(a) Nominal: The number serves as nothing more than labels.

For
example no 1 was not less than no 2 .Similarly no 2 was neither
more than no 1 and nor less than no 3.
(b) Ordinal: Such numbers are used to designate an ordering along
some dimensions such as from less to more, from small to large,
from sooner to later.
(c) Interval: The interval provides more précised information than
ordinal one. By this type of measurement the researcher can make
exact and meaningful decisions. For example if A,B and C are of 150
cm, 145cm and 140 cm height, the researcher can say that A is 5 cm
taller than B and B is 5 cm taller than C.
(d) Ratio Scale: It has two unique characteristics. The intervals between
points can be demonstrated to be precisely the same and the scale
has a conceptually meaningful zero point.

(iii) Generating empirical relationships:

Another purpose of analysis of data is identification of regularities and
relationships among data. The researcher has no clear idea about the
relationship which will be found from the collected data. If the data
were available in details it will be easier to determine the relationship.
The researcher can develop theories if he is able to recognize pattern
and order of data. The pattern may be showing association among
variables, which may be done by calculating correlation among variables
or showing order, precedence or priority. The derivation of empirical
laws may be made in the form of simple equations relating one interval
or ratio scaled variable to a few others through graph methods.

(iv) Explanation and prediction:

Generally knowledge and research are equated with the identification
of causal relationships and all research activities are directed to it. But in
many fields the research has not been developed to the level where
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causal explanation is possible or valid predictions can be made. In such a
situation explanation and prediction is construct as enabling the values
of one set of variables to be derived given the values of another.
Functions:
The following are the main functions of data analysis:
(i) The researcher should analyze the available data for examining
the statement of the problem.
(ii) The researcher should analyze the available data for examining
each hypothesis of the problem.
(iii) The researcher should study the original records of the data
before data analysis.
(iv) The researcher should analyze the data for thinking about the
research problem in lay man’s term.
(v) The researcher should analyze the data by attacking it through
statistical calculations.
(vi) The researcher should think in terms of significant tables that
the available data permits for the analysis of data.

Statistical Calculations:
The researcher will have to use either descriptive statistics or inferential
statistics for the purpose of the analysis.

(i) The descriptive statistics may be on any of the following forms:

(a) Measures of Central Tendency:
These measures are mean, median, mode geometric mean and
harmonic mean. In behavioral statistics the last two measures are not
used. Which of the first three will be used in social statistics depends
upon the nature of the problem.

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(b) Measures of Variability:
These measures are range, mean deviation, quartile deviation and
standard deviation. In social statistics the first two measures are rarely
used. The use of standard deviation is very frequently made for the
purpose of analysis.

(c) Measures of Relative Position:

These measures are standard scores (Z or T scores), percentiles and
percentile ranks .All of them are used in educational statistics for data
analysis.

(d) Measures of Relationship:

There measures are Co-efficient of Correlation, partial correlation and
multiple correlations. All of them are used in educational statistics for
the analysis of data. However the use of rank method is made more in
comparison to Karl pearson method.

(ii)The inferential statistics may be in any one of the following forms:

(a) Significance of Difference between Means:
It is used to determine whether a true difference exists between
population means of two samples.

(b) Analysis of Variance:

The Z or t tests are used to determine whether there was any significant
difference between the means of two random samples. The F test
enables the researcher to determine whether the sample means differ
from one another to a greater extent then the test scores differ from
their own sample means using the F ratio.

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(c) Analysis of Co-Variance:
It is an extension of analysis of variance to test the significance of
difference between means of final experimental data by taking into
account the Correlation between the dependent variable and one or
more Co-variates or control variables and by adjusting initial mean
differences in the group.

(d) Correlation Methods:

Either of two methods of correlation can be used for the purpose of
calculating the significance of the difference between Co-efficient of
Correlation.

(e) Chi Square Test:

It is used to estimate the like hood that some factor other than chance
accounts to the observed relationship. In this test the expected
frequency and observed frequency are used for evaluating Chi Square.

(f) Regression Analysis:

For calculating the probability of occurrence of any phenomenon or for
predicting the phenomenon or relationship between different variables
regression analysis is cone.

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 10
0 Interpretation of Data
According to F.L. Whitney, interpretation means an adequate exposition
of the true meaning of the material presented in terms of the purposes
of the study being reported and of the chapter and section topic
involved.

Purposes:
The following are the main purposes of interpretation of data or results;
(i) To throw light on the real significance of the material in the
context.
(ii) To understand implications of the data.
(iii) To provide hints of conclusions and recommendations of the
researcher.
(iv) To show the values of greatest worth that has resulted from the
research.
(v) To refer important generalization.

Factors:
The researcher should keep the following factors in consideration in
interpretation of data;

(i) Not to ignore those factors which are unstudied:

In social / behavioral researches there are many factors which have
their impact upon the findings of the research but no researcher is in
the position to study all the factors. Naturally he does not take into
account in interpretation of the results those factors which have not
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been studied. It has its effect upon the search of truth. Thus the
researcher should take into consideration such factors in his
interpretation. For example if a comparison has been made between
the traditional method of teaching and any modern method of teaching
in respect of effectiveness of teaching, the interpretation that successful
attainment is the result of method of teaching only is complete denial of
the role of general mental ability, high achievement motivation and
better study habits etc.

(ii) Not to ignore those factors which have not been selected for study:
In social / behavioral researches, the subjects are generally so large that
the researcher collects the data from a selected group only. The
researcher should remember that some factors which have not been
included in selective group are equally important in their impact upon
findings. For example if the researcher collects data from a particular
school in a particular area and then he concludes about all the
schools/colleges.

(iii) Not to over –interpret the expected results:

The researcher should remember that even if he finds the findings of
the research as per his expectations he should not interpret more than
what can be interpreted on the basis of data available. The researcher
should be cautious that he reports all such factors which might be
responsible for the findings.

(iv) Not to exercise defense mechanism in interpreting the results:

The researcher should remember that it is not necessary that the
hypotheses should always be confirmed. It is possible that the
researcher may exercise defense mechanism if the results of the study
are not found as per expectations of the research. In such a situation he
should not try to find faults in tools or samples for the results against his
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expectations. If any researcher tries to do so, his interpretation will not
be considered fair. The hypotheses are made in the beginning of the
research when the knowledge of the researcher about the problem is
very limited. Agreement between the tentative and the results is not
necessary.

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 11
0 Research Methods

Historical Research Method:

History is the record of the changing processes. History consists of

changes which social structures undergo. Social scientists studies the
past to gain a better understanding of the present state of affairs.
History is the meaningful record of man’s achievement. It is not merely
a list of characteristics of chronological events, but an integrated
account of the relationship between persons, events, times and places.
John W. Best, “Man uses history to understand the past, and try
to understand the present in the light of past events and
developments.”
F.N. Kerlinger, “Historical research is the application of the
scientific method of inquiry to historical problems.”
Whitney, “Historical research deals with the past
experiences….its aim is to apply the method of reflective thinking of
social problems , still unsolved , by means of discovery of past trends of
event, fact and attitude. It traces the lines of development in human
thought and action in order to reach some basis for social activity.”
Redcliff Browne, “Historical method may be defined as a
system in which present day events are studied with reference to the
events that took place in the past.”
Historical method seeks to find explanation of questions of
current interest by an intensive study of the past. Many studies in the
field of economics, politics, sociology, education and psychology are
essentially historical in approach.

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Purpose of Historical Research:
(i) Historical researches provide important information concerning
the effects of certain past practices and may suggest plans for
future actions.
(ii) It also offers explanation of the how and why of many of the
theories and practices that has developed and now prevails in
the school/college.
(iii) It contributes to an understanding of the significance of the
phenomenon studied.
(iv) It helps to gain an accurate account of the past.
(v) It helps to gain a clear perspective of the present.

Sources of Historical Research:

There are many sources for collection of historical data like;
Autobiographies, Diaries, Confessions, Memories, Personal letters,
Accessible documents, news-papers and literature, books and
Magazines, Cultural and Analytical history material, Artistic materials,
historical paintings, Portraits , charts etc.
These sources can be divided into two categories i.e. Primary
sources and Secondary sources.

Primary sources:
The original documents are termed as Primary sources. These are solid
basis of historical research and are highly prized by a historian.
According to Kerlinger, “A primary source is the only repository
of an historical datum, like an original record kept of an important
occasion, an eye witness description of an event, a photograph, minutes
of organization meeting and so on.”

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(i) Document or records:
These are maintained and written by actual participant or witness of an
event. These sources are produced for the purpose of transmitting
information to be used in the future. Documents classified as primary
sources are constitution, charters, laws, court decisions, diaries, deeds,
genealogies, contracts, wills, autobiographies, letters, official minutes or
records, permits, licenses, affidavits, depositions, declarations,
proclamations certificates, lists, bills, handbills, receipts,
newspapers,magazines,accounts,maps,diagrams,books,pamphlets,catal
ogues,films,pictures,paintings,recordings,transcriptions and research
reports.

(ii) Remains or Relics:

These are associated with a person, group, period, fossils, skeletons,
tools, weapons, food utensils, clothing, buildings, furniture, coins, art
objects, pictures and paintings are examples of relics.

(iii) Oral Testimony:

These are spoken account of witness or participant in an event. It is
obtained in a personal interview. It may be recorded or transcript as the
witness relates his experiences.

Secondary Sources of Data:

In the words of Kerlinger, “A secondary source is an account or record
of an historical event or circumstance one or more steps removed from
an original history.”
Secondary sources are the reports of a person who relates the
testimony of actual witness of, or participant in an event. The writer of
the secondary source who was not on the scene of the event, merely

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