimulation viz. cement slurry was designed to avoid any premature
 Restoration of well‘s productivity/injectivity by setting in the casing. The impact of these activities on
removing Formation damage. well‘s production has come under focus now.

 Enhancement of well‘s productivity/injectivity Stimulation treatment could cure many formation

by improving fluid flow path in reservoir. damage situations. However prevention of damage is
better than cure and could make the well cheaper.
 Types of well stimulation
 Damage characterization
Following are the main types of stimulation treatment
used in oilfield Damage characterization is the first step in the process
Matrix acidization damage removal. The search for the identity of the
Hydraulic fracturing damage begins in the production and development
history of the well and even neighboring wells. Drilling
Acid fracturing
220
records, completion design, offset well performance and During different operational phases at a well the
past treatment records are some of the sources of formation comes in contact with many different fluids
information. The objective damage characterization is to and there is a continual movement of fluids either from
identify the location and types of damage that may be a well bore to formation or from formation to well bore.
problem. Although damage is usually considered a
singular problem, multiple occurrences of damage are Whenever the over balance condition exists, then the
quite common, some with interfering removal treatments. fluid starts entering the formation. Most of these fluids
also contain solid particles in suspended condition in
Formation damage identification and investigation large quantity. Under certain conditions for e.g. the
include average size is close to that of pore throat, these solid
– Types of damage particles may plug the pore throats, which will ultimately
decrease the productivity.
– Location of damage
– Extent and screening of damage
– Effect of damage on well production or
injection.

 Types of Rock Minerals

To understand the formation damage we have to
understand the reservoir rock and fluid properties. There
are different types of rock minerals like
– Detrital (survive weathering) [quartz]
– Secondary (formed during weathering) [clay]
– Precipitated (during chemical/biochemical
reactions) [calcite]
– Authigenic (during sedimentation) [dolomite]
Fig.:7.1 Plugging by solid particles
Out of all these minerals, clays are the critical minerals
from formation damage perspective.
2) Plugging by formation solids
 Clay The formation solids / fines are very small particles of
Clay is a term used to describe a group of hydrous loose solid materials present in pore spaces. They are
aluminium silicates minerals that are typically less than located on the interior surfaces of the porous matrix and
02 μm in dia. Clays are generally form by the chemical are free to move or migrate through the pores along with
weathering of silicate-bearing rocks by carbonic acid or any fluid (which wets them), that flow in the reservoir. If
by hydrothermal activity. Clays are distinguished from these particles do migrate, but are not carried all the way
other small particles present in solids such as silts by through the formation by produced fluids, they can
their small size, flake or layered shape, affinity for water accumulate at pore restrictions, causing severe plugging
and high plasticity index. Generally contains impurities and large restrictions in permeability. As most of fines
like potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium or iron, in are water-wet, therefore small amount of water
small amount. production can induce the fines to migrate. The
detachment and migration of fines depends on the fluid
 Damage Mechanisms velocity also, therefore flow rate also becomes an
important factor.
Various possible damage mechanisms are explained in
this section.

1) Plugging by solid particles foreign to the formation

221
 Fig.: 7.2 Enlarged pictures of formation solids inside pores

3) Clay swelling (static clay damage) Tight gas reservoirs are more susceptible to this kind of
damage. In fracture fluids also this may be effective and
Clays may change volume as the salinity of the fluid
lead to damage.
flowing through the formation changes. The
montmorillonite and illite are swelling in mature and are
6) Emulsion formation
more vulnerable in presence of lesser saline aqueous
fluids than those of formation water. Therefore, their Emulsions are formed by mixing of two immiscible
presence in higher percentage and application of lesser fluids such that droplets of one are dispersed in the other.
saline aqueous fluids can cause them to swell and the Emulsion formation results from the incompatibility of
increased volume may adversely affect the spaces useful different types of fluids in the formation. It may be
to production. enhanced by presence of surfactants and fine particles
such as clays or asphaltene. Brine crude is a relatively
4) Dispersion of clayey platelets common emulsion type. As emulsions have higher
viscosity than either constituent fluid, their presence may
Kaolinite, which is also known as migration fines and adversely affect the productivity.
mica needles may migrate through the pores, if lesser
saline aqueous fluid is injected in the formation. Due to
lesser concentration of divalent cations or potassium, the
mutual repulsion of clayey platelets increases. The
repulsive force overcomes the attractive forces and the
released clayey particles can be carried to the vicinity of
the well bore and choke the formation pores.

5) Water block

A strong invasion of well bore fluids low permeable

reservoir (mainly in a depleted one), may induce strong
oil-water interfacial tension. Due to increased interfacial
tension, a water block may form, which can block oil
production. It is caused by a region of high Sw around
the wellbore. The high Sw may be caused by :
Fig.:7.3 Emulsion formation
– Loss of water based fluid from well.
– Reservoir problems, like coning etc.. 7) Precipitation of inorganic scales
The incompatible invading fluid may generate
The water blocks causes Kro or Krg to decrease in the precipitates of inorganic substances in contact with
near wellbore region. It proves to be more troublesome native aqueous fluid which can block pore spaces. Most
in following conditions: of the invading waters (such as filtrates, completion
fluids & injection water) contain anions that are potential
– Low permeability, scale generators. Furthermore, if formation water
– Low pressure gradients(gas wells), contains significant percentages of Ba, Sr or Ca ions,
– High surface tensions (gas wells). then under certain conditions of temperature, pressure,
pH and concentration, compounds such as BaSO4, SrSO4
and CaCO3 may be precipitated.

222
8) Precipitation related to acidizing modifying the cloud point using chemical methods are
accepted practices to prevent paraffin deposition in the
In stimulation jobs, such as acidizing, different
tubing.
precipitates may form if the acid is not compatible to
formation rock and fluid. In sandstone formation,
containing sufficient calciferous minerals, may lead to
precipitation of CaF2 if calcium is not removed prior to
injection of hydrofluoric acid (HF). In formations rich
in minerals like chlorite and ferric dolomite, the acid
solubilizes the iron, and may lead to precipitation of iron
hydroxide Fe(OH)3. As acid dissolves matrix and
matrix cementing materials, mineral grains may be
liberated and can migrate to plug pores.

9) Mechanical damage
Mechanical damage of the area near well bore may take
place due to many physical or mechanical actions. Rock
compression during drilling may occur due to successive
increase in the pressure differential (caused by surge
Fig.:7.6 Paraffin depositions in tubing
pressure). The drill bits and the perforation can also
adversely affect the unconsolidated and mechanically
weak reservoirs. 11) Precipitation of asphaltene
Asphaltene is black carbonaceous compound of
petroleum and are insoluble in high paraffinic
hydrocarbon solvents. These compounds have relatively
high molecular weights and are considered as polar
materials due to the presence of S, N, O and complex
metals. Asphaltenes occur in many crude oils in the
form of colloidal suspended solid particles. Asphaltene
precipitation takes place when the crude oil loses its
ability to disperse the particle due to alteration of certain
equilibrium condition. It occurs mainly when pressure
drops.

12) Wettability alteration

Fig.:7.4 Bit / String Induced Mechanical Damage
Wettability is the preferential sticking of liquid on solid
surface. If a drop of a liquid is placed on the surface of
a solid that it cannot dissolve, it may spread out into a
thin film or it may remain in the form of a drop. If the
drop of liquid spreads on the solid surface, it wets the
surface. In contrast, if the drop of liquid does not spread,
it does not wet the surface.

If the reservoir rock is water wet, oil can freely move

through the pore spaces. However, in many cases,
hydrocarbon precipitates stick to rock surface and make
it oil wet. If the wettability of rock surface altered from
Fig.:7.5 Perforation Damage water wet to oil wet condition, the values of relative
permeability (Kro and Krg) decreases dramatically.

10) Paraffin deposition The main causes of wettability alteration are:

Paraffin is the hydrocarbon fractions with a carbon chain

– Surfactants in drilling muds
length starting of C18-20 up to C70 or higher. The – Surfactants in completion fluids
precipitation of paraffin is triggered by a loss of – Surfactants in stimulation fluids
pressure, loss of temperature or loss of short-chain
hydrocarbon compounds (i.e., the light ends). The
– Resins (sand control)
temperature at which the first solid paraffin crystal
forms from an all-liquid solution is called the cloud
point. Designing the completion so that produced fluid
surface temperatures are above the cloud point and
223
 If the invading fluid contains bacteria then formation
pore spaces may be blocked by accumulation of
bacteria. The most troublesome bacteria in the oilfield
are sulfate-reducing bacteria, slime formers, iron
oxidizing bacteria and bacteria that attack polymers in
fracturing fluids.

16) Polymer invasion

Polymers are common invading fluid constituents.
Mainly it is used for increasing viscosity or as lost
circulation materials. The degradation and breakup with
time or on contact with hydrocarbons are important
factors while selecting the polymers. If proper care is
Fig.:7.7 Change in wettability not taken then polymer invasion can cause formation
damage.
13) Reduced relative permeability
In zones producing oil, if large volume of invading 17) Gas breakout
water enters due to adverse nature of invading fluid, The gas breakout may be caused due to increased gas
filter cake and pressure differential, then oil saturation saturation near wellbore or downward coning of pre-
may decrease. existing gas cap. This leads to gas breakout and decrease
In gas producing zones, the invading oil from oil-based in oil production.
mud can increase oil saturation, thereby decreasing
relative permeability of gas. If near well bore pressure 18) Condensate banking
is reduced below dew point pressure of gas during
production, then dropout of liquid hydrocarbons in near This kind of problem occurs in gas reservoirs with
well bore zone may reduce the relative permeability to significant condensate yield and relatively high dew
gas. point pressure. As the near wellbore pressure reduces
during production, dew point pressure of gas is reached.
14) Sludge formation Dropout of liquid hydrocarbons in near wellbore zone
reduces relative permeability to gas. Once formed,
Sludge is semi-solid compound and its formation takes condensate bank itself causes additional pressure drop,
place due to reaction between acid and crude oil. It and is self-aggravating.
usually occurs with heavy crude. It may also occur in
lighter crude, if invading acid is iron contaminated.

Fig.: 7.9 Condensate banking

Oil-base mud (OBM) is the drilling fluid of choice for

Fig.: 7.8 Sludge formations the lubricity required in many highly deviated wells and
for formations that are extremely sensitive to water-base
mud. Most OBMs, and particularly those with densities
15) Damage by bacteria
greater than 14 lbm/gal, contain sufficient solids to
Bacteria can be a serious problem in production create silt-stabilized emulsions when mixed with high-
operations because of what they consume and their by- salinity brines or acids. These emulsions are viscous and
products. Bacteria can grow in many different resist breaking.
environments and conditions: temperatures ranging from
12°F to greater than 250°F [–11° to >120°C], pH values Some of these emulsions have been shown to be stable
ranging from 1 to 11, salinities to 30% and pressures to for several months. The level of damage caused by these
25,000 psi.
224
emulsions can be so severe that an entire pay zone can
be missed.

7.3 WELL DIAGNOSIS

To understand the nature and cause of formation
damage, the correct diagnosis of the problem is
necessary. It helps in designing of suitable and effective
treatment to solve the problem. Diagnosis of the
formation damage can be done with help of many
different procedures and available data.

Well performance curves or production history of

specific well can provide clues to help define the
problem. Comparing the actual well performance with
the expected normal production performance for that Fig.:7.11: Comparison of damaged & undamaged well
type of operative reservoir drive mechanism can be very
helpful to figure out the cause of production decline. Skin factor is a dimensionless pressure and is defined (in
The production trend and the information about oil field units) as the following equation:
activities done on the well gives information, whether
production decline is due to the normal reservoir S= k* h* Ps / 141.2*q*B*
pressure depletion or any mechanical problem as sand If one assumes that the skin effect is due to a damaged
production or ineffective artificial lift or it is due to zone of radius Rs and reduced permeability Ks, then the
formation damage problems. skin effect can be calculated from the following
equation:
7.3.1 SKIN
S= ( K/Ks –1 )* ln (Rs/Rw)
Skin, usually denoted by ‗S‘, is basically the
measurement of the severity of formation damage. Skin The skin effect can be described in terms of an effective
factor expresses the reduction in the formation well bore radius. This is the smaller radius that the well
permeability near the wellbore as compared to the appears to have due to the reduction in flow caused by
original permeability. The formation around the the skin effect. This effective radius is given by,
wellbore may be damaged due to various regions and Reff.=Rw*e-s
decreases the permeability. The representation of near
wellbore damage is shown in the following figure:

Fig.: 7.12: Effect of Skin on production

7.3.2 Flow efficiency

Fig.:7.10: Near wellbore damage Flow efficiency can be used to describe wellbore
damage also. It is the ratio of the theoretical pressure
drop if no skin had been present to the actual pressure
The skin causes higher pressure drop during production drop measured during the test.
or injection operations. The pressure drop across the FE= P (zero skin) / P (actual)
skin, Ps is the difference between the actual pressure
drop in the well when it is flowing and the pressure drop 7.3.3 Pressure transient analysis
that would have been seen if the well were undamaged. Transient pressure testing has been used for many years
The following figure depicts the comparison of pressure to define various reservoir characteristics. Several ways
drop in a damaged and an undamaged well: to identify, and quantify, formation damage in

225
 producing wells are available from analysis of this type It is normally observed that after perforation the well
of test. The value of skin or extent of formation damage doesn‘t produce. The types of likely damages during
may be measured with help of pressure transient perforations are as follows:
analyses.

7.3.4 Nodal Analysis – Hydration and swelling of clay minerals.

Nodal analysis is another tool, which can be used to – Movement and plugging by clay size particles.
identify the presence of formation damage and quantify – Emulsion and water blocks due to lost wellbore
the effect of the damage on the production rate as well. fluid
By definition, nodal analysis is a systematic approach to – Relative permeability effects etc.
the optimization of oil and gas wells by thoroughly
evaluating the complete producing system. Each 7.4.4 Production activities
component of the producing system, including the
reservoir, wellbore, and surface facilities, is considered. The formation damages normally encountered in
production activities are
Once the optimum production rate is determined, the – Particle invasion
underperforming well can be recognized. This reduced – Swelling and dispersion of indigenous reservoir
productivity can be a result of many factors, but nodal clays by the mud filtrate
analysis allows for evaluation of each component of the – Mutual precipitation of soluble salts in the
producing system separately and therefore, can isolate filtrate and formation water
the source of the problem. – Slumping of unconsolidated sands
– Water block
7.3.5 Production logging
– Emulsion block
The production logging proves to be helpful in further
defining the cause of formation damage. The production 7.4.5 Sand Control
logs, such as flow meter are normally used to determine
the flow profile of the perforated zones. By analyzing The different damages during sand control are fines
the flow profile, intervals that are contributing little or migration, perforation plugging due to solids, polymer
no fluid can be identified. invasion etc.

7.4 SOURCES OF DAMAGES 7.4.6 Acidization

The damage mechanisms during different well The different types of damages that may occur during
operations are given below: acidization are
– Fines migration
7.4.1 Drilling – Precipitation of reaction products
Drilling process generally cause near wellbore damage – Emulsion and sludge formation
due to the invasion of mud filtrate and/or mud particles. – Wettability alteration etc.
The different types of damages during drilling are: Suitable design of acid formulation and quality control
– Plugging of formation pores by solids. during treatment are essential for minimizing the risk of
these damages,
– Wettability alteration by oil based mud.
– Emulsion block by oil based mud in high water 7.4.7 Water Injection
saturated zones.
– Emulsion block by water based mud on oil Water injection operation may lead to the formation
saturated zones. damage such as solid invasion, clay swelling, clay de-
flocculation, scaling, damage due to bacteria growth,
– Scale deposition etc. chemical adsorption/ wettability alterations, formation
dissolution, formation of precipitates etc.
7.4.2 Cementing
The chances of damage during the cementing operations 7.5 REMEDIAL MEASURES
are very less, as normally the presence of mud cake
Restoration of formation damage in order to re-establish
during drilling prevents further damage but lack of care
the pre-damage productivity/injectivity is the chief aim
may damage the formation. However, fines migration
of a stimulation engineer. In this section possible
from the cement slurry, precipitation of solids from the
remedial measures are listed against damage mechanism
cement, precipitation of expansive secondary minerals
under different field activity. These remedial measures
following reservoir mineral dissolution are some of the
are explained in detail in the next section titled ‗Well
types of damages during cementing operations.
Stimulation techniques‘. The remedial measures to be
takes for eliminating or reducing the different types of
7.4.3 Perforation
formation damages are given in the following table:

226
 Damage mechanism Remedial measures
Particle invasion Matrix acidization, perforation, hydraulic fracturing
Swelling and dispersion of indigenous reservoir clays Matrix acidization, hydraulic fracturing, clay
by the mud filtrate, completion/work over fluid etc. stabilization
Mutual precipitation of soluble salts in the filtrate and
Matrix acidization
formation water
Fines migration during the cementing, production
Matrix acidization, Perforation, Hydraulic fracturing
activities, sand control etc.
Plugged perforations due to improper perforating
Acidization, Perforation
conditions
Water block due to lost wellbore fluid Surfactant treatment, matrix acidization
Organic deposition Solvent treatment
Emulsion block Surfactant treatment
Sludge formation Solvent treatment
Slumping of unconsolidated sands Sand consolidation techniques, Frac and Pack
Scales precipitation Acidization, scale treatment, scale inihibitor
Relative permeability effects Surfactant treatment
Wettability alteration Surfactant treatment, Solvent treatment
Polymer invasion Surfactant treatment, Matrix acidization
Liquid block Surfactant treatment
Biologically induced impairment Biocide treatment

7.6 WELL STIMULATION TECHNIQUES pipe, surface equipment or flow-lines. In the case of
Remedial measures have the objective of improving near treating formation damage, acid removes flow-restricting
well bore permeability by removing formation damage. particles, scale deposits and minerals in the reservoir or
Depending on selection of technique, successful in the immediate wellbore vicinity. The acid mixture
application of these treatments will result in revival of holds the dissolved substance in solution until it is either
undamaged production and increase of production in removed from the well system or over-flushed a safe
many folds. Success of remedial measures depends on distance into the formation; then, the well can produce at
diagnosis of the problem and selection of suitable its natural potential. Little, if any, increase in
treatment. Remedial measures may be application of productivity will result unless formation damage actually
different conventional stimulation techniques or the exists.
advanced techniques such as deep penetrating acid
treatments, multistage acid fracturing, hydraulic When a fracture is created during an acidizing operation
fracturing etc. in carbonate reservoirs, increased flow capacity can
result from acid etching of the fracture faces. Here, large
Before attempting any remedial treatment, problems of increases in productivity are possible by creating a highly
each well have to be investigated intensively, often with conductive flow path through the formation.
multidisciplinary teams comprising of production and The normally used acidizing techniques fall broadly in to
reservoir engineers, geologists, chemists and others to the following categories:
provide best diagnosis and best treatment. Quality control
of chemicals, fluids and treating and operating i) Matrix acidizing
conditions, use of filters, cleaning of treating pipes, and ii) Acid fracturing
compatible fluid design is essential to improve treatment iii) Other acidization treatments such as tubing
results. pickling, acid spotting etc.

This section describes various remedial measures such 7.7.1 TYPES OF ACIDS
as, matrix acidization, acid fracturing, hydraulic
fracturing, solvent treatment, surfactant treatment etc.
A) Mineral acids
7.7 ACIDIZATION:
 Hydrochloric acid (HCl):
Acidizing is one of the oldest techniques in well
stimulation processes. Acidizing is a chemical process The most common acids are hydrochloric acid (HCl),
which dissolves an unwanted substance in the formation, used primarily to dissolve carbonate minerals. Usually, it
is used as a 15% or 28% solution (by weight) of

227
hydrogen chloride gas in water. The acid reacts with
calcite (CaCO3) or dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) to form One advantage of sulfamic acid is its solid physical state.
carbon dioxide, water and a calcium or magnesium salt. Solid sulfamic acid can be transported and stored without
Typical reactions between HCl and calcite or dolomite special equipment or tanks, and mixed with water at or
are shown below: near the wellsite as needed. Sometimes it is cast into
"acid sticks" for easy introduction into the wellbore.
2HCl + CaCO3 CaCl2 + H2O +CO2
4HCl + CaMg(CO3)2 CaCl2+MgCl2+2H2O+2CO2 The disadvantages of sulfamic acid include its
decomposition at around 180° F, making it inappropriate
 Hydrochloric - Hydro fluoric acid (HCl + HF): for applications where formation temperatures are above
160° F. Moreover, HCl offers more dissolving power and
This acid mixture is almost exclusively used for
comparable reactions at lower cost.
sandstone stimulation. As it is used in the petroleum
industry for well stimulation, HF is most often a dilute
Chloroacetic acid is generally preferred to sulfamic acid
solution in hydrochloric acid. The mixer of HCl and HF
when use of a powdered acid is appropriate, because it is
is normally called as mud acid. The mud acid
stronger and more stable.
formulations commonly used are:
C) Retarded Acids
12% HCl + 3% HF – Regular mud acid
12% HCl + 6% HF – Super mud acid  Retarded HF acid systems:
61/2% HCl + 1% HF - Half strength mud acid
Retarded HF acid can penetrate deeper into a formation
than conventional HF to remove siliceous solids.
This acid mixture is used because hydrofluoric acid is Retardation of HF achieves deeper penetration of unspent
reactive with clay minerals, sand, drilling mud, or cement acid and aids more complete formation damage removal,
that may be restricting near-wellbore permeability and and further increase production. A number of retarded
has ability to dissolve silica and increases the HF acid systems are commercially available. Several of
permeability. The HCl does not react with these materials them are:
but is needed to keep the pH low, thereby reducing the
precipitation of HF reaction products. SGMA (self-generating mud acid): The first retarded
sandstone-acidizing system to be used extensively was
Reaction with Silica: developed by Shell Oil Company. It involves pumping
SiO2 + 4HF SiF4 +2H2O ammonium fluoride and an organic ester, methyl
SiF4 + 2HF H2SiF6 formate, into the formation. Methyl formate has a very
low flash point and should be pumped with caution. In
Reaction with aluminio silicates: time, ester hydrolysis produces formic acid. This acid
36 HF + Al2Si4O10(OH)2 4H2SiF6 + 12 H2O + 2H3AlF6 reacts with ammonium fluoride to form HF, which then
dissolves clays or any siliceous minerals it contacts.
Reaction with Silicates:
Na4SiO4 + 8HF SiF4 + 4NaF + 4H2O Claysol retarded HF (Halliburton): A retarded clay-
2NaF + SiF4 Na2SiF6 dissolving system which utilizes ion-exchange properties
2 HF + SiF4 H2SiF6 of clay minerals to generate HF on clay in-situ. Since HF
is formed on clay surfaces, little sand is dissolved by this
B) Powdered Acid process. HF is created by sequentially injecting a volume
Powdered acids (sulfamic and chloroacetic) are used in of 3% ammonium fluoride followed by an equal volume
applications where logistics are of primary concern – for of 5% HCl. This process dissolves clay in the formation
example, in remote locations where bulk transport of as deep as a set of sequences can be pumped without
liquids is impractical or very expensive. These crystaline completely mixing together.
powders are readily soluble in water.
Fluoboric Acid: Fluoboric acid (HBF4) is an alternative
Sulfamic acid (HSO3NH2): It is a nonvolatile, non- to mud acid for sandstone acidization. It does not contain
hydroscopic, white crystalline or granular solid. Its large amounts of HF at any given time and thus has a
reaction products with carbonates are water soluble, and lower reactivity. However, it generates more HF, as HF
it is highly ionized in water. Sulfamic acid is less is consumed, by its own hydrolysis. Therefore, its total
corrosive than HCl, yet its strength is about the same. At dissolving power is comparable to a 2% mud acid
77° F a saturated solution of sulfamic contains about solution.
18% hydrochloric acid equivalent. Sulfamic acid reacts Fluoboric acid solutions are used as a pre-flush before
with limestone to form calcium sulfamate (Ca treating formations sensitive to mud acid, which avoids
(SO3NH2)2), water and carbon dioxide as per the fines destabilization and subsequent pore clogging. They
following reaction: are also used as a sole treatment to remove damage in a
sandstone matrix with carbonate cement or in fissures
2HSO3NH2 + CaCO3 —> Ca(SO3NH2)2 + H2O + CO2 that contain many clay particles. Another use is as an
228
over-flush after a mud acid treatment to allow easier Chemically Retarded Acids: When it is desirable to
penetration of the Fluoboric acid solution (a few feet). extend the spending time of an acid system, a chemical
retarding agent may be used. Most chemical retarders are
Fluoboric acid is recommended when the sandstone anionic surfactants (such as sulfonates or sulfates). These
contains potassic minerals to avoid damaging precipitates oil-wetting surfactants adsorb onto a carbonate to create a
and in the case of fines migration owing to its fines physical barrier to acid contact with the rock surface.
stabilization properties.
Emulsified Acids: Emulsified acids, obtained by
In the field, Fluoboric acid is easily prepared by mixing emulsifying an acid system with a hydrocarbon in
boric acid (H3BO3), Ammonium Bifluoride and HCl. presence of an emulsifier. The system may be either oil
Ammonium Bifluoride (NH4F.HF), reacts first with HCl or acid external, but the most common form is an oil-
to generate HF: external emulsion.

NH4F.HF + HCl →2HF + NH4Cl The oil-external emulsified acid normally contains 30%
hydrocarbon as the external phase and 70% HCl solution
Tetrafluoboric acid is formed as a reaction product of as the internal phase. The increased viscosity of the
boric acid (H3BO3) with HF, according to the following resultant fluid and the barrier created by the external oil
reaction: phase retards the rate of acid transfer from the bulk
solution to the rock surface. This reduction in mass
H3BO3 + 3HF → HBF3OH + 2H2O (quick reaction) transfers rate, and its corresponding reduction in reaction
HBF3OH + HF → HBF4 + H2O (slow reaction) rate, increases the depth of acid penetration into the rock
formation before the acid reacts with the rock or
The chemical reactions of Fluoboric acid is as follows: damaging material.

The following figures show the emulsified acid systems:

HBF4 + H2O → HBF3OH + HF. (Slow)
HBF3OH + H2O → HBF2(OH)2 + HF (Fast)
HBF2 (OH)2 + H2O → HBF (OH)3 + HF (Fast)
HBF (OH)3 + H2O → H3BO3 + HF (Fast)

The stepwise hydrolysis reaction produces 4 moles of HF

from each mole of HBF4 initially present in the solution.
This HF is available to react with the silicates. Since the
first step is slow, HBF4 provides deeper penetration. The
limited amount of HF at any given time decreases the
probability of forming precipitates of fluosilicates, Fig.: 7.13: Phases of emulsified acid system
fluoaluminates or silica.
An oil external emulsified acid system is shown in the
RHF acid solution (Nowsco): A retarded HF system for following figure:
treating sandstone formations suffering deep damage
caused by migration and/or swelling of siliceous
minerals. This single-stage treatment does not require
sequencing or ―shut-in‖ time for hydrolysis reactions.
Addition of aluminum chloride (AlCl3) to an HF acid
solution forms aluminum fluoride complexes, similar to
those formed in spent regular mud acid, which retards the
reaction rate of HF with siliceous materials.
 Retarded HCl acid systems:

Gelled Acid Systems: Gelled acids are used to retard

acid reaction rate during matrix acidization in carbonate
reservoirs of acid fracturing. Retardation occurs because
increased fluid viscosity reduces the rate of acid contact
with the fracture face.
Other related advantages of gelled acid systems include:
– Reduced leak-off rate Fig.: 7.14: Oil external emulsified acid system
– Deeper penetration
– Better cleanup of fines or solids transport Acid-external emulsion is composed of acid as the
Viscosifying agents normally associated with gel led acid external phase, where selection of acid depends on the
systems consist of natural polymers, synthetic polymers, well conditions involved. The acid phase may account
cross-linking agents, and surfactant gelling chemicals. for 80 to 90% of its total volume. Ordinarily, aromatics,
such as toluene or xylene, are used as the hydrocarbon or

229
internal phase. This acid system is used primarily to D) Organic acids
remove hydrocarbon materials like paraffin, congealed
Acetic acid: It is commonly used as a 10% weight
oil, and other deposits so acid can contact acid-soluble
solution in water. At this concentration, the products of
materials.
reaction (calcium and magnesium acetates) are generally
soluble in spent acid. Sometimes, it is used as mixture
Foamed Acid: Foamed acid has widespread application
with hydrochloric acid in hybrid acids. On the basis of
for effective acidization in carbonate reservoirs. Foamed
cost per unit of dissolving power, acetic acid is more
acid is particularly beneficial in low-pressure, low-
expensive than either hydrochloric or formic acids.
permeability, liquid sensitive formations. The major
advantages of using foamed acid are:
Formic acid: It is substantially stronger than acetic acid,
– Retards the acid reaction.
though appreciably weaker than hydrochloric acid. It is
– Improve the effective volume of acid, depending less costly than acetic acid but is more corrosive.
upon the quality of foam.
– Improves acid exposure in multilayered or The different types of acidization treatments are
horizontal wells. describes below:
– Better flow back (cleanup) in low pressure wells.
7.7.2 MATRIX ACIDIZATION
– Decreases acid leak-off into the fracture network or
to the thief zone because of the higher viscosity. Matrix acidizing is defined as the injection of acid into
– Less damage because of the low liquid content the formation matrix (pore spaces) at a pressure below
depending on the foam quality. A 60 to 80 foam the formation fracture pressure. The goal of a matrix
quality contains 60 - 80% gas and 40 - 20% acid. acidizing treatment is to achieve, more or less, radial acid
penetration into the formation. Matrix acidizing may be
selected as a proper technique for one or more of the
Acids are converted to foam by adding a foaming agent following reasons:
(usually a surfactant) and injecting gases along with the a) To remove or reduce formation damage either
acid, maintaining a certain ratio of acid and gas. natural or induced.
Conventionally, the stability of water based foam is b) To achieve low breakdown pressure of formation
increased by using a polymer such as guar, xanthan, prior to fracturing.
HEC, HPG etc. However, the stability of most of these c) To achieve uniform breakdown of all perforations.
polymers is limited in concentrated acid. Experience with d) To leave zone barrier intact.
foamed acid has shown that increasing acid viscosity
with conventional gelling agents before foaming can help A) Matrix acidization in sandstone
increase foam stability.
Matrix acidizing in sandstone achieves the natural true
Nitrogen is the most common gas used to make foamed permeability of the formation by removing clay damage.
acid. Foam quality is generally between 60% and 80%, Since the acid is exposed to and reacts on such a large
although qualities as high as 95% have been used. The area of the formation, unreacted acid can be effective
acid phase of the foam may contain 0.5% to 2.0% only for a short distance into the reservoir. Thus, this
surfactant and 0.2% to 2.0% corrosion inhibitor. The type of treatment is primarily designed to treat shallow
following figure shows the foamed acid prepared by damage in the immediate vicinity of the wellbore.
using a viscoelastic surfactant as viscosifier and foamer: Retarded hydrofluoric acid systems can penetrate farther.
Of course, the effective penetration is also a function of
the dissolving power and reaction rate, which depends on
the properties of the acid and the mineral in the
formation.
i) Treating Acids: Acids used in stimulating sandstone
reservoirs generally contain some form of the highly
reactive fluoride ion (F-). This ion is the only one that
reacts significantly with sand and clay. Treating acids
containing the fluoride ion include HCl-HF and organic-
HF acid mixtures, usually called mud acid.

HCl-HF mixtures: this acid blend can be prepared by

one of three methods: dilution of concentrated HF or by
mixing HCl with ammonium bifluoride (NH4HF2). The
second method, i.e. mixing HCl with ammonium
bifluoride (NH4HF2) in more common in oilfield
Fig.: 7.15: Foamed acid system applications.

Organic-HF acid mixtures: Blends of organic-HF acids

are used occasionally to retard the reaction of acid on
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sand and clay, and to reduce corrosiveness. These can iii) Treatment Technique : Acidization in sandstone
provide deeper penetration of unspent HF and, reservoirs with mud acids is normally carried out in three
consequently, effective removal of deep damage. Either key stages of fluid
formic acid-HF-or acetic acid-HF can be prepared from
liquid HF, solid ammonium bifluoride (NH4F2), or – Pre flush.
ammonium fluoride (NH4F), and the corresponding – Main acid (blend of HCl-HF or organic acid-HF).
organic acid. – Over flush or after flush.
ii) Mechanism: In matrix acid treatment acid stimulation Although various fluids may be pumped ahead of the pre
effect is achieved by dissolution of formation flush or behind the over flush, no change should be made
constituting minerals by action of acid to increase in these three basic stages. This treatment technique is
effective pore diameter. However, as acid is injected into designed to be compatible with natural formation fluids.
the formation there is initial permeability reduction due Figure below illustrates the basic HF acid treatment
to partial disintegration of sandstone matrix, down stream design.
migration of fines, plugging flow channels, precipitation
of orthosilicic acid or other reaction products.

To optimize the volume of acid required core flow

studies (acid response studies) are carried out in the lab
with representative core plugs. The typical core samples
and improvement of core permeability after acid
treatment are shown in the following figures:

Fig.7.18: Fluid entry in formation

Pre flush: A pre flush fluid should always be pumped

ahead of a fluoride-containing solution (e.g., HF acid). It
forms a vital barrier between the acid and the formation
fluids which prevents the formation of insoluble
Fig 7.17: Sandstone core samples precipitants, such as sodium and potassium fluosilicates
and fluoaluminates, and calcium fluoride (a reaction
product of HF with limestone). HCl or organic acid is
normally used as a pre flush. It dissolves the limestone,
thereby reducing the possibility of the formation of
insoluble precipitants. The pre flush must be compatible
with both the formation fluid and the HF treatment.

A solution of 5 to 15% HCl or acetic acid is popular for

displacing formation brines to prevent them from mixing
with reacted HF. The solution is also useful in the
removal of small amounts of calcareous cementing
material. Both conditions can result in the development
of insoluble precipitants.

Ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) is useful as a pre flush if

calcium chloride (CaCl2) has been used as a workover
Fig 7.17: Change in permeability observed during acid
fluid. The calcium chloride should be either circulated
response studies
out with a 3% NH4Cl solution or isolated behind a
packer. Any calcium chloride left in the wellbore should
Alternatively, acid volumes are also obtained through
be pushed away into the formation with HCl or NH4Cl
computer simulators. However, exact estimation of
solution.
damage is required for satisfactory simulation results.
Another concept, which is based on exposure time of
Main Acid: After the pre flush, HF acid is pumped into
acid, through experience is about 2 to 4 hours is also
the formation. The treatment fluid should be of an
commonly used in designing acid volume.
adequate volume and have proper concentration.
Depending on the formation properties, the
concentrations of acids are used as follows:
231
 – 12% HCl-3% HF (regular mud acid) in a high- Carbonate rocks are typically classified by the ratio. The
quartz, low-clay formation. rocks with calcite to dolomite ratio higher than 50% are
– A 13.5% HCl-l.5% HF solution may be used in a generally called limestone. Carbonate rocks normally
high-feldspar formation. present singular physical characteristics, such as double
porosity or high permeability contrasts, which are
– 6.5% HCl-l.0% HF in the formations with high clay
inherited from their process of formation. Because of
content.
these characteristics, the methodology of stimulation
– 3% to 7% HCl-0.5% HF solution is used in differs from that of sandstone reservoirs.
extremely "tight" formations (i.e., those with less
than 1 md permeability). In limestone reservoirs, HCl and organic acids is usually
used for stimulation. It reacts readily with carbonate
In addition to above criteria, acid must also meet the minerals and dissolves the rock matrix. The purpose of
following requirements to be suitable for acidizing: acidizing with HCl is either to bypass the damage by
– It must react with the desired materials to give creating high-conductivity channels (also called
soluble products wormholes) or to etch partially plugged fissures in low-
– It must be possible to inhibit against reaction with permeability fissured formations. For this reason, both
tubing and other equipments damage and rock characteristics must be taken into
– It must be safe to handle account when designing the treatment.
– It must be low cost and readily available
In matrix acid treatments, HCl is injected into the
After flush: The after flush or over flush is designed to formation below the fracturing pressure. The objective of
minimize the precipitation of Si(OH)4, which can limit such treatments is to achieve radial acid penetration and
the success of acid treatments. The over flush is also used increase permeability near the wellbore. The main
to: application for this technique is to remove near wellbore
damage and restore productivity in highly permeable
– Displace unreacted HF into the formation, thus
zones.
reducing corrosion, leaving more acid to react in
the formation, and allowing for a shut-in period,
i) Reaction process:
should one be required (e.g., ahead of a gravel
pack) A solid-liquid reaction such as HCl with carbonate
minerals involves the following stages:
– Displace HF reaction products away from the
wellbore
– Transport of hydronium ions (H3O+) to the rock
surface by diffusion.
– Remove the oil-wet relative permeability problems – Reaction of the ions with the rock.
caused by cationic surfactants, such as corrosion
inhibitors
– Transport of the reaction products from the surface
to solution. When one of the steps is much slower
– Stabilize clays and fines than the others, it imposes itself on the reaction rate
– Reestablish oil or gas saturation near the wellbore and is said to be the limiting step. Lund et al. found
Typical over flushes for HF treatments are 3% NH4Cl, that the reaction with calcite at room temperature
3% to 7% HCl, organic acid, diesel oil, kerosene, crude and higher is transport limited, whereas dolomite
oil, and nitrogen (commingled with any of the above switches from reaction rate limited to diffusion rate
fluids, or by itself). Aqueous after flushes are most limited between 50° and 100°C.
effective in displacing spent acid from the near wellbore
region. ii) Worm holing phenomenon:
Limestone cores acidized with HCl show the formation
HF reacts very rapidly on clays. Consequently, a long of macroscopic channels, called wormholes. Most of the
shut-in time is not required. A slow return of the published linear core flow experiments show that the acid
treatment load should begin as soon as practically injection rate affects the geometry of the channels and
possible. This minimizes fines movement; those that do the amount of acid required for breakthrough. Laboratory
move are more likely to come back to the wellbore studies found that worm holing occurs in limestone cores
without bridging. above a critical flow rate. Worm holing can be explained
by the instability of the acidizing phenomenon: bigger
B) Matrix Acidization in Limestone pores tend to receive more acid, which increases both
their area and length. The following figures depicts the
Carbonate rocks, by definition, contain more than 50%
carbonate core with large wormholes.
carbonate minerals. The most common carbonate
minerals are calcite (calcium carbonate, CaCO3) and
dolomite (1 mole of CaCO3 with 1 mole of MgCO3).

232
 Figure 7.19 Carbonate core with large wormholes

iii) Selection of acid: diverting acids, viscoelastic surfactant based self-

Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is usually the preferred acid for diverting acids and foamed acids etc. are being
limestone formations, because most of the reactant developed and applied in the fields with better responses.
products in both calcite and dolomites are soluble in the
spent acid. iv) Injection rate
To ensure wormhole propagation and successful
Both 15% and 28 % HCl are frequently used in matrix treatment, the acid velocity near the wellbore should be
acidizing applications in carbonates. The higher sufficiently high (exceed the critical velocity) to reach
concentration of acid can dissolve more carbonate. For the worm holing regime. It is common practice to
example, 28% HCl can dissolve 3659 lbs of CaCO3 per increase pumping rates as injectivity increases during a
gallon of acid; whereas, 15% HCl can dissolve 1.845 lbs treatment. Applying high rates ensures that all portions of
of CaCO3 per gallon. However, 28% HCl will require the reservoir reach the worm holing regime, even in case
more corrosion inhibitor, may cause wellbore stability of injectivity contrasts between different zones. It also
problems and may have a greater tendency to form allows sustaining wormhole growth as the stimulation
sludge and emulsion. radius increases and the velocity at the acid front
decreases. Furthermore, in fissured reservoirs where the
When HCl is injected into a carbonate reservoir under purpose of the treatment is to clean up fissures, applying
matrix conditions, acid preferentially flows into the areas high rates increases the live acid penetration.
of highest permeability. High reaction rates, as observed
between all concentrations of HCl and carbonates, tend v) Acid volumes:
to favour creation of wormholes. Wormhole length For a radial geometry, the volume of acid required for a
normally is controlled by the fluid-loss rate from the given porosity increase varies with the square of the
wormhole to the formation matrix. It can be substantially treatment radius, assuming homogeneous dissolution.
increased by reducing the fluid loss rate from the worm- Figure 7.20 shows the volume of HCl required to
hole to the formation with fluid-loss additives. Careful increase porosity by 10% for different values of the
selection of type and concentration of additive is treatment radius.
essential. For example, too high a concentration of fluid-
loss additive can plug the formation, and too little is not
effective.
The most effective fluid-loss additives are solids or acid
compatible polymers. Emulsified acids, because of their
high viscosity along with retardation of reaction of
reaction, often give better results than plain HCl.

In view of this major areas of concern in matrix acidizing

treatments for carbonates includes:
– Effective diversion
– Limiting excessive fluid leak-off
Figure- 7.20: Acid volume required to increase
– High and low temperature applications porosity by 10% (absolute)
To address the areas of concern, improved acid
formulations such as gelled acids, polymer based self-

233
7.7.3 ACID FRACTURING The factors governing acid reaction rate with the
formation are important in determining the distance acid
Acid fracturing is injection of acid into the formation at a
penetrates before it is spent. Spending distance may be
pressure high enough to fracture the formation or open
related to
existing fractures. Acid fracturing is an alternative to
propped fracture treatments in acid soluble formations – Injection rate
like limestone and dolomite. In acid fracturing, the – Fracture shape and width
conductivity between wellbore and reservoir is obtained – Type of acid and
by etching the fracture faces by acid. However, acid – Reservoir properties.
penetration along the fracture depends on the chemical
reaction between the rock and the acid and conductivity The reaction of acid with the fracture faces is normally
is determined by the etching patterns. very uneven. This heterogeneity, or etching
The geometry or fractured area depends on the following characteristic, provides roughened surfaces, which
factors: prevent the fracture from fully closing. Thus, after the
– Acid transport to the rock surface and its reaction hydraulic pressures are released, a highly conductive
with the rock. fracture flow capacity may exist.
– Heat transfer, as the reaction releases heat, and the
reaction rate is highly temperature sensitive.
– Leak-off, as the acid leak-off behavior is
significantly different from that of the non-reactive
fluids.

Fig.7.21: Irregular etching with acid

Fig.7.22: Irregular acid etched fracture

Operationally, in acid fracturing treatments, a well- well casing or tubing at rates higher than the reservoir
designed viscous fluid (as a pad) is injected down the will accept before the acid. This produces a buildup in

234
wellbore pressure until it exceeds the in-situ stresses. At – Acid Injection rate
this pressure the formation fails, allowing a crack
(fracture) to be formed. The ratio of the fracture width The providing all the required inputs, the simulator
measured at the wellbore to the fracture length is predicts and provide the following outputs related to
proportional to fluid, formation, and fracture properties fracture dimensions and conductivity:
as, – Etched width at Well
– Average etched Width
Ww /L = ( I / E h L2) 0.25
– Average conductivity and Fcd
From the equation it is evident that fracture width can be – Etched Fracture Half-Length
maximized by, – Max Surface Pressure
– Using pad fluid with high viscosity – Max Hydraulic Horsepower requirement
– Injecting fluid at high rate
– Injecting a large volume of fluid The reservoir etching and the pressure profile of an acid
fracture simulation are shown in the following figures:
– Reducing the rate of fluid loss to the formation by
adding fluid-loss additives to give a larger fracture
volume after a given volume of fluid injection.

When acid is used without a pad fluid, the dynamic

fracture is often short and narrow because the rate of
fluid loss for acid alone is generally high. A long, wide
fracture usually can be created by selecting a high
viscosity pad fluid which can control the rate of fluid loss
to the formation. The distance live acid can travel along
the fracture depends upon:
– Width fracture,
– Injection rate
– Temperature, Fig.7.23: Reservoir etching during acid fracturing
– Formation type
– Acid type and additive
Gelled acid or retarded emulsified acid provides larger
and deeper etching due reduction in reaction rate.

Acid fracturing treatment design:

The design of an acid fracturing treatment to stimulate
production involves the following five steps:
i) Determination of formation rock and fluid
properties,
ii) Selection of variable parameters, including the
fracturing fluid to be used as a pad, injection rate, Fig.7.24: Pressure profile during acid fracturing
etc.
iii) Predicting the fracture geometry and the acid
penetration distance for the fracturing fluid and 7.7.4 OTHER ACIDIZATION TECHNIQUES
acid of interest,
iv) Predicting the fracture conductivity and expected Other techniques to revive the productivity and
stimulation ratio for pad and acid volumes of injectivity using acid are;
interest, - Acid washing,
v) Selecting the most economic treatment. - Acid spotting.
Design of acid fracture treatments are generally done in a Acid washing is done to remove acid soluble scales
fracture simulator. The inputs required for simulating present in well bore and to open perforations. A small
acid fracturing treatments are: quantity of acid is spotted at the desired position and is
– Completion details of the well allowed to react, without external agitation, with scale
– Reservoir lithology and petrophysical properties deposits or the formation. Alternatively, the acid may be
– Reservoir pressure and temperature circulated back and forth across the perforations or
formation face. Circulation may accelerate the
– Reservoir fluid details dissolution process by increasing the transfer rate of
– Pad type and volume unspent acid to the wellbore surface.
– Acid volume and concentration
235
Clean out acids generally contain 0.5% to 3% surfactants Application Surfactants
with 5% to 15% hydrochloric acid. The surfactant used is Demulsifier Organic amines, salts of
often a mixture of anionic (alkyl sulfonates) and nonionic quaternary amines( cationic type),
(polyoxyethylated alcohol or ether) surfactants. These Polyoxyethylated alkyl
acids are common in limestone formations, which do not phenols(nonionic type)
produce without acid treatment. Anti sludge agent Alkyl aryl sulfonates(anionic
type)
7.7.5 ACID ADDITIVES Clean out acids Alkyl sulfonates (anionic),
The following acid additives are used: polyoxyethylated alcohol or ether
(non ionic)
i) Corrosion Inhibitors:
iii) Mutual solvents:
The most important acid additives are corrosion
inhibitors. A corrosion inhibitor is a chemical that slows Mutual solvents are materials that have appreciable
the attack of acid corrosion on drillpipe, tubing or any solubility in both oil and water. Many chemicals,
other metal that the acid contacts during treatment. including alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, ethers and others
have this property. However, in oil field, mutual solvents
The degree of dissociation of hydrogen ions from the usually mean glycol ethers. Ethylene glycol monobutyl
acid molecule determines the hydrogen ion activity. ether (EGMBE) is most commonly used mutual solvent
hydrogen ion activity is directly proportional to its in sandstone acidization. EGMBE in addition to mutual
corrosivity on steel. The relative degree of dissociation solubility reduces interfacial tension between oil and
for some common acids is hydrochloric > formic > water, acts as a solvent for solubilizing oil in water, acts
acetic. Therefore, hydrochloric acid (HCl) is more as a detergent capable of removing oil-wetting materials
corrosive on steel than formic acid, which is more from surfaces that otherwise would be water wet and
corrosive than acetic acid. finally improves the action of surfactants and emulsifiers
in contact with formation materials. EGMBE as much as
Inhibitors function by interfering with the chemical 10% used in after flush greatly increases productivity of
reactions that occur at the anode or cathode of the oil wells treated with HF-HCl.
corrosion cell. The two basic types of corrosion
inhibitors are inorganic and organic. iv) Iron control additives:
When appreciable quantities of iron in the form of Fe3+
ii) Surfactants: (ferric ions), rather than the usual Fe2+ (ferrous ions), are
Surfactants, or surface-active agents, are used in dissolved by the acid, iron precipitation and permeability
acidizing to break undesirable emulsions, reduce surface reductions can occur after acidizing. The oxidation state
and/or interfacial tension, alter wettability, speed of the iron governs precipitation. Ferric iron precipitates
cleanup, disperse additives and prevent sludge formation. at a pH of about 2, whereas ferrous iron precipitates at a
The surfactant molecule consists of a water-soluble pH of about 7. The actual values depend on the
(hydrophilic) group and an oil- soluble (lipophilic) group, concentrations of the ferrous and ferric ions. Because
which are separated from each other although linked by a spent acid solutions seldom rise to a pH above 6,
strong covalent chemical bond. The molecules are precipitation of ferrous iron is seldom a problem. Sources
classified into five groups according to the ionic charge of iron include corrosion products found on the walls of
carried by the water-soluble group: the tubular, mill scale, iron-bearing minerals etc.
– Anionic
The following three methods are normally used to help
– Cationic
keep iron in solution in acid treatments:
– Nonionic
– Amphoteric pH control: pH control is accomplished by the addition
– Fluorocarbons of a weak acid that is very slow to react so that a low pH
is maintained after the HCl has spent. Acetic acid is
Surfactants used for different applications are shown in typically used for this purpose.
the following table:
Sequestering agents: Sequestering agents bond to the
Selection of type and concentration of inhibitor depends
iron and hold it in solution so that it cannot precipitate.
on following treating and well conditions:
Citric acid, ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA) and
– Type and concentration of acid, nitrile triacetic acid (NTA) are some of the commonly
– Type of tubular goods to be exposed, used sequestering agents.
– Maximum pipe temperature,
– Duration of acid-pipe contact Reducing agents: Reducing agents convert ferric (Fe3+)
to ferrous (Fe2+) iron. Erythorbic acid and sodium
Practical level of protection is based on the assumption erythorbate are commonly used as reducing agents in
that a metal loss of 0.02 lb/ sq ft of area can be tolerated acid treatments.
during a treatment if no pitting occurs.

236
v) Anti-sludge agents: 7.7.6 ACID DIVERSION
Some crudes form an insoluble sludge when contacted Diversion is the process by which the treating fluid is
with acid. The sludge consists of asphaltenes, resins, diverted and allowed to enter the lower permeability
paraffins and other high molecular hydrocarbons. The zone, thereby making the homogenous distribution of
interaction of acid and the crude occurs at the interface treating fluid in the zone of interest.
between the oil and acid which results formation of an
insoluble film. The coalescence of this film leads to the Effective diversion of reactive acid is necessary for
formation of the sludge particles. This is most severe efficient matrix acidizing in carbonates. Diversion in
with high-strength acid systems (20% or higher). carbonates is generally more difficult than in sandstones
because of the ability of acid to drastically increase
To combat the formation of sludge, cationic and anionic permeability in carbonates as it reacts in the pore spaces
surfactants are used to adsorb and provide a continuous and flow channels of the matrix.
layer of protection at the acid/oil interface. Dodecyl
benzene sulfonic acid (DBSA) is usually used as anti- Acid diversion techniques can broadly be divided into
sludge agent. Sludge formation can often be prevented by following categories:
lowering the acid strength. – Mechanical diversion
– Ball Sealers
vi) Alcohol: – Chemical diversion
Alcohols are used in acidizing fluids to remove water Mechanical diversion: In mechanical diversion
blocks, enhance fluid recovery, retard acid reactivity and technique, acid is directed exclusively towards the low
decrease water content. The most common alcohols used permeable zones using joined pipe or coil tubing
in acidizing are isopropanol and methanol. conveyed tools equipped with downhole packers. A cup
packer (perforation wash tool), a combination of squeeze
Normal concentration of methyl or isopropyl alcohol is packer and a retrievable bridge plug or an inflatable
5% to 20% by volume. This is particularly helpful in dry packer can effectively spot the acid in desired interval.
gas wells. High vapor pressures and low surface tensions This is a very sure method of placement. However, the
of alcoholic solutions are the two properties that provide technique are highly cost sensitive.
these advantages. Thus, low surface 1ensions are
maintained throughout the volume of acid used. Ball sealers: Ball sealers are rubber-coated balls that are
designed to seat on the perforation, thereby diverting the
vii) Gelling and fluid-loss materials: fluids to other perforations. Ball sealers are added to the
These materials are generally made up of natural or treating fluid in stages so that after a number of
synthetic polymers. Their purpose is the same as similar perforations received acid, they are blocked, diverting
additives for water or brine fracturing. In addition, some acid to other intervals.
degree of acid retardation is afforded. Gelling agents that
are in common use1oday are guar gum, gum karya
blends and a wide variety of synthetic polymers.

viii) Clay stabilizers:

These additives are used to prevent permeability damage
due to foreign water intrusion in water-sensitive
formations. Clay stabilizer functions by permanently
holding clay particles together and preventing their
movement or dispersion and subsequent particle
plugging. Most clay stabilizers work on all varieties of
clays immediately on contact. Clay stabilizer can be used
to stabilize clays after matrix acidizing prior to gravel Fig.7.25: Acid diversion with ball sealer
packing and as a spearhead for fracturing with fresh- Chemical diversion: The chemical diversion techniques
water fracturing fluids. have recently received increased attention. Chemical
diversion can be sub divided into three major categories-
ix) Acid dispersions:
– Particulate diversion
Solvent-in-acid dispersions are used to remove oil and
– Foamed acid diversion
paraffinic deposits from scales or formations during
matrix acidizing. The dispersion is designed to give – Viscous acid diversion.
simultaneous organic solvent-acid contact on the scale or
formation being treated in a one-stage treatment. The Each technique has its own advantages and
dispersion can be prepared using various mineral or disadvantages, but the viscous acid diversion, especially
organic acids and aromatic solvents in varying ratios. the self-diverting acids are widely used in industry
Concentrations of 1% to 10% v/v are used depending on because of its operational flexibilities, diversion
the deposit type and bottomhole temperature. efficiency and cost consideration.

237
Particulate diversion technique: A common method of fluid to the reaction products generated during acid
improving placement in matrix acidizing system through spending process.
the use of particulate diverting agent. Particulate
diverting agents are fine particles that form a relatively The critical parameter of designing a self-diverting acid
low permeability filter cake on the formation face. The system is to select the viscosifier, i.e. polymer/cross
pressure drops across the filter cake increases flow linker/breaker or surfactants. Some viscoelastic
resistance, diverting the acid to other parts of the surfactants (VES) are good additives for preparation of
formation where less diverting agent has been deposited. self-diverting acid systems.

To form a low permeability filter cake, small particles The polymer or surfactant used for a self-diverting
and a wide range of particles sizes are required. To viscosified acid system should have the following
ensure cleanup, materials that are soluble in oil, gas properties: -
and/or water are chosen. The most common particulates – It should be stable in the treatment fluid throughout
used for acid diversion are rock salt, oil-soluble resin, the job.
benzoic acid flakes, wax beads etc. – Cross-linked easily in presence of a cross-linker at
Foamed acid diversion: Foam, a stable mixture of liquid reservoir condition to form high molecular wt. and
and gas has been used in acidizing since long. Foam is high viscosity.
produced by injection of nitrogen into a liquid containing
a foaming agent (usually a surfactant). Foams generally
– Inert in rock surface as well as in treatment/reservoir
fluid.
have high viscosity and low density. It is particularly
beneficial in low pressure, low permeability and liquid – Easily breakable of cross-links and flow back after
sensitive formations. Because of the high viscosity, the job.
foams divert the acid from one layer to the other by
controlling fluid loss into the formation. In addition to 7.8 HYDRAULIC FRACTURING
the diversion, another major advantages of using foamed 7.8.1 Introduction:
acid better flow back in low pressure wells.
Hydraulic fracturing is one of the primary well
Self-diverting acid: In self-diverting acid (SDA), the stimulation techniques for improving well productivity,
acid solution is chemically modified with polymer or which is achieved by:
surfactant. The modified acid preferentially enters into  Placing a conductive channel through near wellbore
high perm zone and gain viscosity in-situ during acid damage and thus bypassing this crucial zone
spending process. In-situ generation of viscosity during  Extending the channel to a significant depth into the
acid spending process can be established either by in-situ reservoir to further increase productivity
cross-linking of water-soluble polymer mixed with acid  Placing the channel such that fluid flow behaviour in
or reaction of a specific surfactant added to the treatment the reservoir is altered

Fig.7.26: Propagation of fracture in outward direction

238
If fluid is pumped into a well faster than the fluid that can pumping stops and the injected fluids leak off, the
escape into the formation matrix, inevitably pressure fracture will close and the new formation area will not be
rises, and at some point rock breaks, resulting in the available for production. To prevent this, measures must
wellbore splitting along its axis as a result of tensile hoop be taken to maintain the conductive channel. This
stresses generated by the internal pressure. The wellbore normally involves adding a propping agent to the
breaks—i.e., the rock fractures—owing to the action of hydraulic fluid to be transported into the fracture. When
the hydraulic fluid pressure, and a ―hydraulic‖ fracture is pumping stops and fluid flows back from the well, the
created. AS the smallest stress is the minimum horizontal propping agent remains in place to keep the fracture open
stress, the initial splitting (or breakdown) results in a and maintain a conductive flow path for the increased
vertical, planar parting in the earth. formation flow area during production. The propping
agent is generally sand or a high strength, granular
However, although the hydraulic fracture significantly substitute for sand.
increases the formation flow area while pumping, once

Fig: 7.27- Injection pressure breaking the wellbore and propagating fractures

Fig: 7.28- Proppant is placed in the fracture

7.8.2 In situ Stress: – In most of the cases, the overburden stress or the
vertical stress is more than that of horizontal
In-situ stress, in particular the minimum in-situ stress is
stresses. Therefore, the orientation of fracture will
the dominant parameter controlling fracture geometry.
be vertical perpendicular to the minimum horizontal
For relaxed geologic environments, the minimum in-situ
stress direction (i.e. north–south, east–west, etc.).
stress is generally horizontal; thus a vertical fracture that
formed perpendicular to this minimum stress. Hydraulic – At very shallow depths or under unusual conditions
fractures are always perpendicular to the minimum stress, of tectonic stress and/or high reservoir pressure, the
except in some complex cases, and even for those cases overburden stress may be the minimum stress and
any significant departure is only at the well. the orientation of the hydraulic fractures will be
horizontal.
The minimum stress controls many aspects of fracturing:
239
 – Stress differences between different geologic layers
are the primary control over the important parameter
7.8.4 Hydraulic Fracture modeling:
of height growth.
2-D models: The first work on hydraulic fracture
modeling was performed by several Russian
investigators. The other major contribution was the work
of Perkins and Kern (1961). These models were
developed to calculate the fracture geometry, particularly
the width, for a specified length and flow rate, but did not
attempt to satisfy the volume balance. Carter (1957)
introduced a model that satisfies volume balance but
assumes a constant, uniform fracture width.

Later on, Khristianovich & Zheltov and Perkins & Kern

models were developed by Geertsma and de Klerk (1969)
and Nordgren (1972) respectively. These two basic
Fig: 7.29- Orientation of fracture models, popularly known as the KGD and PKN models,
include both volume balance and solid mechanics. The
PKN and KGD models, both of which are applicable
only to fully confined fractures, differ in one major
assumption: the way in which they convert a three-
7.8.3 Fracture growth: dimensional (3D) solid and fracture mechanics problem
During treatment, the growth of the fracture is progressed into a two-dimensional (2D) (i.e., plane strain) problem.
as under:

– Initiation fracture as the bottomhole fluid pressure

exceeds the fracture pressure of the formation upon
high rate of pumping.
– Propagation of fracture during continuous pumping
of fluids.
– Proppant enters fracture as it is suspended in the
fracturing fluid.
– Proppant advances further into the fracture as
pumping continues.
– Proppant advances further and the proppant may Fig: 7.31- KGD model
reach the tip of the fracture.
– Pumping of the fluid/proppant mixture is stopped
and fluid continues to leak away into the permeable
formation.
– Formation closes on proppant and a conductive path
remains in the reservoir.

3-D and pseudo 3-D models: The three major types of

hydraulic fracture models that include height growth are
categorized according to their major assumptions.

– General 3D models make no assumptions about the

orientation of the fracture.
– Planar 3D models are based on the assumption that
Fig: 7.30- Growth of fracture in the reservoir the fracture is planar and oriented perpendicular to
the far-field minimum in-situ stress.

240
 – P3D models attempt to capture the significant formation to feed the fracture. In fact, for a fixed volume
behavior of planar models without the computational of proppant, maximum production is achieved for an
complexity. optimum value of CfD. The dimensionless fracture
conductivity CfD is shown in the following equation:

7.8.5 Design Goals: kpw

Historically, the emphasis in fracturing low-permeability C fD
k EH x f
reservoirs was on the productive fracture length xf. In
contrast, the conductivity kfw is more important in higher Where,
permeability reservoirs, where the length and Kp = proppant permeability at producing closure stress,
conductivity are balanced by the formation permeability. md
w = producing fracture width, ft
The important concept in designing is the dimensionless KEH = effective horizontal formation permeability, md
fracture conductivity ratio (CfD), which is the ability of Xf = fracture half length, ft.
the fracture to carry flow divided by the ability of the
Fig: 7.31- PNK model

Fig. 7.31- Dimensionless rate vs. dimensionless time for different CfD

It can be noted in the above figure that the CfD of 10 or 7.8.6 Execution of Hydraulic Fracturing:
greater provides almost the same production performance
Unlike matrix stimulation, fracturing is much more
when dimensionless times are greater then 0.1. It is seen
complex procedure. This is because of the high rates and
that CfD of 10 to 500 give almost same production
pressures, large volume of materials injected, continuous
performance after around 250 days. Therefore, the
blending of materials and numbers of unknown variables
fracture should be optimized for CfD of 10. As longer
for sound engineering design. The fracturing pressure is
fractures are created to increase production, the fracture
generated by single action reciprocating pumping units
conductivity must be increased to maintain the CfD value
that have between 700 and 2000 hydraulic horsepower.
equal to or larger than 10.

241
 Fig. 7.32 Pumping Unit

These units are powered by diesel, turbine or electric

engines. Because of the erosive nature of the materials
(i.e., proppant) high pump efficiency must be maintained
or pump failure may occur. The limits are typically met
when using high fluid velocities and high proppant
concentrations (+18 ppg).
The slurry can be continuously mixed by the equipment
or batch mixed in the fluid storage tanks. The batch-
mixed fluid is then blended with proppant in a blender in
a continuous stream and fed to the pumps.

Fig. 7.34- Treating iron and manifold

Placement of pumping units and other equipment are

done with several considerations such as direction of
wind and distance from the wellhead (at least 50 ft from
the well). If a service rig is on location, equipment
should be spotted out of the fall line of the rig mast.

Care should also be taken to place the high-pressure

pumping equipment where personnel will not be exposed
Fig. 7.33- Blender to the fluid end of the pump. If the equipment on location
is to be operated remotely, personnel should set up in an
The pumps are connected with the well by some high
area protected from potential problems with high-
pressure lines called treating iron through a manifold. It
pressure lines. If equipment for N2 or CO2 is on location,
is the temporary surface arrangement with piping, valves
it should be spotted at least 60 ft from other equipment
and manifolds necessary to deliver a fluid treatment to and the well head. A typical lay out of equipment is
the wellbore from the mixing and pumping equipment. It shown in the following figure:
includes remotely controlled valves such as check valves
and bleed-off lines.

242
 Fig. 7.35- Equipment layout for hydraulic fracturing job

A stimulation engineer controls the whole process from a Pumps can also be remotely controlled from this van. A
FRAC van which provides all the fracturing parameters typical graph showing events during fracturing and
(mainly rate & pressure). corresponding pressure behaviour is shown below.

Fig.: 7.36- Typical surface pressure & events during fracturing job

243
7.8.7 Fracturing fluids:
Gellants: The linear gels have gellants only. The
Fracturing fluid plays a vital role in hydraulic fracture
different types of gellants are as follows:
treatments because it initiates the fracture and carry the
– Guar
proppants and into the fracture.
– HPG, CMG, CMHPG
– HEC, CMHEC
Fluid viscosity is the critical property of fracturing fluids.
– Viscoelastic surfactant
An ideal fracturing fluid should have very low viscosity
– nonylphenol, alkylphenol
during pumping and in the tubing (to avoid unnecessary
friction pressure losses), and high viscosity within the
Cross-linkers: The cross-linkers significantly increase
fracture, where high viscosity can provide bigger fracture
viscosity of linear gels by increasing molecular weight of
width and transport the proppant more efficiently. To
base polymer by linking multiple molecules together. A
ensure this property, the frac fluid is normally cross-
cross-linked gel develops high viscosity with lower
linked with delayed cross linkers. Also, most of the
polymer loading and thereby forms less polymer residue.
fracturing fluids are shear thinning i.e at high shear in the
tubing the viscosity is less and at low shear within the
Borates are the widely used cross-linking agent to form
fracture, viscosity becomes more.
non-permanent x-link gel. Most of cross-linkers are pH
and shear dependent. Examples of various cross-linkers
After the job is over the frac fluid should be broken down
are:
and reduce the viscosity to flow back the entire fluids
– Zirconium
effectively.
– Titanium
– Organo-borate
The properties of a good fracturing fluid are:
– Borax
– Compatible with formation rock and its fluid.
– Boric Acid
– Ability to carry the propping agent.
– Low leak off rate
Breakers: It controllably degrades viscous gelled fluids
– Low friction loss
back to thin base fluids. Most of them are pH dependant.
– Easy to remove from the formation
The loading of breaker depends on:
– Availability at low cost and safe to handle
– Desired break time
– Stable at bottom hole temperature.
– Bottom hole temperature
The different types of fracturing fluids available are: – Gel loading
– Water-Based – Laboratory break test
– Hydrocarbon -Based – Base fluid
– CO2 Fluids
– Emulsion -based Different types of breakers are:
– N2 Foams – Catalyzed oxidizers (low temp)
– Methanol – Conventional oxidizers, per-sulfaltes
– Acid based – Delayed activated oxidizers
– Polymer-specific enzymes
The water based fracturing fluids are widely used in the
industry as it is cheaper and most common. It uses both – Encapsulated breaker
linear and Cross-linked gallants.
Buffers: It adjusts and maintains the pH to allow the
The main fracturing fluid additives are: gellant to hydrate and maximize viscosity and are used in
water-based fluids and can be used to control hydration /
 Primary Components: cross-link.
– Gelling agents (Gellants)
– Cross- linkers Surfactants: These are used to modify wettability of the
formation. It can be used to create, break, prevent or
– Breakers
stabilize emulsions. It disperses additives in oil and water
 Secondary Components: and lowers surface and interfacial tension from 73
– Buffers dyne/cm3 down to 18-28 dyne/cm3. It helps to suspend
– Surfactants fines.
– Clay stabilizes
 Other Components: Clay stabilizers: These can minimize permeability
– Foamers impairment from clay swelling and some can control
– Friction reducers migrating clays. These are helpful in water-sensitive
– Fluid loss control agent formations
244
Fluid loss additives: Typically these are mechanical fluids to flow and create a ‗pipeline‘ for reservoir fluid
bridging agents such as silica flour. They plug the flow.
formation fracture face to minimize fluid loss into the
formation. They generally produce high residue Proppant Types
(undesirable). – Sand (quartz)
– Ceramic Proppant
Friction reducers: These reduce friction pressures of
base fluid often reduced by 30-70 % and used in the flush – Resin Coated Proppant (RCP)
to reduce pumping pressures. It reduces friction by  Either Sand or Ceramic
suppressing turbulence. But these should not be used in – Sintered Bauxite
emulsions (breaks the emulsion).
Sand: The true densities of sands are around 22.1 lb /
The water based linear gel and cross-linked gels are gall or 2650 kg / m3. These are of low cost and low crush
shown in the following figures: resistance. Jordan, Ottawa, or Northern White, Brady,
Hickory, or Texas Brown, Colorado, Indigenous
(Saurashtra) are the different types of proppants which
are named after their location,

Ceramic: The true density is around 22.1 - 26.7 lb/gall

or 26.50- 3200 kg/m3. It has intermediate strength and
crush resistant. But it is of high Cost and it has better
sphericity and angularity than sand, thus has better
conductivity. Econoprop, Carbolite, Carboprop,
Valuprop, Interprop are the different types of proppants
available.

Resin Coated proppants: It has true density around 22.1

Fig.: 7.37- Linear gel - 26.7 lb/gall or 26.50- 3200 kg/m3. It is pre-cured or
Curable types. It improves sphericity and angularity of
the base proppant, thus improving conductivity. Super
LC, DC, Opti Prop, Tempered LC, DC, Ac Frac PR. -
6000, PR - 4000, SB - 6000, etc. are the different types of
resin coated proppants.

Sintered Bauxite: It has true density around 29.6 lb/gall

or 3550 kg/m3. It has got very high strength and is most
expensive. It is required for very deep fracs. When
crushed, bauxite splits instead of shatters and split
bauxite still provides decent conductivity.

Different types of proppants are shown in the following

figure:

Fig.: 7.38- Cross-linked gel

Linear gels possess low to medium viscosity and

therefore, the leak-off into the formation is considerably
higher. However, it encounters low friction during the
treatment. Cross linked possess high viscosity, low leak-
off and high proppant carrying capacity. However, it
encounters higher friction during the treatment, which
can be controlled by adding friction reducer and delaying
the cross linking.

7.8.8 Proppants: Fig.: 7.39- Different types of proppants

The objective of proppant is to prop the newly created
fracture open to provide a highly conductive path for

245
Proppant selection:  Anionic surfactants: Water soluble group is
Following parameters are considered during negatively charged.
– Closure Stress  Cationic surfactants: Water soluble group is
– Proppant Crushing positively charged.
– Proppant Pack Conductivity  Non ionic surfactant: They do not ionize & remain
– Tortuosity / Near wellbore restrictions uncharged.
– Economics
Action of anionic surfactant
– Proppant Flow-back Control
Anionic will normally:
– Sphericity / Angularity
– Water-wet negatively-charged sand, shale, or clay
The most commonly used size of proppant is 20/40 US – Oil-wet limestone or dolomite upto a pH of 8
mesh. – Water-wet limestone or dolomite if the pH is 9.5 or
above
– Break water-in-oil emulsions
– Emulsify oil in water
– Disperse clays or fines in water
Action of cationic surfactant
Cationic will normally:
– Oil-wet limestone or dolomite upto a pH of 8
– Water-wet limestone or dolomite upto a pH of 8
– Oil-wet limestone or dolomite if the pH is 9.5 or
above
– Break oil -in-water emulsions
– Emulsify water in oil
Fig.: 7.40- high strength proppant in fracture
– Disperse clays or fines in oil
7.9 OTHER CHEMICAL TREATMENTS – Flocculate clays in water
The mostly used chemicals for treatments are surfactant i) Emulsion blocks
and aromatic solvents. Surfactants are normally used to
control emulsion block, water block and change in The calculated average well permeability as determined
wettability. It is also used as additives in most of the by injectivity tests will be many-fold higher than the
stimulation jobs. Aromatic solvents are usually used for average permeability determined from production tests.
removal of organic deposits. It is frequently called the ―check valve‖ effect.

7.9.1 Surfactant treatments: Solution: Injection of 2% to 3 % by volume of

demulsifying surfactant for breaking emulsion
Surfactant is a molecule that seeks out an interface & has
the ability to alter prevailing conditions.
ii) Water blocks
Types of surfactants: When large quantities of water are lost to a partially oil-
wet formation, the return of original oil or gas
productivity may be slow, especially in partially
pressure-depleted reservoirs, it is usually self-correcting.

Solution: Injection of 1% to 2 % by volume of selected

surfactant.

iii) Oil wetting

Oil is preferentially attracted to the surface of reservoir
rock. This appreciably increases the thickness of the film
coating the reservoir rock and reduces the size of flow
paths from the reservoir as well as decreasing the relative
permeability to oil, it reduces permeability to oil by 15%
to 85 %.
Solution: It is better to avoid use of cationic surfactant.

246
7.9.2 Solvent treatments: sucker rods and surface equipment as the temperature of
the producing stream decreases in the normal course of
It is generally accepted that crude oil is considered to be
flowing, gas lifting or pumping. Heavy paraffin deposits
a colloidal system comprising fractions of saturates,
are undesirable because they reduce the effective size of
asphaltenes, resins, and aromatics. Asphaltene fractions
the flow conduits and restrict the production rate from
are defined as dispersed colloids in the oil phase and are
the well. Where severe paraffin deposition occurs,
stabilized, to some extent, by the resin molecules that act
removal of the deposits by mechanical, thermal or other
as protective bodies for asphaltene particles. Colloidal
means is required, resulting in costly down time and
asphaltenes can be naturally or artificially precipitated if
increased operating costs.
the resins‘ protective shield is removed from asphaltene
particle surfaces. Asphaltene deposition can occur in
The troublesome paraffins are normal hydrocarbons
different parts of the production system, including in the
ranging from approximately C(18)H(38) to C(38)H(78)
well tubing, the surface flow lines, and even near the
mixed with small amounts of branched paraffins,
wellbore, reservoir. Asphaltene precipitation and
monocyclic paraffins, polycyclic paraffins and aromatics.
deposition in oil-production systems depend on the
The amount of paraffins found in crude oils varies from
changes in flow conditions, such as pressure,
less than 1 to more than 30 per cent.
temperature, and oil composition.
Laboratory evaluations of crude oil such as wax
The factor that plays a major role in asphaltene problems
appearance temperature, colloidal instability index (CII)
under flow conditions is well-flow pressure behavior.
through SARA analysis, carbon atom distribution by
SIMDIS analysis etc. indicates the risk of paraffin and
asphaltene depositions.

Solvent treatment of the oil is considered to be beneficial

because it dilutes the crude oil and reduces the tendency
of the heavy organics to precipitate. Xylene and toluene
are generally the most common solvent for wellbore or
near wellbore removal of asphaltene deposits. Aromatic
solvents for asphaltene deposits need to have a high
aromaticity to be effective.

Addition of dispersants in aromatic solvents may be used

Fig: 7.42- Structure of asphaltene and resin molecules to clean asphaltene deposits effectively. Dispersants
work by surrounding the asphaltene molecules similar to
The problem of paraffin deposition is one of long the natural resin materials and improve the cleaning
standing in the oil industry. Crude oils often contain efficiency.
paraffin which precipitate and adhere to the liner, tubing,
7.10 SAND CONTROL surface equipment, casing damage and productivity loss.
7.10.1 INTRODUCTION
Controlling formation sand is costly and usually involves
The incursion of formation sand into a well is one of the either decreasing the production rate or using gravel
oldest problems plaguing the oil & gas industry because packing or sand consolidation techniques or other sand
of its adverse effect on well productivity & equipment. It control techniques.
is normally associated with shallow, geologically young
formations that have little or no natural binding material 7.10.2 TYPES OF FORMATION SANDS
to hold the individual sand gains together. As a result,
i) Consolidated sand
when the well-bore pressure is lower than the reservoir
pressure, drag forces are applied to the formation sands – Cementing agent between sand grains prevents
as a consequence of fluid production. If the formation sand movement
restraining forces are exceeded, sand will be drawn into – Pore spaces between grains permits oil or gas flow
the well-bore. ii) Unconsolidated sand
a) Quick sand
The sand either plugs the well or is produced. Several
– No cementing agent, sand flows readily
operational problems can arise if a well produces sand.
All are troublesome and costly, but the degree of severity b) Packed sand or partially consolidated
varies widely. Probably the less severe problems are – Little cementing agent
solved simply by periodic removal of sand from sub-
– Cavities form around well bore
surface facilities, flow lines, manifolds and separators.
The more serious consequences relate to erosion of – Formation collapse around casing

247
 c) Friable sand over costs. Also, the chances of success with sand control
– Sand will crumble measures are increased when sand production is kept,
minimum before sand control application. Various sand
– Sand gets eroded by fluid or gas production control methods and devices can be applied for sand
forming large cavities detection.
– Formation collapse around casing
d) Clayey sands i) Well head shakeouts
– Extremely small in size A well head sample of produced fluid is placed into a
graduated cylinder and centrifuged. Sand settles to the
– Can swell bottom and can be read as a percentage of produced
– Reduce permeability or completely plug fluid. Although this is an accurate method for
measurement of the sand in a given sample, it may not be
7.10.3 REASONS OF SAND PRODUCTION representative of the actual overall production of sand.
In weaker rocks, the formation grains become
disaggregated, or loosened from the rock matrix, because ii) Sand collection traps
Sand traps, such as production separators or flow
of shear, tensile or volumetric failure.
expanders, are commonly used to simply knock sand out
of the production stream by reducing the flow stream
1. Shear failure: During production, shear failure may
velocities. While these devices are generally effective in
be caused mainly by two factors:
separating sand from hydrocarbon, they are not
 Drawdown: Increasing the drawdown causes higher
convenient for directly determining sand production
effective stress around the well or perforation tunnel.
rates. Washing the sands from the traps and removing
If this exceeds the strength of the rock, the rock will
residual oil from the sand prior to disposal are the major
fail and sand may be produced.
problems encountered with sand collection traps.
 Depletion: Depletion of pressure is having significant
iii) Erosion sand probes
impact on sand incursion. Increasing depletion can
The sand probe is a hollow, stainless steel cylinder sealed
change the in-situ stresses in the earth, which can also
at one end. It-is inserted into a flow stream with an open
generate higher shear stresses around the borehole,
end protruding from the pipe wall. When the produced
leading to sand production.
sand erodes the wall of the probe, flow stream pressure is
transmitted to pilot valve, which closes the surface safety
2. Tensile failure: Tensile failure occurs in weak
valve and shuts in the well. This equipment is an
sandstone formation mainly because of high fluid flow
applicable primarily to flowing wells. It serves as a safety
rate. High flow rate is again a function of drawdown.
device, as an aid in optimizing production rates, and as a
This type of failure produces generally low volume of
tool in the selection of work-over candidates.
sand and aggravated by rapid changes in well production
rate.
Production rate can be optimized when a sand probe is
used. If the well yields sands at a high production rate
3. Volumetric failure: Volumetric failure or pore
after producing sand free at a lower rate of production,
collapse is associated with both drawdown and depletion.
the maximum sand free production rate can be achieved
Reservoirs with high porosity and low strength are more
by reducing the high rate in 20% increments until probes
prone to this type of failure. But all the disaggregated
no longer fail, production is then increased gradually to
sands may not be mobilized by produced fluid. They may
the maximum sand free rate.
stay in the perforation or in the well, covering producing
interval. The degree to which sand grains are mobilized
The advantage of erosion devices for sand detection that
depends on the fluid velocity and viscosity.
they are cheap and easy to install. The disadvantage is
that sand physically contacts a probe to cause erosion.
7.10.4 SAND DETECTION TECHNOLOGIES They can not actually measure the sand producing rate
but instead shows the effect of cumulative sand
Sand detection technology can help in determining the production.
– Maximum sand free production rate
– Method to monitor long term success after iv) Sonic probes
application of a sand control treatment The acoustic sand probes, a development of Mobile Oil
Company, detects the noise of sand impinging on the
– Helps to improve the safety & productivity of the sensor and gives signal proportional to the amount of
sand producing wells. sand for a given line size, fluid density, gas oil ratio and
These devices enable the engineer to take remedial action sand size. This probe is very good at showing changes in
before tubular goods and surface equipments are sand production but because of the many variables
damaged, thereby increasing safety and decreasing work involved and its erratic behavior in multiphase systems, it
248
is difficult to calibrate accurately for more than one well There may be different ways to combat the problem of
at a time. sand production which may differ from field to field and
operator to operator. Some of the methods which have
The probe is mounted in a surface flow line. Acoustical been used are:
"ringing" of impinging sand is converted in the probe to
an electrical signal proportional to the energy created by There may be different ways to combat the problem of
the impingement. The signal can be calibrated to sand production. These methods may differ from field to
determine the concentration of solids in terms of pounds field & operator to operator. These methods can be
per day as function of fluid velocity. Both the mass categorized as below:
concentration of solids is the flow stream and the rate of
sand production is provided. The accuracy and sensitivity 1. Regular clean out and bailing
of the equipment are reduced if solids are very fine (i.e.
2. Optimum drawdown
silts less than 44 microns) and if the flow system is liquid
with severe gas slugging. 3. Chemical techniques
4. Mechanical techniques
There can be set ups for multiple wells to monitor remote
locations, or to set off on alarm at some predetermined 1. Regular cleaning out and bailing:
sand concentration or rate. These can also be set to shut- Sand control by frequent well bore cleanout may be the
in a well at any predetermined level of sand production. oldest sand control method and is still found to be in use
A device similar to the sand detector has also been today. As long as the well can produce and can be
developed for use exclusively with gas production. Like periodically cleared out successfully, the operator may
sonic sand detector, this device detects impingement of feel that a sand problem does not crest. Unfortunately,
sand particles by a piezo-electric crystal but counts each when the operator realizes that the problem is beyond
particle impact to determine the sand out. As a result, the control, it is probably too late to successfully control the
detector is best suited for detecting sand in a dry-gas sand and maintain. As the well depletes and production
stream because the impingement of water droplets is rates are lower, it becomes more difficult to carry out
recorded as sand particles, likewise, is not suited for sand to the surface and sand accumulates more rapidly in
liquid service where multi phase flow exists. wellbore. Lower production rate and more frequent
cleanouts accelerate the reaching of the economic limit of
v) Corrocean's sand monitoring system the well.
This is advancement in the erosion kind of sand probes as
it utilizes the electrical resistance (ER) principle to 2. Optimum drawdown:
monitor material loss resulting from sand erosion.
CORROCEAN offers a complete system that detects and In this technique, sand control is done by limiting the
quantifies sand production in oil & gas as well as in drawdown or controlling the production rate to maximum
multiphase flow. sand free rate. This method is basically a flux-based
This probe is based on measuring the change in approach. This technique itself is not a sure method of
resistance of thin sensing elements, as these are eroded controlling sand incursion; a risk factor is always there.
by the sand. The system can measures metal loss with a This approach is generally applied in combination with
resolution better than 5 nanometer (1 nm = 10-9 m) and other sand control techniques. Drawdown or pressure
transform this measured metal loss into a sand production drop across the completion is a key parameter in
rate with high accuracy. This high resolution is one of the determining when the sand matrix fails and individual
key assets of the systems, which will have almost infinite sand grains can be transported by the fluid flow entering
sensitivity given a long enough measurement interval. a well. This may be the basis of using optimum
drawdown to control wells with a sand control
Some advantages of this system are: completion. Optimum drawdown method for controlling
sand production may be sub divided into the following
– The sand probe needs no onsite calibration categories:
– It works for all possible flow patterns – Rates below critical sand flow rate
– It is not affected by variable noise associated with – Perforation optimization with
multiphase flow and  Bigger entry hole diameter
changes in production rate  Increased perforation density
– Simple & rugged, ideal for both topside and  Perforation phasing
subsea applications
– Offers on-line monitoring with alarms for 3. Chemical Consolidation
immediate feedback to the operator. Sand control by "Insitu" consolidation of the formation
sand is not new & has been in use for more than fifty
7.10.5 SAND CONTROL TECHNIQUES years. The consolidating material is typically a plastic
resin and various resin systems have been developed
249
including phenolics, epoxies & furanes. Plastic running a mechanical device such as a screen or slotted
consolidation can be successful; however for various liner in the well and placing accurately sized gravel
reasons it is not popular at present. Problems include around the screen or slotted liner.
permeability reduction near wellbore, inability to
consistently treat all the perforations & cost involved This placement allows the entry of fluids through the
thereof. gravel but filters the formation sand from the flow stream
so that sand free production is possible. In most gravel
4. Mechanical techniques packs, however, a finite amount of solids are produced,
but they consist of the very fine particle, that can move
In this technique, a suitable mechanical completion is
through the gravel pack. When placed properly, gravel
adopted such that the production of sand along with
packs yields long life and high productivity completion.
formation fluid is arrested in bottom of the well.
Mechanical method of controlling sand production is
The basic problem is controlling formation sand without
sub-divided into the following categories:
excessively reducing well productivity. Regardless of the
– Standalone screen completion configuration, the three primary objectives of
– Conventional gravel pack any gravel pack are
– High rate water pack – Sand free production
– Frac pack – High productivity
– Expandable sand screen (ESS) – Completion longevity
– Combination of chemical and mechanical
The implications of achieving these objectives are that
Standalone screen: operators must have the knowledge & capabilities of
The standalone screen technique involves the installation properly performing gravel packs under a wide variety of
of a metal screen across the producing interval, which field conditions. Hence, a gravel packing must be
allows hydrocarbons to pass through but arrest the approached from the total-system stand point that
formation sands. Most of these screens have a fixed involves many interrelated technologies.
opening which can be varied during manufacturing. The
selection of the screen openings/slots depends on the Gravel pack involves pumping a designed slurry,
formation sand gain size. The sand control mechanism comprising of gravel of specific size and an appropriate
then relies on the formation of a natural sand pack; the carrier fluid, to fill the annular space between a carefully
larger sand grains form stable arches (or bridges) against selected centralized screen and perforated casing or the
the screen with progressively smaller grains forming formation in case of openhole completion. Designing a
similar arches behind them. gravel pack for maximum productivity generally consists
primarily on:
It is a relatively simple solution and usually best suited to
well-sorted, clean sands with large grain sizes. The – Proper well preparation
natural sand pack formed is quite unstable and can – Selection of gravel size to retain formation sand
breakdown during changes in rate or drawdown. – Screen size and slot opening
– Pack efficiency

Fig: 7.43- Open hole standalone screen

 Gravel Pack: Fig: 7.44- Wellbore with gravel packing

Gravel pack is the most popular mechanical sand control
technique being used in the oil and gas wells. It involves

250
Hardware of a Gravel Pack completion involves a top – The HRWP seems to be more affective when pumped
packer, blank pipe, metal screens, a sump packer and in the squeezed position and performed like
crossover tool. fracturing.

A high rate water pack system is shown in the following

figure:

Fig: 7.45- Hardware in a gravel pack system Fig: 7.46- High rate water pack system

The performance of gravel packing job can be enhanced Guidelines HRWP:

by incorporating improved well preparation techniques – Design for a pump rate of 5-10 BPM. A good "Rule
such as: of Thumb" is to design the pump rate of 01 BPM/10
ft of perforation.
– High density (~36 SPM) with large entry hole
diameter (0.75‖) and 450 – 1200 phased perforations. – Pump 50-100 bbls of a non viscosified "pad" into the
formation ahead of the sand. Use either the
– Cleaning of perforations by backs urging or other completion fluid or 2% --KCL as a pad fluid.
effective technique. – The optimum sand concentration for perforation
– Casing & tubing clean out treatment packing is 0.5-1 ppg. However, several successful
treatments have been performed with 2 ppg.
 High rate water pack (HRWP): – Estimate of the volume of sand required for outside
the perforations to be 75-100 lbs / ft of perforations.
High rate water pack is a method of sand control where
fracturing the formation is employed to place gravel – Once the 75-100 lbs / ft has been squeezed into the
outside the casing and perforation beyond the damage formation slow down the pump rate to 2-3 BPM,
radius of the well. The fracture is typically designed to be place the gravel pack crossover in the circulating
2 to 10 ft in half-length with moderate (2-3 lb/ft2) position and circulate to complete the annulus gravel
fracture conductivity and is usually created with pack.
Newtonian fluids such as completion fluids. In general As in the case of most water packs, the pressure will
the job type is same as the gravel packing but with a few increase gradually until the calculated gravel quantity in
fundamental differences. the reservoir is obtained. Slow the pump rate to maintain
this pressure until the pump rate is 0.25 BPM.
 Frac pack:
– The HRWP as the name implies, pumped with water
or completion fluid at higher rates, i.e. 6-10 bpm or In this technique the formation is hydraulically fractured
even as high as 14-15 bpm. and then packed with well-designed gravels in a single
treatment. The treatments are designed to create
– The jobs are designed to be the above fracture rates relatively short highly conductive fractures in reservoirs
and to place more sand in the perforations. of moderate to high permeability. In low permeability
– Returns can be taken if the service tool is placed in reservoirs producing high viscosity fluids, or layered
circulating position, and vary from 10% to 50% reservoirs with low net to gross pay intervals the
returns. technique of frac packing has been widely successful.
They offer the advantages of fracture stimulation
– The higher the return rate, sooner the job will screen
combined with the benefits of sand control, and can be
out as slurry dehydrated across the screen as well as
used to:
into the formation.

251
 – Bypass near wellbore damage. perforation intervals.
– Increase formation support in compacting reservoirs,  Formation Sand Sampling:
where there is potential for severe casing failure in
perforated intervals. Representative sampling of the formation is required for
successful planning sand control technique and design of
– Vertically connect productive intervals in thin, jobs. Normally, formations are not homogeneous and
laminated sand-shale sequence sands tend to coarsen or fine vertically as well as
– Improve productivity in low permeability reservoirs horizontally. Sampling must include all the strata to be
controlled and it may not be assumed that all wells within
– Control sand production and fines migration in a field (or even within a reservoir) will require the same
poorly consolidated or unconsolidated reservoirs. gravel size. Sands may grade from clean to shaley & may
even become sandy shales. Care must be taken to avoid
sandy shales that would indicate the need for an
unrealistic small gravel size.
Sampling technique listed in order of preference include
following:
- Rubber Sleeve Cores Full bore core sample
- Conventional Cores 02 samples / meter
- Side Wall Cores
- Bailed Samples
- Produced Sample

Rubber sleeve and conventional core barrels are rotary

devices that drill with a bit and the core is collected in the
barrel as the cutting progresses. Bailed samples or
Fig: 7.46- Frac pack samples obtained from separators can also be used may
not be representative of formation because of size
A frac pack can be achieved by two methods. The most segregation of the sand particles. Information from offset
common method is to do the frac -pack with screen and wells should be used in the absence of other data. In any
liner in place against the perforated internal. The other event, the sample sieved should be representative of
techniques is first-fracture the well, wash out the well, formation to be gravel packed.
run in the screen and liner, and then pump the annular
gravel pack. This can be achieved with a treatment Produced samples suffer from the effects of abrasion and
aggressive enough to induce an early tip screen out particle segregation. Smaller size particles tend to be
(TSO). The execution of such fracture treatment consists produced first and larger particles tend to settle to the
of two distinct stages bottom of the wellbore.
- Creation of hydraulic fracture & TSO
- Fracture inflation & packing  Laboratory Analysis
Laboratory analysis of the formation sample is done with
The first stage of frac & pack treatment can be designed appropriate tests as follows:
with the aid of fracture design simulator. The tip screen - Sieve Analysis
out consists of establishing a pumping design that will - Clay Content & Mineralogy
propagate the fracture to a desired length, cause the - Acid Solubility
slurry to dehydrate at the perimeter of the fracture. The - Fluid Compatibility
slurry dehydration will allow the proppant to bridge,
stopping the fracture propagation at the tip. Sufficient core samples should be available for testing of
permeability particle size distribution.
Additional slurry is pumped into the fracture for fracture
inflation & packing, causing the net pressure in the  Saucier's design criteria:
fracture to increase and form a wider fracture. The wider The gravel should be selected on the basis of 50
fracture allows placement of much higher proppant percentile grain size of the smallest productive
concentration. The design of second stage is based on formation sand of the core within the interval that is
material balance calculations using the fracture to be gravel packed. The selected 50 percentile size of
parameters at the end of the first stage an input variables. the gravel should be less than six times the 50
percentile size of the smallest grained productive
Frac pack should not be attempted where the pay sand is formation sand size.
too close to water/oil, water/gas or gas/oil contact, wells
having small ill of casing and in wells with long
252
Saucier‘s Plot: – Recommended median grain size of gravel: i.e. Six
– Plot grain size vs. cumulative weight % on semi-log (6) times larger than or equal to the median grain
paper size of the formation sand i.e. D50 gravel <
– Determine median grain size i.e. 50 % point or = 6 X D50 formation

Fig: 7.48- Sieve analysis plot

Selection of gravel size: In the above plot sample of gravel on site during G. P. job may be taken up
and tested for particle size distribution to ensure the
– D50 point on sand grain : 0.11 mm correct gravel size.
– Uniformity co-efficient (D40/D90) : 1.71
 Expandable sand screen (ESS):
– Largest gravel size (8 X D50) : 0.88 mm
Expandable sand screen (ESS) is an emerging sand
– Smallest gravel size (4 X D50) : 0.44 mm control technique.
– Corresponding gravel size : - 20 + 40 US mesh ESS comprises of three sandwiched layers; the base pipe,
the filter media and the outer protective shroud. The base
– Selected commercial gravel : - 20 + 40 US mesh
pipe unlike all other forms of mechanical sand inclusion
technology, is slotted rather than perforated, as is the
Median size: outer shroud. These slots open during expansion to
accommodate the change in diameter, while overlapped
- 20/40 US mesh gravel , D50 = 0.025‖ layers of filter media slide across each other to maintain
- Formation sand , D50 = 0.00433‖ (0.11mm) sand integrity.
(From Sieve analysis using Saucier‘s plot)

Ratio:
Median gravel size = 0.025 = 5.77
Median sand size 0.00433

Ratio is less than 6, hence 20/40 mesh gravel is suitable

and will effectively stop formation sand.

All the gravel that is used for gravel packing should meet
or preferably exceed, all API RP58 specifications for
gravel packing sand, including the specification that no
more than 2% of the gravel grains should be larger than
the designated gravel size range and not more than 2% Fig: 7.47- Expandable sand screen
smaller than designated gravel size grain. A random
253
The use of slots allows expansion ratios up to 80% control applications.
greater than the original diameter and provides a larger
inflow area than perforated pipes. The new media to retain medium to coarse sands is called
Porous Metal Fiber composite (PMF), consist of a thin
ESS has the ability to control sand production without a network of highly uniform fibers sintered between two
pack and overcomes the plugging and erosion problems woven wire meshes.
of sand alone screens. The best application of ESS is
sand face completion in high angle or horizontal wells. In Both the screens have some unique features as compared
openhole application, ESS eliminates the annulus to pre-packed or wire-wrapped screens such as:
between the screen and the sand face. Therefore it i. High damage tolerance
stabilizes the sand face and minimizes the movement, ii. High resistance to inhibited acids
thus reducing the sand failure and screen erosion caused
by sand production. iii. High flow area
iv. High sand exclusion efficiency and more resistant to
 New Type of All Metal Screen Technology: plugging. Excluder flow performance are based on
different uniformity coefficients (UC)
Recently, all metal screens have been developed and Erosion Resistant: Excluder and Stratapac screens
field tried in quite a few wells worldwide. These are have much better erosion resistant as compared to
designed to be used as stand alone application and in wire wrapped or prepacked screens.
contrast to prepacked screens that trap solids in the filter v. Ideal for Stand Alone applications
media body. These all metal, surface filter type screens
trap solids, by forming a permeable filter cake on the
surface of the filter media. Since surface filter cake is 5. Combination Chemical & Mechanical Methods:
easier to remove than solids trapped within a pre-packed These methods accomplish both mechanical packing and
matrix, all metal screens are easier to clean. All metal chemical consolidation simultaneously. These methods are
screen have the significant advantage over prepack often referred to as 'consolidated packs' and normally use
screen because of their most robust chemical and slurry consisting of a carrier fluid, resin, coupling agent, &
mechanical integrity. pack sand. The coated sand is then pumped through the
perforations where the plastic cures on the pack sand. A
The two types of all metal patented screens are discussed variation of this method is a sand pre coated with a
below: partially cured phenolic resin which can be placed like
gravel and cured thermally in place.
a) The Excluder Screens:
The Excluder screen combines a strong and damage For execution, the gravel pack tool is placed in circulating
tolerant protective shroud, a unique filter membrane and position. Pumping is stopped when 150% of the propped
the welded inner jacket to deliver optimum productivity needed to pack the casing/screen annulus remains above
and extended screen life. These features help these the crossover tool. As a prerequisite, acid job is done prior
screens to resist erosion, minimizing production of to pumping gel.
formation materials while maximizing hydrocarbon
production over the life of the well. This screen has been 7.10.6 GRAVEL PACKING TECHNIQUES
developed and manufactured by M/s Baker Hughes.
A. Conventional or low density Gravel Packing:
b) The Stratapac / Stratacoil screens: Conventional packing commonly called low density
The screen consists of multiple layers of porous metal gravel packing or circulation gravel packing, normally
membrane (PPM) and the latest being porous metal fiber involved the placement of gravel suspended in a low-
(PMF) , which contained about 30% open area through viscosity transport fluid pumped at low gravel
variable sized pore opening between an underlying concentration.
drainage and overlying protecting mesh screens which
– The gravel is suspended in water at concentrations of
are placed concentrically between a drilled pipe base and
½ to 1 ppg while to keep the gravel moving and
a perforated outer shroud.
prevent bridging before it is in place.
The tough layers of PMM/PMF membrane deliver sand – Water must be pumped at high rates of 0.5 to 3 bbls
control. It combines the high pore volume of a sintered per minute.
powder medium with the strength and ductility of a – The gravel is commonly mixed into the fluid through
sintered woven mesh. It is able to retain fine sand of 40- a gravel injector or pot mixer before being pumped
100 microns. This screen have been developed and into the well.
manufactured by M/s Pall Well Technology, USA and Conventional gravel packing requires large amount of
has been used quite regularly in different kind of sand water as carrier fluid for gravel sand. Normally, the
fluids have not been filtered and often they contain
considerable amounts of solids which could be deposited
254
with the gravel on the formation face. The gravel pack – The gelled brine systems are most common.
contamination caused severe productivity impairment. Potassium chloride brine gelled with HEC
That is why when using conventional gravel packing (Hydroxyethyl Cellulose) is widely used for this
utmost care must be taken to assure that cleanliness of technique.
the fluid of the well and of the gravel to obtain the – A breaker is also added to decrease the gel viscosity
optimum permeability of the gravel at the bottom of the after the gravel pack is finished.
well. Some gravel erosion will occur as the gravel is
being pumped in the well. This will reduce the average This system greatly reduces the amount of excess fluid
particle sizes which should be compensated for by using that is lost to the formation. The fluid that is used can be
a slightly smaller slot or wire spacing on the screen. The easily cleaned to prevent solids from being pumped
fluid loss and viscosity building additives should be with the gravel. This system has been particularly
eliminated from the completions fluid if possible, became successful in short intervals of cased holes. When high
these materials cause severe formation damage. Became viscosity fluids are used for gravel transport, a reserve
of the large volume of water necessary to do volume of gravel should be specified. It is usually
conventional gravel packing job, some formation damage higher than required for low viscosity fluids to allow for
may be anticipated by clay hydration or clay subsequent settling. Before the gravel is pumped,
mobilization. . calculations should be made to determine the theoretical
amount of gravel required to pack the annulus around
The gravel is transported into the screen/casing annuals the screen in addition to the gravel reserve. The
where it is packed into position from the bottom of the placement should be about 100% under ideal
completion interval upward. The transport fluid then conditions.
returns to the annuls through the wash pipe inside the
screen that is connected to the work string. The wash Advantages:
pipe forces the fluid / gravel mixture to flow initially
around the bottom of the screen. As increase in pump
– Reduces mixing of formation sand with gravel.
pressure is observed when the gravel level reaches the – Requires low fluid volume.
telltale screen. No further gravel placement is required – Reduces fluid loss to the formations.
above this point in the well. The length of blank tubing – Tighter packing of the gravel against the formation
between the screen & the telltale is called the gravel sand.
reserve. – Reduced pumping time because of high sand
concentrations.
Advantages: – Simultaneous pre-packing & gravel packing.
– Positive indication of gravel level after the job. – Reduces erosion of the gravel as pump rate is low.
– No mixing of complex fluids. – Smaller size gravel can be used with less chance of
– Low gravel concentrations. reducing productivities.
– Minimum settling after placement. – Uniforms gravel packs
– Better suited for long intervals and high angle
wells. Disadvantages
– Large amount of gravel reserves.
– Disadvantages: – Requirement of complex fluids.
– Long placement time in long intervals. – Gravel dehydration owing to slow gravel settling.
– Possibility of gravel & screen erosion during
placement. 7.10.7 QUALITY ASPECTS IN GRAVEL PACK
– Requirement of a pre pack if water is used as the
carrier fluid. A. Gravel quality:
– Possibility of gravel size segregation.
Gravel quality is an important consideration for
– High fluid loss in certain situations.
successful gravel packing. American Petroleum Institute
(API) has established minimum quality standards in RP
B. Slurry Packing or High Density Packing:
510. Most major sand control service companies can
Slurry packing involves pumping gravel viscous provide gravel that is guaranteed to meet API
transport fluid. Generally speaking, specifications. Acceptable gravel must meet size
– The gravel concentration of 10 to 15 ppg is used. specifications, consist of clean individual grains have
– The fluid is either viscous oil or gel which has the high permeability, have high quartz content, have low
capability of the gravel to be squeezed against the acid solubility and be abrasion & crush resistant.
formation sand so that mixing of the gravel with sand
is minimized. Various tests are performed to ensure gravel quality.
Quality control is practiced at the gravel mined by the

255
mining company and should be practiced by the gravel the decanted wash water. The gravel sample may not
retailer. The final quality control should be performed at contain more than 1% by volume of clays & soft
the well site where the gravel is delivered to confirm for particles.
the correct size. Quality control tests include the
following: Acid solubility is a major consideration in gravel quality.
- Sieve analysis RP 58 specifies 2 % maximum solubility in a mixture of
- Roundness & sphericity test 12% HCI + 3% HF solution. A high quality gravel
- Abrasion & crushing test should contain at least 98% quartz, and acid solubility is
- Silt & clay content (turbidity) an indication of the amount of undesirable contaminants
- Acid solubility in the gravel (e.g. Carbonates, feldspars, iron oxide, clays
etc.).
Sieve analysis determines the percentage of under size
and over size gravel in a sample and is basic to all gravel The most commonly used Gravel size are 12/20, 20/40
quality control. A minimum of 96% of the sample should and 40/60 U.S. mesh.
be in with the designated range size and not more than
2% is undersize and 2% is over size than the designated Sintered bauxite is the most common substitute for
gravel size range. ordinary gravel. Sintered bauxite is an aluminum oxide
that has been treated to improve crushing strength and is
Roundness & sphericity affects gravel quality. available in common gravel sizes. It was primarily used
Roundness is a measure of the relative angularity of the as fracture proppant in high pressure gas wells and in
gravel grain, which contributes to abrasion and thermal wells, but with time its applications have been
generation of fines. Sphericity affects gravel permeability extended to ordinary wells by replacing gravel with it.
and is a measure of how close a particle approaches the
shape of a sphere. The most widely used method for this B. Screens:
is Krumbein & Sloss, which assigns a value from 0 to 1 In gravel packing, accurately sized gravel is used as
from varying degree of roundness & sphericity. Superior filtering medium. The gravel is retained in an annular
gravel will have an average roundness of 0.8 or greater &
region with in the wellbore by a mechanical device called
an average sphericity of 0.8 or greater.
gravel pack screen. Single wire wrapped screens with
keystone shaped wire have been used to control sand
Abrasion and crushing resistance is a consideration in
production in oil and gas wells since the 1930's. The
gravel quality. Gravel may contain grain clusters, keystone tapers towards the center, which avoids the
polycrystalline grains, angular grains and minerals other liability of plugging once particulate pass through the
than silica. Fines generation during gravel placement is a
screen slots. The wire is stainless 305. They have the
critical concern. Gravel crushing test is run to quantify
advantage over pre packed screens in that they do not
the fines generation potential. One sample is sieved and
become plugged as easily by drilling mud. Further more
the amount of fines passing through the smallest screen
they function as a surface filter, where plugging material
in the designated size range (e.g. the 40 U.S. mesh screen is easily removed, where as pre-packed screen are depth
for a 20/40 U.S. mesh gravel) is determined. The other tilters where plugging material tend to get trapped inside
sample is subjected to 2000 psi stress in a cell, for two
the pre-pack.
minutes. The stressed sample is then sieved and the
amount of the fines passing through the smallest screen
The design criterion of a single wire wrapped screen is
in the size range is determined. The difference in the basically a function of the relationship between gravel
weight percent of fines of crushed and uncrushed particle size and screen slot width. Ideally, slots should
samples is the generated fines.
be as wide as possible while retaining sand grains
The API specifications for crushing resistance are listed
without restricting flow of fluids and minute fines.
as :
Because all the gravel must be tightly packed and
Gravel size (U.S. mesh) Mix. Allowable Fines (%)
retained, the screen slot width for a gravel pack should be
12/20 4 about one half the smallest gravel diameter. The slot
20/40 2 should not be wider than 70% of the smallest gravel size
40/60 2
diameter to avoid the production of gravel. The screen
slot opening should be like this:
Silt & clays content of gravel affects quality. Turbidity is
the measure of the presence of silt a clays in the gravel.
For viscosified fluids
Measured turbidity should not exceed 250 FTU (For GRAVEL SIZE SCREEN SLOT WIDTH - I
main Turbidity Units). The common measurement of U.S. mesh (inch) (Gauge) (Inch) (mm)
turbidity is in NTU (Nephelometer turbidity units).
12-20 0.0661 X 0.0331 20 0.020 0.50
Measured turbidity of 250 FTU is approx. 0.13% by
20-40 0.0331 X 0.0165 12 0.012 0.30
weight of particulate matter in a sample. The volumetric
40-60 0.0165 X 0.0098 8 0.008 0.20'
content of clay particles in gravel may determined by
Screen D.D. or Gravel Pack Thickness
washing a representative gravel sample and centrifuging
256
 sand face and well-bore. As the effective perforation area
Many opinions have been expressed regarding the increases, velocity of the fluid flowing through it
optimum thickness of gravel packs: Laboratory decreases. This may be one way of sand control. But the
experiments by Cobery have shown that a thickness of importance of perforation density and size play an
only 3 to 5 grain diameters of gravel is required to create important role in productivity of gravel packed wells. By
a stable bridge. Gravel pack design should place more improving the well completion with the increase in
emphasis on pack thickness than on screen diameter. perforation density and hole diameter, the performance of
the gravel packed wells can be enhanced greatly.
The screen diameter should be large enough that wire-
line tools, production logs or pumps can be run inside it E. Perforating / Perforation Cleaning:
if needed. A large annulus reduces the chance of gravel
Most cased hole gravel packed wells are perforated with
nodes or bridges forming which leads to cavities in the
jet perforated. All the cased holes that are to be gravel
pack. Gravel can shift more easily in a large annuals
packed in adequately pressured zones should be
which will facilitate filling of incompletely packed rat perforated with an under balanced perforating technique
hole or any loosely packed portions in the annulus One preferably with a Tubing Conveyed Perforating System.
inch or more radial space allows enough room to easily
The under balanced pressure during perforating should
wash over the screen if necessary.
be > 500 psi. The well should be open to flow when the
perforation gun fires and maximum flow rate continued
C. Completion Fluid: for equivalent of 4 lts per perforation. If under balanced
The oil industry has long recognized the need for clean perforating cannot be done then a surge tool should be
work-over and completion fluids. Fluids that are free of used to clean perforations with a surge chamber volume.
solids and compatible with formation material are Under-balanced perforating can be applied where:
essential to successful quality sand control. Formation – Adequate formation stability permits use of sufficient
damage caused by incompatible or solid laden wellbore differential pressure and back flow volume to clean
fluids can mean excessive pressure drawdowns and stress perforation debris and mud from all perforations
levels to produce desired fluid rates. without sand up.
– Reservoir pressure is near original hydrostatic, so that
Water based fluids are more commonly used as gravel under balance can be obtained with a diesel column.
pack completion fluid as they are more flexible then oil
based fluid. Their densities, viscosities and formation
– Perforating is conducted through -tubing is limited to
one gun run and is followed by consolidation
compatibilities are more easily controlled. The source of
treatment.
completion fluid can vary. Regardless of its origin, the
fluid should contain minimum particulate materials and
F. Gravel Pack Well Preparation:
its chemistry must be compatible with the rock formation
and connate water. The proper preparation of a well for gravel packing can
be the key to completion success. Careful planning, well
The density of completion / work-over fluids, should be preparation and completion execution are required to
controlled by soluble salts such as NaCl, KCl, CaBr2 etc. increase completion productivity and longevity. If the
For gravel packing operations, sodium and calcium well is prepared properly, it has the best chance of being
chlorides are most commonly used. On low density side, placed on undamaged and sand free production.
foams have been used in certain low bottom hole
pressure situations. Viscosity is normally controlled with Drilling practices can effect a gravel pack the same way
natural and synthetic polymers such as Guar, HEC. Etc. that they effect conventionally perforated wells. The well
HEC is the most popular viscosifier because of its unique should be drilled to maintain boreho1e stability and
combination of low residue and good viscosity yield. drilling fluids should be used that will not damage the
formations to the point where the formation damage
D. Perforation Density: depth is part the perforation penetration. Drilling fluid
filtrates should be compatible with completion fluids and
Sand control wells may be cased and perforated or open
should not interfere with completion operations. Ideally
hole. Cased and perforated wells are normally less
the drilling fluid selected should be dense enough to
productive as compared to open hole completions when
result in a well that is slightly overbalances, should have
similar gravel pack is applied in both cases. However,
low fluid loss and should be compatible with the clays in
use of cemented casing and perforation is frequently
the productive formation. Before a well is perforated the
required in wells with multiple layers and/or where it is
casing should be scrapped and a sequence of clean up-
necessary to isolate inter-bedded water, gas or
solvents circulated to remove mill scale, mud cake,
undesirable shale streaks.
cement residue, rust and other solid from the casing to
prevent these materials from getting into the perforation
In some cases, the sand production was minimized by
tunnels where they will be trapped by the gravel.
increasing the perforation density. This was mainly due
to decrease in pressure draw-down across the formation
257
G. Casing Tubing Cleanout (CTC): C. Reserve Gravel:
It is also important to use thoroughly cleaned work string Reserve gravel is required for subsequent settling and
and casing. For this, the technique called casing tubing rearrangement of gravels. For that purpose, some blank
cleanout (CTC) should be employed. In this technique, a pipes are added in G.P. assembly between G.P. packer
slugs of 20-40 sand slurry, clean gel, xylene (400 lts in 3 and screen. Well conditions affect the gravel reserve
m3), 5% caustic wash, mild acid solution, acetic acid volume when viscous fluids are used. Calculations are
solution and finally surfactant mixed is used. This made to determine the theoretically amount of gravel
solution is pumped in the just before gravel is pumped required to pack the annulus and behind casing space, in
into the well. Also spearhead the gravel slurry with mild addition to the gravel reserve.
acid job (7.5% HCL & 0.5% HF). All surface lines,
pumps, gravel packing equipments tanks should be Normally, two blank pipes are kept for gravel reserve
thoroughly cleaned to prevent fluid contamination, purpose. However, in slurry packing, additional two
especially after the fluid has been properly filtered. blank pipes are kept to allow for lubrication of gravel
slurry when gel breaks. It is kept in such a way so that
7.10.8 GUIDELINES FOR GRAVEL PACKING after breaking of gel, gravel should cover upto two
blanks (i.e. in 15 ppg HEC slurry after breaking would be
A. Gravel requirement: 60% gravel and 40% clean fluid). Generally speaking, a
total of four blanks pipes are required.
Perforation tunnels & behind casing:
The volume of gravel that is packed or transported D. Viscous drag force / pumping rates:
behind casing beyond perforation tunnels have a When high viscosity fluids are used to circulate gravel
significant effect on productivity results of a gravel pack. around the screen care should be exercised to pump at a
The amount of gravel to be packed behind casing can be low rate so that the viscous drag forces do not exceed the
estimated from the amount of formation sand produced at gravitational forces on the gravel. If the viscous forces
the surface in the part during production and in are more, the gravel will be drawn into the screen rather
perforation washing. If sand produced from a particular then settling to the bottom of the well. This causes the
well is not measured and no such record is available, it gravel to pack radially outwards from the screen to the
become very difficult to exactly quantity the amount of point that there may be premature indications of
sand produced from behind the casing. While designing a completed gravel pack. This type of packing geometry
gravel pack job, as a rule of thumb, the amount of gravel and sequence is not desirable because, for the best packs,
required behind casing is: the gravel should dehydrate from the bottom of the
completion intervals upwards.
For Old Wells:
- 1.0 ft3 / ft of perforated interval E. Upper telltale:
For New Wells:
The use of upper telltale is discouraged when high
- 0.5 ft3 / ft of perforated interval
viscosity fluids are used to circulate gravel to avoid
bridging. The reason is that a gravel may screen off on
The pack factor is the measure of gravel packed outside
the upper telltale when higher viscosity fluids are used.
the casing per ft of perforated interval. The high This may prevent gravel placement over the main
permeability gravel replaces low permeability formation completion interval. Recommendations are to extend the
sand thus increasing the effective well bore diameter and
screen above and below the perforation interval with
stimulating the well. For an adequate gravel pack job, the
minimum of 1.5m.
pack factor should be 0.23 ft3/ ft minimum. But with the
introduction of back surging of perforation for cleanout
F. Rat Hole:
before the G.P. job, it is reported that the pack factor has
been greatly enhanced. It is the area of casing between bottom of the screen /
bull plug and bridge plug. This area is dead space where
Packing of annular space: no flow occurs to cause the gravel to be compacted
unless some special tool is used to circulate the slurry
Annular volume between casing and screen and / or completely to the bottom. In a normal squeeze job the rat
blank pipe is calculated and the total quantity of gravel
hole will only be filled with loosely packed gravel
required for the job is estimated.
allowing some shifting of the gravel after the pack is
completed, which could loosen the entire pack.
B. Gravel concentration: Normally, the rat hole is kept as the length of the telltale
It involves pumping gravel at high concentration in a screen , which may be taken as 10 feet. The time between
viscous transport fluid. The gravel is pumped at high when the screen is in place and gravel reaches the bottom
concentration of 10 to 15 pounds of gravel per gallon of should be kept at a minimum. Use lower telltale in which
fluid. wash pipe is initially packed off above the lower tell tale.
The lower telltale ensures that gravel is initially packed
258
in the rat hole. After the rat hole is filled, gravel can be – Gravel pack packer
squeezed into the perforations.
Following items are run concentrically during gravel
G. Carrier fluid: placement and pulled out after the job is complete
The viscosity of carrier fluid has a significant effect on – Wash pipe
the transport of gravels into the perforation entrances. – Gravel pack cross over tool
The high viscosity fluids transport gravels in tubular – Hydraulic setting tool
more effectively, particularly in deviated wells. Gravel
transport fluids are usually viscosified with polymers Steps to be followed:
such as HEC. – Hang the screen assembly in slips and make up the
For the gravel to be transported from the casing into the wash pipe, crossover tool, and packer.
entrance of the perforation, the viscous forces on the
gravel unit exceed the gravitational and inertial forces on
– Make up the packer / screen assembly.
the remaining gravel particle. The factors effect this are – Enter the hole and tag the bottom and position the
flow rate, gravel size, fluid viscosity and location of the screen against the perforation with min. 1.5 m screen
particle relative to a perforation. HEC polymers solutions portion overlapping the perforation interval.
are shear thinning fluids, where viscosity decreases with – Set the packer according to the manufacturer's
shear rate. Due to this, while pumping gravels slurry, the recommendations and check the slips, test the annulus
gravel may settle. To account for settling problems, for packer seal.
fluids with slightly higher viscosity should be selected. – Establish the circulation of clean brine in circulating
position of the crossover tool with 3-5 bpm.
H. Slurry calculations: – Shift the tool to squeeze position and pump into the
As an example for slurry calculation, let us assume that formation to check injectivity.
– Total gravel = 1600 lbs. – Circulate gravel slurry (10 to 15 ppg of filtered fluid)
– Slurry concentration = 13 ppg down to the crossover.
– Just before the slurry reaches bottom, reduce the rate
A) Amount of gel required to make 13 ppg to 0.5 bbls / min.
concentration slurry containing 1600 Ibs of 20/40 – Close the circulating port on the crossover tool and
US mesh gravel squeeze the slurry into the perforation until the
= 1600/13 = 123 gallons limiting pressure level is reached.
= 2.93 barrels = 0.47 m3 – Open the crossover tool to the circulating position and
B) Total slurry made by mixing 1600 lbs of 20/40 attempt to circulate slurry around the screen until the
gravel in 126 gallons of gel limiting pressure is reached.
. = (1600 X 0.0456 + 123) gallons – Return to the squeeze position and pump at 0.5 bpm.
(Sp. Gr of Gravel = 2.63, Vol. = 0.0456 gal/lb) – Release the crossover tool from the packer and pick
= 196 gallons = 4.7 barrels up to the reversing out position.
HEC concentrate is made in diesel before mixing it into – Reverse circulate the one and half tubing volume
the brine solution. Normally 25 kg of HEC (1 sack) is through annulus and pull out of the hole along with 1"
mixed in 35 lts of diesel to make HEC concentrate. wash pipe carefully.
C) HEC (0.75% by wt.) required to prepare 1.0 m3 of – Run production tubing with locator seal assembly and
gel.= 7.5 kg stab it into the bore of packer.
– Adjust the tubing length at the surface so that locator
Total HEC required for 0.47 m3 of gel= 3.52 Kg. seal assembly seals into the packer.
7.11 WATER SHUT-OFF
D) Breaker required (0.07 x Ammonium per sulphate).
= 0.07 x 0.47 x 10 7.11.1 INTRODUCTION
= 0.33 kg of Ammonium per sulphate.
Water production is an inevitable process during life span
of majority of oil fields. It creates major problems of
7.10.9 TYPICAL GRAVEL PACK JOB PLAN decline in productivity due to bypassing of oil in the
In the single completion with packer/crossover reservoir. Also high water production invites other
technique, clean the perforations. Then make up the G.P. problems, which includes increased cost of production,
assembly with the following components: treatment and disposal costs. The control of water
– Bladed bull plug production from oil wells has been a challenge and water
– Screen with spring type centralizers shut-off is an ongoing fight world over to control bad
water.
– Blank joint / pipes
– Shear-out safety joint Water shut-off is defined as any operation that hinders
– Port collar / packer assembly water to reach and enter the production wells. Water
259
production is one of the major technical, environmental, oil, a key issue is the distinction between Sweep, Good
and economical problems associated with oil and gas (or acceptable) and Bad (or excess) water.
production. Water production can limit the productive
life of the oil and gas wells and can cause several a) Sweep Water:
problems such as:
Sweep water comes from either an injection well or an
a) The need for more complex water–oil separation.
active aquifer and contributes to the sweeping of oil from
b) Rapid corrosion of well equipment. reservoir. Management of this water is vital part of
c) Rapid decline in hydrocarbon recovery. reservoir management and can be a determining factor in
d) Reduced sweep efficiencies in water flooding well productivity and ultimate recovery.
reservoirs.
e) Increased fluid column head caused by higher b) Good Water:
density water in the producing string. This is the water that is produced into the well bore at a
f) Formation damage by mobile or hydra table clays rate below the Water Oil Ratio (WOR) economic limit. It
and formation fines, which are trapped near the is an inevitable consequence of water flow through the
producing well bore area. reservoir and cannot be shut off without losing the
g) Scale precipitation in the well bore, perforations, and production. Good water production occurs when the flow
near well bore formation pores. of oil and water is commingled through the formation
matrix. The fractional water flow is dictated by the
h) Water blocking which creates increased water
natural mixing behavior that gradually increases with
saturation in the near wellbore and reduces the
WOR.
relative permeability to oil.
i) Creation of emulsions near wellbore.
c) Bad Water :-
j) Sand production is often associated with increased
water production rates. Bad water can be defined as water that is produced into
The fluid distribution and association of water in typical the wellbore and produces no oil or insufficient oil to pay
oil reservoir is depicted in the following figure: for the cost of handling the water. Normally, this is the
water that produces above the WOR economic limit.

7.11.3 WATER PRODUCTION MECHANISMS:

a. Water coning.
b. Channeling behind the casing.
c. Perforation in the aquifer.
d. Casing failure or the leak behind the casing due to
a weak cement layer.
e. Global increase of the water oil contact.
f. Water arrives through a high permeability layer.
g. Water arrives through fractures that connect the
aquifer to the well.
h. Barrier breakdown (shale) during stimulation.

Factors that help in determining the water-production

Fig: 7.48- Presence of water in reservoir mechanisms are:
– Reservoir drive mechanism
Produced water represents the largest waste stream – Production rates (reservoir and well)
associated with oil and gas production system. In wells – Connate water and irreducible oil saturations
producing oil with 80% water cut, the cost of water
handling can be as high as $4 per barrel of oil or more. A
– Porosity, permeability and heterogeneities
major challenge in today‘s oil industry is to minimize the – Relative permeability/mobility to water and oil or
amount of water produced. Fortunately, many strategies condensate
and solutions are currently available; some involve – Location and continuity of impermeable barriers
mechanical tools while others use chemicals to manage – Original water-oil or gas contact
unwanted water production. – Portion of productive interval completed
– Completion (perforated, open hole, etc.)
7.11.2 SOURCES OF WATER:
– Completion position relative to water-oil or gas
Water is present in every oil field and is most abundant contact
fluid. No operator wants to produce water; but some – Quality of primary cement job
waters are better than others. When it comes to producing
260
The keys to the success of shutting off or preventing If a problem with unrestricted casing leaks or flow
excessive water are behind pipe is identified, that problem should be
– Diagnosis of the water production mechanism. addressed before attempting to solve additional, more
– Appropriate selection and design of the treatment. difficult problems that may exist.
– Effective placement of the treatment.
C. Problem caused by fractures or flow channels:
– Effective analysis of evolving technologies.
A critical aspect of diagnosing most excess water
production problems is deciding whether fluid flow
7.11.4 DIAGNOSIS OF THE WATER around the wellbore is radial or linear. Flow behind pipe,
PRODUCTION MECHANISM: fractures, and fracture-like features are associated with
Identification of the excess water production problem linear flow, while radial flow generally occurs in matrix
should be performed before attempting any water shut- reservoir rock when these features are absent.
off treatment. This knowledge can substantially increase
the possibility of success of the treatment and reduce the
cost of solving the problem. Some of the diagnosis
techniques are described below:

A. WOR History Plots:

Plots of water/oil ratio (WOR) versus time can provide a
valuable indication of when an excess water problem
develops. This method was said to be capable of
distinguishing whether a production well is experiencing
premature water breakthrough caused by water coning or
channeling through high permeability layers. According Fig: 7.50- Linear vs. radial flow
to this method:
– Gradually increasing WOR curves are for coning Simple calculations using the Darcy equation reveal that
problems. the approach for solving these linear flow problems must
– Rapidly increasing WOR curves with positive be fundamentally different than solving radial flow
derivative slopes are indicative of a channeling problems in matrix reservoir rock or sand.
problem.
d) Information required to perform a WSO study
B. Problem caused by leaks or flow behind pipe:
– Reservoir characteristics - i.e. pressure, temperature,
Some of the common methods used to diagnose these drive, fluid type.
problems include: – Reservoir information (OWC, OGC, or GWC &
– Leak tests/casing integrity tests (e.g., hydro testing). lithology, composite logs)
– Temperature surveys. – Porosity, permeability and saturation profiles
– Cement bond logs. – PI or Injectivity
– PLT studies. – Reservoir pressure profile for life of well (i.e. what
– Borehole tele-viewers. is max diff pressure that isolation will likely see).
– Well test data / historical production performance.
The problem caused by leaks or flow behind pipe is – Completion including perforation data
shown in the following figure:
– Deviation Survey
– Composite log showing perforated intervals and
what zone requires shutting off.
– PLT (Flow splits, BHP, BHT), CBL-VDL, TDT,
Flowing Surveys

7.11.5 WATER SHUT-OFF PROCESS:

Selecting the candidate well is the first step of the water
shut-off process. The candidate wells are normally
selected based on the following considerations:
– Producing enough water to undermine profitability
Fig: 7.49- Flow behind pipe
– Economics
– Well construction
261
 – Cost of water handling facilities
– Reinjection costs a) Gel systems:
– Well completion extra costs (to maintain low water Gel systems are probably the most widely used chemical
rates). technique for water control. There are two types of gels
– Other operating conditions, such as corrosion, sand normally used for water control- namely a) relative
production etc. permeability modifier (RPM) and b) sealant. RPMs
– Effects on bypassed oil by water production. usually reduce the relative permeability of water without
affecting the permeability of oil. The sealant type of gels
Many different materials and methods can be used for seals all the fluids by creating a barrier.
water shut-off. Generally, these methods can be There are three main types of gelling systems:
categorized as chemical or mechanical. Each of these 1. Water soluble polymer and a cross-linker
methods may work very well for certain types of 2. Phenol formaldehyde based resin
problems but are usually ineffective for other types of 3. Sodium silicate gels
problems. A number of Treatment Solutions are available
in the industry. These are:
1. Mechanical tools: bridge plugs, casing patches,  Water soluble polymer gel systems:
packers, straddle packers, sliding sleeves, cement Polymer gels are normally prepared by adding a suitable
plugs etc. polymer, cross-linker and other additives and injected
2. Chemical systems: polymer systems, emulsion deep inside the reservoir. Once they reached the target
systems, poly-particulate solutions (cellophane, nut zone, the cross-linkers are activated due to change of
shells, fibers, etc.), sodium silicate systems, relative conditions and form a semi-solid phase (gel), which acts
permeability modifier (RPM) etc. as RPM or physical barrier to the flow of water.

1. Water control with mechanical means: Water soluble polymers can be a synthetic polymer such
as polyacrylamide, biopolymers and ligno sulphonates.
Mechanical means of water control include drilling
Partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide can be cross-linked
horizontal wells, placing a liner and then perforating the
using polyvalent cations. Biopolymers such as xanthan
target zone, mechanical isolation of water bearing zones
gum can form a gel using Cr (III) salts. Lignosulphonates
etc. Mechanical isolation is the most widely used method
can be cross-linked using Cr (IV).
for water control in oil fields. Mechanical isolation can
also be in the form of squeezing of cement to water
Most extensive success has been for selectively plugging
bearing zone and selective perforation in the zone of
fissures (natural fractures, faults) and for total
interest or isolation of water producing interval by the
abandonment of a matrix interval. Fissure plugging gels
use of packers and plugs.
can often be successfully placed without zone isolation
(full bore/bullhead placement) if the candidate well
Advantages: Mechanical isolation technique is field
meets appropriate criteria. In contrast, matrix sealing gels
proven and established technique and effective in wells
are essentially permanent plugging agents. However, the
where the source of water is well demarcated from the oil
producing intervals must be protected/ isolated from the
saturated areas and there is no effective vertical
entry of these gels.
permeability in the reservoir.

 Phenol formaldehyde resins:

Disadvantages: The technique is not very effective
where the source of water is not well defined such as In this system a poly-phenolic material like lignin is
injection water breakthrough in a naturally fractured dissolved in a sodium hydroxide solution. Then the
carbonate reservoir or the reservoir having high vertical phenolic groups of the lignin react with formaldehyde to
permeability. Drilling horizontal wells is also not form a rigid resin. A similar type of resin can be formed
effective in naturally fractured reservoirs. Moreover, by the reaction of resorcinol and formaldehyde or
most mechanical method requires a workover rig and is sulfomethylated resorcinol and formaldehyde. These
therefore expensive. resins can be applied at high temperature.
2. Chemical treatment for water control:  Sodium silicate gel:
Chemical method of water control may of different types Sodium silicate systems have been used in the petroleum
such as: industry to modify well profiles, shut-off water coning,
and perform other various near well bore and deep-
a) Gel systems
formation treatments. In this system sodium silicate is
b) Emulsion blockage
injected into the formation followed by hydrochloric
c) Precipitation of inorganic salts
acid. The reaction of sodium silicate and HCl results
d) Oil based micro-fine cement
silicate gel. The reaction mechanism is as follows:
e) Injection of selective plugging agent etc.
262
 Na2SiO3 + 2HCl = H2SiO3↓ + 2NaCl water-cut in the emulsion, the size of water droplets
increases.
Over-displacement of HCl makes silicate gel
form beyond the wellbore and HCl can also react some
carbonate and increase permeability near wellbore. There
are some other chemicals such as urea, which make very
Advantages:
hard gel with silicates at certain conditions. However, in
producer wells, there is possibility of sealing the oil – The technique is effective in wells where the source
saturated areas along with water bearing areas. of water is not well demarcated from the oil
Advantages of chemical gel systems: saturated areas, as the emulsion is formed as the
crude oil mixed with water.
– The RPM polymer gel is advantageous when the
specific water producing zone cannot be identified. – There is no detrimental effect, if the crude enters
into the oil saturated areas.
– Matrix sealant gels are useful when the water
Disadvantages:
bearing areas are identified properly and gels can be
placed in that area. – Identification of emulsifier is the critical concern as
– Can be applied without rig. the type and property of the emulsion depends on the
emulsifier.
Disadvantages of chemical gel systems:
– Stability and longevity of emulsion at high reservoir
– When the water and oil saturated zones are not well temperature is limited.
demarcated, the placement of sealant type of gel can – Operation risk in handling and pumping of high
block the entire areas. viscous crude oil in offshore stimulation vessels.
– Stability of RPM type of gel at higher temperature.
– Longevity of gel polymer gel systems at reservoir c) Precipitation of inorganic compound:
conditions. This technique includes the injection of an incompatible
– Cross-linkers of polyacrylamide gels and water/brine to the formation and precipitates inorganic
components of phenol formaldehyde resins are not salts in the reservoir. The salts block the pore spaces and
environmentally friendly. movement of water in water saturated areas. Precipitation
– In carbonate reservoirs, use of HCl for generating may be of many types depending on the anions and
silicate gel will dissolve carbonates and consume the cations present in the system. Usually precipitation of Ca,
acid near wellbore. Mg, Fe, Al, Si ions generated when these ions come into
contact with counter ions like CO3 and SO4.
b) Water control by Oil-in-Water Emulsion:
In-situ generation of emulsion is one of the options for
water control in mature oilfields. B Bai et al. in their
paper SPE 59320 has described that the technique has
been successfully applied in more than 200 wells in
various fields of CNPC, China. In this technique, a
viscous crude oil along with an emulsifier is squeezed
into the reservoir. When the crude oil enters into the
water saturated zones and come into contact with water a
tough emulsion is formed in presence of the emulsifier
and mechanical agitation.
The technique was developed based on laboratory studies
using viscous crude oil of a field and the brine that was Fig: 7.51- precipitation from incompatible brines
used for secondary recovery process. The critical area for
developing the technique was the identification of Kosztin at al. had used a chemical treatment based on
emulsifier, as the type and stability of emulsion depends precipitation of iron compound. H. A. Nasr-El-Din et al.
on the type of emulsifier. Sodium dodecyl sulfate (AS) carried out study (SPE 87455) using high salinity brines.
and sodium dodecyl benzensul sulfonate (ABS) were the In his study, two incompatible brines were used, one
used as used as emulsifier for the stable emulsion. The contains high concentration of Ca ions and the other
development of emulsion was carried out by heating the contains high concentration of sulfate ions. Formation
crude oil to the desired temperature and mixing the water or calcium chloride brine can be used as source of
specified quantity of water in presence of emulsifier calcium. A second brine called Pit-A brine was used as
under constant stirring. The type of emulsion is water-in- source of sulfate ions. The concentration of sulfate in Pit-
oil emulsion where oil is in continuous phase and the A brine was about 1,20,000 mg/l. When the two brines
water is in dispersed phase. The water droplets exist in come into contact, precipitation of CaSO4 formed as per
granular shape in the solution. With the increase of the following equation:
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 2+ 2-
Ca + SO4 + nH2O ↔ CaSO4.nH2O↓ Micro fine Oil Cement (MOC):
Micro-fine oil cement (MOC) is composed of microfine
Depending on the conditions (temperature) calcium
cement mixed in a hydrocarbon (as carrier fluid) and a
sulfate can exist in three phases. Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O)
wetting surfactant. These are mixed to form slurry that
is the stable form at low temperature, whereas anhydride
remains inactive unless contacted by water. On water
(CaSO4) is stable at higher temperature. The third phase
contact, the slurry remains pumpable for a period of time
hemi-hydride (CaSO4.1/2H2O) is not common.
depending on the reservoir temperature and pressure.
H. A. Nasr-El-Din et al. described in his paper SPE After a certain period, the slurry set and forms a hard,
87455 that the precipitation were done for various ratios dense mass like conventional cement.
of the two brines. He also carried out the studies in core
MOC is generally mixed at a density of more than water.
and got favorable results.
The density is adjusted by modifying the ratio of
Advantages: microfine cement and the oil-based carrying fluid. A
surfactant aids this process because it assist with wetting
– Applicable in wells where the source of water is not the microfine cement particle and higher cement/oil
well demarcated from the oil saturated areas. ratios can be maintained. The surfactant also assists in
– Precipitation is formed in the water saturated areas delaying of setting time of cement, therefore allowing
only, not in the oil saturated areas. deeper penetration of slurry into the water bearing zones.
– Simple operation, can execute the jobs rig-less. Advantages:
Disadvantages:
– MOC systems are set selectively in area of the
– The precipitation may be in amorphous state at formation where water is present. In oil saturated
reservoir conditions and move along with the fluid
areas the slurry does not set. Therefore the system is
during flow.
applicable in wells where the source of water is not
– The amount of precipitation may not be sufficient to well defined.
block the natural fractures exist in the formation.
– The fine particles are small enough to penetrate deep
d) Micro fine Oil Cement:
inside the formation mainly through the micro-
In this technique microfine cement is used for sealing the fractures responsible for water encroachment.
water saturated areas. Microfine cement (MFC) is based – The slurry can be customized for the required
on granulated blast furnace slag and is comparable to density based on the reservoir properties.
high sulfate resistance cement used in oilfield cementing. – Placement can be done through coiled tubing.
The basic difference is the size of the particles. The size Hence, can be done without rig.
of the particles is much finer, because of which there is Disadvantages:
much more surface area for hydration. Therefore
retardation of setting (delayed setting) is difficult for – After placing the MOC in formation micro-fractures,
microfine cement when conventionally mixed with it would not be readily removable.
water. The normal particle size D50 is 2.5 microns or – There is the potential problem of plugging the
less. The typical physical and chemical properties of surface flow lines by the unset MOC flowing back
microfine cement are given in the tables below: from the well.
Bulk specific gravity 0.7
e) Injection of selective plugging agent:
Grain specific gravity 2.95
Grain size, D99, µm < 10 In this technique a particulate plugging agent is injected
Grain size, D9o, µm <6 into the well. The plugging agents are preferentially
Grain size, D50, µm < 2.5 entered into the high permeable high water saturated
Table: Typical physical properties of MFC zones, while it forms face plugging in low permeability
Chemicals Wt. % zones. After plugging agent injection, a small volume of
SiO2 32.5 dissolvers is injected to dissolve face plugging materials.
Al2O3 9.7 Treatment with zone isolation cannot damage low
Fe2O3 0.5 permeability zones. However, it has a limited range of
CaO 49.9 applicability, due to the poor distinction between the
MgO 5.9 water producing and oil producing layers in great
SO3 1.3 majority of the wells, especially in matured oil fields.
Na2O 0.5 Treatment using particulate for selective plugging can
Table: Typical Chemical properties of MFC damage low permeability zones.

7.11.6 Field proven water shut-off options:

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 1. Cement squeezes (water -oil based), sand plugs – Enable uneconomic producers to be returned to
(mixed w/chemical sealant) production
2. Bridge plugs to isolate part of well. – When selecting treatments, its technical aspects
3. Casing patches. (strength, depth, stability requirements) and
4. Strong gelants economic aspects (volumes, concentrations, shut-in
5. Blocking gels (sealing systems that completely block times, life) should be considered.
the flow of fluids), 7.11.8 Strategy for reducing water production:
6. Relative permeability modifiers (non-sealing
systems / these polymers -typically water-soluble The strategy for reducing or eliminating excessive water
polymers - reduce effective krw by means of a ―wall production problems is:
effect‖: polymer is absorbed by the formation – Good casing design (withstand productive well life).
creating a layer of hydrated polymer along the pore – Good primary cement job.
throat that inhibits water. – Good perforating design (location of perforations)
7. Fracture gels ( plug fractures and vugs without
plugging the matrix)
– Good well completion design (i.e. equipment for
zonal isolation).
8. Resins, foams
 Multi-lateral completion.
9. Cement plugs; dump cement in the well-bore to shut
 Downhole separation and re-injection.
off bottom perforations.
10. Cement squeezes; shut off all perforations and – Horizontal wells (to minimize coning.
selectively re-perforate. – Good stimulation design.
11. Micro-cements and equivalents to repair failed – Good water management.
cement jobs and near-well fractures. – The easiest problems should be attacked first
12. Near-well permeability blockers; organic/inorganic – Diagnosis of water production problems should
gels, water-triggered hydrogels, resins, injection of begin with information already at hand if necessary
particulates, microbial emulsion formers, and justifiable, better information should be obtained
precipitation of salts. and evaluated using new diagnostic and
13. Rigid foams. interpretative techniques (run new PLT, reservoir
14. Viscous polymers, mobility control foams, in-depth description and modeling).
gels.
– After a treatment is selected, the well completion
15. Relative permeability modifiers.
and available tools should be reviewed to design the
best placement.
7.11.7 Treatment screening process:
– Designing the best placement involves selecting the
During treatment screening process the following should best overall placement method like:
be considered:  Bull-heading.
 Selective single injection with mechanical
– What treatment is expected to do (sealant or RPM isolation.
needed?)  Selective dual injection with mechanical
– What conditions the treatment must withstand (BHT, isolation.
lithology, reservoir fluids, differential pressure, etc.) – Treatment formulation will be based on BHT,
– Penetration requirements permeability, final strength requirements and
– What are the treating conditions placement time.
– Environmental legislation requirements
– The selected treatment should either reduce or
prevent excessive water production.
– Reduced water handling costs
– Greater drawdowns / increase oil rate and
recoverable reserves

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Institute of Oil & Gas Production Technology
Oil & Natural Gas Corporation Ltd.
Phase II, ONGC Complex,Panvel, Navi Mumbai 410221 INDIA
Phone: 91 22 2745 1891 / 2748 6100 Fax: 91 22 2745 1690
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