Semiconductor Devices and

Communication System 22
22.1 INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
A pure semiconductor in which no impurity of any sort has been mixed, is called intrinsic semi-
conductor. Germanium (Eg = 0.72 eV) and silicon (Eg = 1.1 eV) are intrinsic semiconductors. In
an intrinsic semiconductor the number of free electrons in conduction band ne is exactly equal to
the number of holes nh in valence band. Thus, ne = nh = ni where ni is called the number density of
intrinsic carriers. At 0 K these behave as 100% insulators. But at any other temperature they have
thermally generated charge carriers and thus behave as semiconductor. Conductivity of an intrinsic
semiconductor is s = e(ne me + nh mh), where ne is free electron density, nh is the hole density and me
and mh are their respective mobilities. Electrical conductivity of pure semiconductor is very small.

22.2 EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

To prepare a n-type semiconductor a pentavalent impurity, eg., P, As, Sb is used as a dopant with
Si or Ge. Such an impurity is called donor impurity because each dopant atom provides one free
electron. In n-type semiconductor ne >> nh, i.e., electrons are majority charge carriers and the
holes are minority charge carriers such that ne × nh = ni2. A n-type semiconductor is electrically
neutral and is not negatively charged.
To prepare a p-type semiconductor a trivalent impurity, eg., B, Al, In, Ga, etc. is used as a
dopant with Si or Ge. Such an impurity is called acceptor impurity as each impurity atom wants
to accept an electron from the crystal lattice. Thus, effectively each dopant atom provides a hole.
In p-type semiconductor nh >> ne, ie, holes are majority charge carriers and electrons minority
charge carriers such that
nh × ne = ni2
A p-type semiconductor is electrically neutral and is not positively charged.

22.3 P-N JUNCTION

A p-n junction is obtained by joining a small p-type crystal with a n-type crystal without employ-
ing any other binding material in between them. Whenever a p-n junction is formed, electrons
from n-region diffuse through the junction into p-region and the holes from p-region diffuse into
n-region. As a result neutrality of both n and p-regions is disturbed and a thin layer of immobile

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negative charged ions appear near the junction in the p-crystal and a layer of positive ions appear
near the junction in n-crystal. This layer containing immobile ions is called depletion layer. The
thickness of depletion layer is approximately of the order of 10–6 m.
The potential difference created across the p-n junction due to diffusion of electrons and
holes is called the potential barrier Vb (or emf of fictitious battery). For germanium diode barrier
potential to 0.3 V but for Si diode its value is 0.7 V. The barrier electric field developed due to it
is of the order of 105 Vm–1.

22.4 HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER

In half-wave rectifier only one diode is used. In it no current flow takes place and no output signal
is obtained.
Even during one half cycle the output obtained is a mixture of dc and ac.
Effective AC component of voltage
The ripple factor = = 1.21 or 121%
Effective DC component of voltage

22.5 FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER

In full-wave rectifier two p-n junction diodes have been joined in complimentary modes. In this
rectifier, we obtain a continuous unidirectional current through the load resistor RL.
VAC
Ripple factor in full-wave rectifier = 0.48 = 48%
VDC
The average output in one cycle is
2 2
Vdc = Vo ⇒ I dc = Io
π π
The ripple frequency for full-wave rectifier is twice that of ac input signal.

Table 22.1 Comparison Between Half- and Full-Wave Rectifier

Property Half-Wave Rectifier Full-Wave Rectifier
Average direct current, IDC Io/p 2Io/p
Average voltage, VAV Vo/p 2Vo/p
Ripple factor, r 1.21 0.48
∴ IAC > IDC ∴ IAC < IDC
0.406 0.812
Efficiency, h = 40% = 80%
1 + rP / RL 1 + rP / RL
Form factor 1.57 1.11
Ripple frequency w 2w
Pulse frequency 1/2 of input pulse frequency input pulse frequency

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22.6 DIODES
1. Zener diode is a highly doped p-n diode which is not damaged by high reverse
current. It is always used in reverse bias in breakdown voltage region and is chiefly n
used as a voltage regulator. p
2. Light emitting diode (LED) is a specially designed diode made of GaAsP, etc.
When used in forward biased, it emits characteristic, almost monochromatic light.
3. Photo diode is a special diode used in reverse bias which conducts only when light of suit-
able wavelengths is incident on the junction of diode. The energy of incident light photon
must be greater than the band gap of semiconductor.
4. Solar cell is a special p-n junction in which one of the semiconductors is made extremely
thin so that solar radiation falling on it reaches junction of diode without any absorption. A
solar cell directly converts solar energy into electrical energy.

22.7 TRANSISTOR
A transistor is a combination of two p-n junctions joined in series. A junction transistor is known
as bipolar junction transistor (BJT). Transistors are of two types: n-p-n and p-n-p transistor.
A transistor has three regions:
1. An emitter (E), which is most heavily doped and is of moderate size. It supplies large num-
ber of charge carriers, which are free electrons in a n-p-n transistor and holes in a p-n-p
transistor.
2. A base (B), which is very lightly doped and is very thin (thickness ≈ 10–5 m).
3. A collector (C), which is moderately doped and is thickest.
A transistor is symbolically represented as shown in the figures.
n-p-n p-n-n
E C E C

B B

(a) (b)
In a n-p-n transistor, electrons flow from emitter towards the base and constitute a current
Ie. Due to larger reverse bias at base-collector junction, most of these electrons further pass into
the collector, constituting a collector current Ie. But a small percentage of electrons (less than 5%)
may combine with holes present in base. These electrons constitute a base current Ib. It is self
evident that
Ie = Ic + Ib

22.8 TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATION

A transistor can be connected in either of the following three configurations:
1. Common emitter (CE) configuration
2. Common base (CB) configuration
3. Common collector (CC) configuration

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1. In common emitter configuration, we obtain the values of the following parameters:

Input resistance ⎡ ΔV ⎤
ri = ⎢ BE ⎥
⎣ ΔI B ⎦VCE = constant
⎡ ΔV ⎤
Input resistance ro = ⎢ CE ⎥
⎣ ΔI C ⎦ IB = constant
⎡ ΔI C ⎤
AC current gain β=⎢ ⎥
⎣ ΔI B ⎦VCE = constant
ΔI C β
Transconductance gm = =
ΔVBE ri
A transistor can be used as an amplifier. The voltage gain of an amplifier will be given by
V R
AV = o = β C
Vi RB
where RC and RB are net resistances in collector and base circuits respectively.
2. In common base configuration ac current gain is defined as
⎡ ΔI C ⎤
α=⎢ ⎥
⎣ ΔI E ⎦VCE = constant
Value of a is slightly less than 1. In fact 0.95 ≤ a ≤ 1.
Current gains a and b are correlated as
α β
β= or α=
1−α 1+ β
Table 22.2
In CB In CE In CC
iB = Constant iE = Constant iC = Constant
As iE = iB + iC As iE = iB + iC As iE = iB + iC
⇒ ΔiE = ΔiC ⇒ ΔiB = –ΔiC ⇒ ΔiE = ΔiB
Δi Ro Ro
⇒ α AC = C = α DC ⇒ AR = >> 1 ⇒ AR = >> 1
ΔiE Ri Ri
R R i i i i
AR = o = C Ai = o = C Ai = o = E
Ri RE ii iB ii iB
Rhigh
= ≈ 10
3
= b >> 1 = g >> 1
Rlow
io iC
Ai = = = α ≈1 AV = AiAR = bAR >> 1 AV = gAR >> 1
ii iE
AV = AiAR = aAR >> 1 AP = Ai2AR = b2AR >> 1 AP = g 2AR >> 1
AP = Ai2AR ⇒ a2AR >> 1
(Continued)

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Table 22.2 (Continued)

In CB In CE In CC
iB = Constant iE = Constant iC = Constant
Input and output signals are Input and output signals are Input and output signals are
in phase (Δf = 0) out of phase (Δf = p) in phase
i i i β
γ= E = E× e =
iB ie iA α
or g = 1 + b
A logic gate is a digital electronic circuit which follows a logical relationship between its
input and output. A logic gate may have one or more inputs but has only one output.
Logic gates follow Boolean algebra, which consists of three basic operations, namely
AND(A ⋅ B = Y), OR (A + B = Y) and NOT ( A = Y ).

22.9 LOGIC GATES

An electronic circuit which makes logic decision or binary decision between input and output
signal is called logic gate i.e. a logic circuit or logic gate is a digital circuit that can implement
Boolean algebraic equations.
There are 3 types of basic logic gates which are building blocks of logical circuit: OR gate,
AND gate and NOT gate.
Each logic gate has its characteristic symbol and can be realised in practice using solid-state
devices such as diode, transistors etc. provided the devices perform here in a nonlinear manner
i.e. in a switching mode.
The working of a logic gate can be explained by either truth table or Boolean algebra. Truth
table shows all possibilities of input and output.

22.9.1 OR Gate
An OR gate has two or more inputs but a single output.
1. Symbol:
A
Input(s) B Y
N Output

2. Truth Table for 2-input OR Gate

i.e. A + B = Y
Inputs Output
A B Y i.e. A OR B = Y
0 0 0 “ + ” → OR symbol
A
1 0 1
Inputs
0 1 1 B Y
1 1 1 5V Output
↓
Unique combination for Boolean algebra. OFF ⇒ 0 ON ⇒ 1

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3. Realization: An OR gate can be realised by using diode, known as diode-logic (DL) system.
D1
Y D1

Output
D2 A
RL Y
A B B
D2
5V 5V

Case-I: When A - Low (0) and B - Low (0) i.e. D1 and D2 do not conduct. Hence, current
through RL is zero. i.e. output voltage is zero i.e. low i.e. Y = 0
Case-II: When A - High (1) and B - Low (0) Y = 0 i.e. D1 - Conducting and D2 -
Non-conducting Hence current flows through RL i.e. Y = 1
Case-III: When A - Low (0) and B - High (1) i.e. D1 - Non-conducting and D2 - conducting;
hence there is a current through RL i.e. Y = 1.
Case-IV: When A - High (1) and B - High (1) i.e. D1 and D2 - Conducting; hence Y = 1.
4. The number of rows in a truth table equals 2n, where n is the number of inputs.
An OR gate can have as many inputs as desired; adding one diode for each additional inputs.
No matter how many inputs, the action of any OR-gate is one or more high inputs produce
a high output.
Vcc + 5V
14 13 12 11 10 9 8

IC 7432

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

22.9.2 AND Gate

An AND gate possesses two or more inputs and a single output. An AND gate has a high output
when all inputs are high.
A
1. Symbol: B
Y
N
2. Truth Table for 2-input AND Gate
Inputs Output A B
A B Y + 5V Y
0 0 0
1 0 0 i.e. Y = A • B
0 1 0 i.e. Y = A AND B
1 1 1 “ • ” – AND symbol

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3. Realisation: Again, it has diode-logic (DL)

D1
Y
D2
RL

Output
A B
5V 5V 5V

Case-I: A – Low and B – Low, i.e., the inputs are short-circuited to ground. The 5 V
battery in the output side forward biases the D1 and D2. Hence, D1 and D2 –
Conducting. The output is also shorted to ground through the diodes. Thus,
output Y = 0.
Case-II: A – High; B – Low, i.e., D1 – non-conducting but D2 – Conducting and the output
is short circuited to ground through this diode. Hence, Y = 0.
Case-III: A – Low; B – High, i.e., D1 – Conducting and D2 – non-conducting and the out-
put is short-circuited to ground through the diode D1. Hence, Y = 0.
Case-IV: A – High; B – High, neither D1 nor D2 – Conducts. No current, therefore, flows
through RL and the output Y = 1.

Note
If in the truth table of a positive logic AND gate, 0s are replaced by 1s and vice-versa, we immedi-
ately get the truth table of a positive logic OR gate. Thus, a negative logic AND gate behaves as a
positive logic OR gate, and vice-versa.

22.9.3 NOT Gate

The NOT circuit has a single input and a single output. The NOT gate inverts the sense of the
output with regard to the input. Hence it is also called inverter and the NOT operation is also
called as Negation.

1. Symbol: (Input) A (B Output)

2. Truth Table

Inputs A Output Y
Y
0 1 A Input
1 0

Output
i.e. Y = NOT A if A = 0, Y = NOT 0 = 1
if A = 1, Y = NOT 1 = 0 i.e. Y = A

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3. Realisation: It can be used as a transistor i.e. transistor logic.

RC Vcc

RB Y
A

Case-I: When no signal is applied at the input i.e. A = 0 the transistor is cut-off, making the
collector-current zero. Thus, potential drop across RC is zero. The supply voltage of
VCC appears at the output terminal. Hence, output Y = VCC = 1 (Yes).
Case-II: When a positive pulse is applied to A i.e. A = 1, the transistor conducts (fully ON)
drawing maximum collector current. Hence, whole of VCC drops across RC and
output Y = 0 (NO).

22.10 UNIVERSAL BUILDING BLOCKS

The three basic gates are naturally independent because by their repeated use, one gate cannot be
obtained from the other. But by repeated use of 3 basic gates, two more fundamental gates can be
obtained and hence these are called universal building blocks of digital electronics.
These fundamental gates are NAND and NOR gates.
All three gates can be obtained by any of the NAND or NOR gate.
1. NOR-gate: OR gate + NOT gate ≡ NOR gate

A
Y = Y′ = A + B
B Y′ = A + B

i.e., Y equals NOT A OR B

If the output of an OR gate is connected to input of a NOT gate, the resulting arrangement
works as a NOR gate.
Symbol:

A B Y′ = A+B Y = Y′
A 0 0 0 1
Y=A+B 1 0 1 0
B
0 1 1 0
1 1 1 0

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2. NAND-Gate: AND-gate + NOT-gate ≡ NAND-gate

A
Y = Y′ = A + B
B Y′ = A + B

Logic symbol: A
Y=A⋅B
B
Truth Table
Input Inter-output Final output
A B Y′ = A ⋅ B Y = Y ′ = A⋅ B
0 0 0 1
A
1 0 0 1 + 5V Y
0 1 0 1 B
1 1 1 0

(a) To obtain NOT-gate from NAND-gate

A or B = X Y = A or B

NOT-gate can be obtained from NAND-gate by joining their both the inputs.
(b) To obtain AND-gate from NAND-gate

A Y=A⋅B
Y=Y=A⋅B=A⋅B
B
NAND gate NOT gate obtained from NAND gate

If a output of NAND-gate is fed to the NOT-gate which is obtained from NAND-gate

by joining their inputs. Resulting gate works as AND-gate.
(c) To obtain OR-gate from NAND-gate

Y1 = A
A
Y = Y1 ⋅ Y2 = A ⋅ B = A + B = A + B
A
Y2 = B

If the two outputs obtained from two NOT-gate (which is obtained from NAND-gate)
are fed to input of a input of the NAND-gate. The resulting arrangement works as
OR-gate.

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Similarly:
(a) To obtain NOT-gate from NOR-gate

A or B = X Y = A + A = A ⋅A = A or B

⇒
NOR gate

The NOT-gate is obtained from a one-input NOR-gate. Thus, single input NOR gate is
yet another inverter circuit.
(b) To obtain OR-gate from NOR-gate

A Y′ = A + B
Y = Y′ = A + B = A + B
B

If a output of a NOR-gate is fed to the NOT-gate obtained from NOR-gate (i.e. joining
the two inputs of NOR-gate). The resulting gate works as OR-gate.
(c) To obtain AND-gate from NOR-gate

Y1 = A
A
Y = Y 1 + Y2 = A + B = A ⋅ B = A ⋅ B
A
Y2 = B

If the two outputs obtained from two NOT-gates (which is obtained from NOR-gate)
are fed to the inputs of a NOR-gate. The resulting arrangement works as AND-gate.

22.10.1 Arithmetic Circuits

Some of the arithmetic circuits, used in digital computers, are exclusive OR-gate (XOR-gate),
exclusive NOR-gate (XNOR-gate), half adders and full adders.

Exclusive–OR-gate (Ex–OR-gate or XOR-gate)

The Boolean expression for XOR is given by
Y = A ⋅ B + A ⋅ B or Y = A ⊕ B (XOR-binary operation is denoted by ‘⊕’
A Y1 = A ⋅B
A

Y = Y1 + Y2 = AB + AB = A ⊕ B
A Y2 = A ⋅B
B

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⇒ Implementation of a two-input XOR-function with NAND-gate:

A A ⋅ = (A ⋅B)

A ⋅B Y = AB + AB = A ⊕ B
A
(A ⋅B) = ⋅B

Logic symbol:
A
Y = A ⋅B + A ⋅B = A ⊕ B
B

A
or ⊕ Y=A⊕B
B

Truth Table

Input Intermediate Output Final Output

Y = Y1 + Y2
A B A B Y1 = AB Y2 = AB
= AB + AB
0 0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 0 0 0

From truth table, it can be observed that, output Y is 1 only when one of two inputs is 1 but
not both. Hence, the name XOR (exclusive OR) gate.
XOR operation is called mod-2 addition, and rules of addition are:
0⊕0=0 0⊕1=1 1⊕0=1 1⊕1=0
From these rules we conclude that mod-2 addition is a binary addition if we neglect to take
into account the carriers.
Exclusive–NOR-gate (or Ex-NOR or XNOR-gate)
The Boolean expression for XNOR is Y = A ⋅ B + A ⋅ B = A  B
Implementation:

A Y1 = A ⋅ B
B
Y = AB + A ⋅B = A  B
A
B Y2 = A ⋅ B

XNOR or Equivalence operation is denoted by ‘’

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Truth Table
Input Inter Output Final Output
A B A B Y1 = AB Y2 = AB Y = Y1 + Y2 = A  B

0 0 1 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 1 0 1
From truth table, it can be observed that output Y is 0 when one of the two inputs is 1 and Y
is 1 when both the two inputs are 0 or 1.
Bubbled OR-gate
Y1 = A
A
Y = Y 1 + Y2
B
Y2 = B
If the output of two NOT-gate is fed to input of an OR-gate, the resulting arrangement is called
bubbled OR-gate as shown:
Logic symbol:
A
Y=A+B
B
Truth Table

Input Inter Output Final Output

A B A B Y = A+ B
0 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 0
Since the truth table for bubbled OR-gate and that for NAND-gate are identical which means
that the bubbled OR-gate produces the same output signals as the NAND-gate, therefore, each
NAND-gate can be replaced by a bubbled OR-gate and vice-versa.
i.e. NAND gate ≡ Bubbled OR-gate
Bubbled AND-gate
Y1 = A
A
Y =A⋅B
B
Y2 = B

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If the output of two NOT-gate is fed to input of an AND-gate, the resulting arrangement is called
bubbled AND-gate as shown below:
Logic symbol:
A
Y=A⋅B
B

Truth Table

Input Inter Output Final Output

A B Y1 = A Y2 = B Y = A⋅ B

0 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 0

Since the truth table for bubbled AND-gate and that for NOR-gate are identical, which
means a bubbled AND-gate produces the same output as a NOR-gate, therefore, each NOR-gate
can be replaced by a bubbled AND gate and vice-versa.
i.e. NOR-gate ≡ Bubbled AND-gate
A A
i.e. Y=A+B ≡ Y=A⋅B
B B

22.11 PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION

22.11.1 Analog Communication

1. Analog communication system involves analog electronic circuit, where the output voltage
changes continuously according to input voltage variations.
2. In this communication, the output voltage can have an infinite number of values. A con-
tinuously varying signal (voltage or current) is called an analog signal. Due to many valued
output, the analog operation is less reliable.

22.11.2 Digital Communication

1. Modern communication systems involve digital electronic circuits and digital signals. A
signal that can have only two discrete values (i.e., ON or OFF) is called a digital signal.
2. A square wave is a digital signal, because this signal has only two values, viz., +5 V and 0 V.
A digital circuit expresses the values in digits 1’s or 0’s. Hence, the name digital is given.
3. Digital operation is more reliable than many valued analog operations.

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22.11.3 Radio Communication

1. In radio communication, an audio signal from a broadcasting station is sent over a great dis-
tance to a receiver. Audio signal cannot be sent directly over the air for appreciable distance,
even after converting into electrical signal. At audio frequencies, the signal power is quite
small and radiation is not practicable.
2. The radiation of electrical energy is practicable only at high frequencies, e.g., above 20 kHz.
Therefore, if audio signal is to be transmitted properly, some means must be devised which
will permit transmission to occur at high frequencies while it simultaneously allows the
carrying of audio signal. This is achieved by superimposing electrical audio signal on high
frequency carrier wave. This process is called modulation.
3. At the radio receiver, the audio signal is extracted from the modulated wave by the process
called demodulation.
4. The process of radio communication involves three steps:
(a) Transmitter
(b) Transmission of radio waves
(c) Radio receiver

22.11.4 Need for Modulation

1. In order to radiate a frequency of 20 kHz directly into space, we would need an antenna
length of 15,000 m. This is impractical. On the other hand, if a carrier wave of 1000 kHz is
used to carry the signal, we need an antenna length of 300 m only.
2. As the audio signal frequencies are small, therefore these cannot be transmitted over large
distances if radiated directly into space (because of their small energy). But, when the audio
signal is modified by a high frequency carrier wave, it permits the transmission over large
distances.
3. At audio frequencies, radiation is not practicable because of poor efficiency. However, effi-
cient radiation of electrical energy is possible at high frequencies, thus making wireless
communication feasible.

22.11.5 Demodulation
1. The process of recovering the audio signal from the modulated wave is known as demod-
ulation. If the modulated wave after amplification is directly fed to the speaker, no sound
will be heard. It is because the diaphragm of the speaker is not at all able to respond to
high frequency of modulated wave. This implies that audio signal must be separated
from the carrier at a suitable stage in the receiver and fed to the speaker for conversion
into sound.
2. A demodulator or detector circuit performs essentially two functions:
(a) It rectifies the modulated wave, i.e., negative half of the modulated wave is eliminated.
(b) It separates the audio signal from the carrier.

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22.12 TYPES OF MODULATION

22.12.1 Amplitude Modulation

1. When the amplitude of high frequency carrier wave is changed in accordance with the inten-
sity of audio signal, it is called amplitude modulation. In amplitude modulation, only the
amplitude of the carrier wave is changed but the frequency of the modulated wave remains
the same, i.e., carrier frequency.
2. The ratio of change of amplitude of carrier wave to the amplitude of normal carrier wave is
called the modulation factor m, i.e.,
Modulation factor,
Amplitude change of carrier wave
m=
Amplitude of the unmodulated carrier wave

3. Modulation factor determines the strength and quality of the transmitted signal. The greater
is the degree of modulation (i.e., m), the stronger and clearer will be the audio signal.
4. If the carrier is over modulated (i.e., m > 1), distortion will occur during reception.
5. The instantaneous voltage of AM wave is:

mEc mEc
e = Ec cos ω c t + cos(ω c + ω s )t + cos(ω c + ω s )t
2 2
where, Ec = Amplitude of carrier
mEc = Amplitude of signal
wc = 2pfc = Angular velocity at carrier frequency fc
ws = 2pfs = Angular velocity at signal frequency fs
6. Important points regarding AM wave:
(a) The AM wave is equivalent to the summation of three sinusoidal waves, one having
amplitude Ec and frequency fc (= wc/2p), the second having amplitude mEc/2 and fre-
quency (fc + fs) and the third having amplitude mEc/2 and frequency (fc – fs).
(b) The AM wave contains three frequencies, viz., fc, fc + fs and fc – fs. The first frequency
is the carrier frequency and two other frequencies, one higher and second lower than
carrier frequency. Thus, the process of modulation does not change the original carrier
frequency but produces two new frequencies (fc + fs) and (fc – fs) which are called side
band frequencies.
(c) The sum of carrier frequency and signal frequency, i.e., (fc + fs) is called upper side band
frequency. The lower side band frequency is (fc – fs), i.e., the difference between carrier
and signal frequencies.
(d) In practical radio transmission, carrier frequency fc is many times greater than the
signal frequency fs. Hence, the side band frequencies are generally close to the carrier
frequency.
(e) In amplitude modulation, band width is twice the signal frequency.

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22.12.2 Power in AM Wave

1. Equation of AM wave reveals that it has three components of amplitudes Ec, mEc/2 and
mEc/2 respectively. Obviously, power output must be distributed among three components.
Ec2
2. Power of carrier wave: Pc =
2R
m2 Ec2 1 2
Total power of side bands: Ps = ⇒ Ps = m Pe
4R 2
Ec2 ⎡ m2 ⎤ ⎡ m2 ⎤
Total power of AM wave: PT = Pc + Ps = ⎢1 + ⎥ c ⎢1 +
= P ⎥
2R ⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎦

Ps m2
3. Fraction of total power carried by side bands: =
PT 2 + m2
(a) When m = 0, power carried by side bands = 0.
(b) When m =1/2, power carried by side bands = 11.1% the total power of AM wave.
(c) When m = 1, power carried by side bands = 33.3% the total power of AM wave.
4. As the signal is contained in side band frequencies, therefore useful power is in the side
bands. Above equations show that side band power depends upon the modulation factor m.
The greater the value of m, the greater is the useful power carried by side bands.
5. The side band power represents the signal content and the carrier power is that power which
is required as the means of transmission.

22.12.3 Limitations of Amplitude Modulation

1. Noisy reception
2. Low efficiency
3. Small operating range
4. Lack of audio quality

22.12.4 Frequency Modulation

1. In this modulation, it is only the frequency of the carrier wave which is changed and not its
amplitude. The amount of change in frequency is determined by the amplitude of the modu-
lating signal where as rate of change is determined by the frequency of the modulating signal.
Louder the audio signal, greater the frequency change in modulated carrier. The rate of
frequency deviation depends on the signal frequency.
2. The frequency of a FM transmitter without signal input is called the resting frequency or
centre frequency (fo) and is the allotted frequency of the transmitter or carrier frequency.
3. When the signal is applied, the carrier frequency deviates up and down from its resting
value fo. This change or shift either above or below the resting frequency is called frequency
deviation (Δf).

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4. The total variation in frequency from the lowest to the highest is called carrier swing (CS),
i.e., CS = 2 × Δf
5. A maximum frequency deviation of 75 kHz is allowed for commercial FM broadcasting sta-
tions in the 88 to 168 MHz VHF band. Hence, FM channel width is 2 × 75 = 150 kHz. allow-
ing a 25 kHz guard band on either side, the channel width becomes = 2 (75 + 25) = 200 kHz.

22.12.5 Modulation Factor or Index

Frequency deviation Δf
1. It is given by the ratio, m f = =
Modulation frequency f m

2. Unlike amplitude modulation, the modulation factor here can be greater than unity.

22.12.6 Deviation Ratio

1. It is the worst case modulation factor in which maximum permitted frequency deviation
and maximum permitted audio frequency are used.

(Δf )max
∴ Deviation ratio =
f m (max)
2. For FM broadcast stations, (Δf)max.= 75 kHz and maximum permitted frequency of
modulating audio signal is 15 kHz.

75kHz
Deviation ratio = =5
15kHz

3. For sound portion of commercial TV

25kHz
Deviation ratio = = 1.67
15kHz

22.12.7 Percent Modulation

1. When applied to FM, this term has slightly different meaning than when applied to AM. In
FM, it is given by the ratio of actual frequency deviation to the maximum allowed frequency
deviation, i.e.,

(Δf )actual
m= ⇒ m ∝ (Δf )actual
(Δf )max

It means that when frequency deviation (i.e., signal loudness) is doubled, modulation is
doubled.
2. Value of m = 0 corresponds to zero deviation, i.e., unmodulated carrier wave.

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22.12.8 Pulse Modulation

1. Pulse modulation may be used to transmit analog information, such as continuous speech
or data.
2. Pulse modulation may be subdivided into two categories: analog and digital.
3. The two types of analog pulse modulation are pulse amplitude and pulse-time modulation,
correspond roughly to amplitude and frequency modulation.

22.12.9 Data Communication Modem

1. The modems are employed both at transmitting and receiving stations. The modem
at the transmitting station changes the digital output from a computer to a form which
can be easily sent via a communication circuit, while the receiving modem reverses
the process.
2. The name modem is a contraction of the terms modulator and demodulator. As the name
implies, both functions are included in a modem.

22.12.10 Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves in Atmosphere

On the basis of the mode of propagation, radio waves can be broadly classified as:
1. Ground or surface waves:
(a) In ground wave propagation, radio waves are guided by the earth and move along its
curved surface from the transmitter to receiver.
(b) Ground wave propagation is useful only at low frequencies.
(c) Below 500 kHz, ground waves can be used for communication within distances of
about 1500 km from the transmitter.
(d) AM radio broadcasts in the medium frequency band cover local areas and take place
primarily by the ground wave.
2. Space or tropospheric waves:
(a) In space wave propagation, radio waves move in the earth’s troposphere within about
15 km over the surface of the earth.
(b) The space wave is made of two components: a direct or line of sight wave, the ground-
reflected wave.
(c) The space wave is not continuously absorbed by the earth’s surface. Hence, it can cover
a greater range than the ground wave.
3. Sky waves:
(a) In sky wave propagation, radio waves transmitted from the transmitting antenna reach
the receiving antenna after reflection from the ionosphere.
(b) Short wave transmission around the globe is possible through sky waves via successive
reflections at the ionosphere and the earth surface.

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22.12.11 Satellite Communication

1. For sky wave propagation, usually the frequency band extending from 3 to 30 MHz is
employed. Radio links over large distances over the earth’s surface can be established by
multi hop transmission. But reliable communication by means of sky waves is hampered
due to problems like ionospheric disturbances, storms, etc. Artificial satellites offer reliable
communication links over long distances. To an observer on the earth’s surface the satellite
appears to be stationary.
2. In satellite communication, the wave containing information is transmitted to the satellite
from a transmitter located on the earth’s surface. The signal is processed by the equipment
kept in the satellite, amplified and retransmitted towards the receiving point on the surface
of earth.
3. In satellite communication, FM is used and the carrier frequency is a few GHz. For such
high frequencies, the antenna size is small and the signal is not significantly absorbed by the
ionosphere. A large area on the earth’s surface can be covered by the transmitter stationed
on the artificial satellite.

Remote-sensing and its Applications

1. The technique of collecting information about an object from a distance, without making a
physical contact with that object, is called remote sensing.
2. Applications of remote-sensing satellite:
(a) It makes possible the repeated survey of vast areas in a very short time even if the area
is otherwise inaccessible.
(b) Ground-water surveys
(c) Forest surveys
(d) Preparing wasteland maps
(e) Drought assessment
(f) Estimation of crop yields
(g) Detection of crop diseases
(h) Spying work for military purposes

22.12.12 Optical Fibre Communication

1. A light beam acting as a carrier wave is capable of carrying far more information than radio
waves and microwaves. In order to have an efficient communication system, one would
require a guiding medium in which the information carrying light wave could be transmit-
ted. This guiding medium is an optical fibre.
2. The optical fibres are hair-thin strands of specially coated glass. The diameter of each fibre
is about 10–4 cm with refractive index 1.7. They can transit a laser or other light beam from
one end to the other as a result of repeated total internal reflections at the glass boundary.
Each fibre can carry as many as 2000 telephone conversations with extremely low losses.

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3. Optical fibre communication is the transmission of information by the conversion of an

electrical signal to an optical signal, the transmission of this optical signal along the length
of optical fibre and then its reconversion to an electrical signal.

22.12.13 Communication System

A set-up that transfers information implicitly from one point to another is called communication
system.
Communication systems are of three types:
1. Electrical
2. Electronic
3. Optical
Major constituents of communication system are:
1. Transmitter
2. Communication channel
3. Receiver.

Transmitter
It is a device that transmits a message/signal over the communication channel to the receiver. If
the distance between the source and receiver is of the order of several kilometers, audio frequency
signals (20 Hz – 20 kHz) get attenuated before they reach the receiving end. In this situation
message generated by the source is converted into electrical signals first. Wires or cables are
used as communication channel. Transmitter is empowered with a transducer and an amplifier.
Transducer is a device which converts energy in one form to another. Microphone and loud-
speaker are transducers. Amplifier boosts up the power of the signal.

Original Message Communication

signals signals channel

Microphone Loudspeaker
Amplifier Amplifier
Transmitter Receiver

In case destination is at such a large distance that direct electrical connection between the
source and receiver is not possible we adopt wireless system. In this arrangement we attach
one more device in the transmitter called modulator. A modulator translates message signal
to the radio frequency range. On the receiver side demodulator is used to translate radio
signals back to original signal. Antenna is used on both sides to radiate and pick up signals
respectively.

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Antenna Antenna

Message
signal generator Audio amplifier

D
Modulator Amplifier Tunable Demodulator Loudspeaker
amplifier
Transmitter Receiver

22.12.14 Message Signals

A time varying electrical signal generated by a transducer out of original signal is termed as mes-
sage signal. Message signal is a single valued function of time that conveys information.
Main characteristics of a signal are:
1. Amplitude
2. Frequency
3. Phase

22.12.15 Line Communication

1. Transmission lines are used to interconnect points separated from each other. For example,
interconnection between a transmitter and a receiver or a transmitter and antenna or an
antenna and a receiver are achieved through transmission lines.
2. The most commonly used two wire lines are:
(a) Parallel wire lines
(b) Twisted pair wire lines
(c) Coaxial wire lines
3. Parallel wire lines are used for transmission of microwaves. This is because at the frequency
of microwaves, separation between the two wires approaches half a wavelength (i.e. l/2).
Therefore, radiation loss of energy becomes maximum.

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 Appendices

A.1 PHYSICAL CONSTANTS

Some Fundamental Constants of Physics

Constant Symbol Computational Value
Speed of light in vacuum c 3.00 × 108 m/s
Elementary charge e 1.60 × 10–19C
Gravitational constant G 6.67 × 10–11 Nm2 / kg2
Universal gas constant R 8.31 J/mol.K
Avogadro constant NA 6.02 × 1023 mol–1
Boltzmann constant k 1.38 × 10–23 J/K
Stefan-Boltzmann constant s 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2.K4
Molar volume of ideal gas at STP Vm 2.27 × 10–2m3/mol
Permittivity constant eo 8.85 × 10–12 F/m
Permeability constant mo 1.26 × 10–6 H/m
Planck constant h 6.63 × 10–34 J.s
Electron magnetic moment me 9.28 × 10–24 J/T
Proton magnetic moment mp 1.41 × 10–26 J/T
Bohr magneton mB 9.27 × 10–24 J/T
Nuclear magneton mN 5.05 × 10–27 J/T
Bohr radius rB 5.29 × 10–11 m
Rydberg constant R 1.10 × 107 m–1
Electron compton wavelength lc 2.43 × 10–12m
Electron mass me 9.11 × 10–31 kg or 5.49 × 10–4u
Proton mass mp 1.67 × 10–27 kg or 1.0073 u
Ratio of proton mass to electron mass mp/me 1840
Electron charge-to mass ratio e/me 1.76 × 1011C/kg
Neutron mass mn 1.68 × 10–27 kg or 1.0087 u
Hydrogen atom mass m1H 1.0078 u
Deuterium atom mass m2H 2.0141 u
Helium atom mass m4He 4.0026 u
Muon mass mm 1.88 × 10–28 kg

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 312 Appendices

Some Astronomical Data

Some Distances from Earth
To the Moon 3.82 × 108 m
To the Sun 1.50 × 1011 m
To the nearest star (Proxima Centauri) 4.04 × 1016 m
To the center of our galaxy 2.2 × 1020 m
To the Andromeda Galaxy 2.1 × 1022 m
To the edge of the observable universe ∼ 1026 m

The Sun, The Earth and The Moon

Property Unit Sun Earth Moon
Mass kg 1.99 × 1030 5.98 × 1024 7.36×1022
Mean radius m 6.96 × 108 6.37 × 106 1.74 × 106
Mean density kg/m3 1410 5520 3340
2
Free-fall acceleration at the surface m/s 274 9.81 1.67
Escape velocity km/s 618 11.2 2.38

Elastic Constants
Young’s Shear Tensile
Modulus Modulus Poisson’s Strength Compressibility
Material GPa GPa Ratio GPa GPa–1
Aluminium 70 26 0.34 0.10 0.014
Copper 130 40 0.34 0.30 0.007
Lead 16 5.6 0.44 0.015 0.022
Steel (iron) 200 81 0.29 0.60 0.006
Glass 60 30 0.25 0.05 0.025
Water — — — — 0.49

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 Appendices 313

Specific Resistances
Specific Resistances Temperature Coefficient
Substance (10–9 Ω.m) (10–4/ºC)
Silver 16 37
Copper 17 43
Gold 20 36
Aluminium 30 39
Zinc 57 36
Nickel 70 60
Platinum 108 32
Iron 104 60
Steel 500 60
Lead 200 39
Manganin 420 0.3
German Silver 209 03
Brass 80 40
Mercury 941 09
Gas carbon 50000 –5.0

Magnetic Susceptibilities
(m – 1) (m – 1)
Paramagnetic Substance 10–6 Diamagnetic Substance 10–6
Nitrogen 0.013 Hydrogen –0.063
Air 0.38 Benzene –7.5
Oxygen 1.9 Water –9.0
Ebonite 14 Copper –10.3
Aluminium 23 Glass –12.6
Tungsten 176 Rock-Salt –12.6
Platinum 360 Quartz –15.1
Liquid Oxygen 3400 Bismuth –176

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Dielectric Constants
Water 81 Mica 7.5 Air 1.00058
Alcohol 26 Kerosene 2.0 Glass 6.0
Paraffin 2.0 Porcelain 6.0 Plexiglass 3.5
Ebonite 2.7 Polyethylene 2.3

Work Functions of Various Metals

Metal A, eV Metal A, eV Metal A, eV
Aluminium 3.74 Gold 4.58 Potassium 2.15
Barium 2.29 Iron 4.36 Silver 4.28
Bismuth 4.62 Lithium 2.39 Sodium 2.27
Caesium 1.89 Molybdenum 4.27 Titanium 3.92
Cobalt 4.25 Nickel 4.84 Tungsten 4.50
Copper 4.47 Platinum 5.29 Zinc 3.74

Half Lives of Some Isotopes

Isotope Half Life Isotope Half Life Isotope Half Life

6 C14 5568 years 84 Po210 138 days U235

92 7.1 × 108 years
20 Ca45 164 days 86 Rn222 3.82 days U238
92 4.5 × 109 years
38 Sr90 28 days 88 Ra226 1590 years

Wavelength and Refractive Index for Different Colours

Iceland Spar Quartz
Wavelength
(l, nm) Colour me mo me mo
687 Red 1.484 1.653 1.550 1.541
656 Orange 1.485 1.655 1.551 1.542
589 Yellow 1.486 1.658 1.553 1.544
527 Green 1.489 1.664 1.556 1.547
486 Blue 1.491 1.668 1.559 1.550
431 Indigo 1.495 1.676 1.564 1.554
400 Violet 1.498 1.683 1.568 1.558

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 Appendices 315

A.2 LIST OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS

Instrument Its Use

Acidimeter Amount of acid in a solution
Acidometer Specific gravity of an acid solution
Actinometer Intensity of radiation
Alcoholometer Percentage of alcohol in a liquid
Altimeter Height above sea level
Ammeter Electric current
Anemometer Wind speed and direction
Audiometer Range of hearing
Auxanometer Linear growth of plant shoots
Barograph For continuous recording of atmospheric pressure
Barometer Atmospheric pressure
Bathometer Depth of water
Bathymeter Ocean depths
Binocular To view distant objects
Bolometer Radiant energy
Calorimeter Heat
Carburetor An internal combustion engine for charging air with petrol
vapour.
Chronometer Time (with high accuracy)
Clinometer Angle of an incline
Colorimeter (tintometer) Colour hues and brightness
Craniometer Cranium and skull
Crescograph Growth in plants
Cryometer Low temperatures
Cryptometer Opacity of pigments and paints
Cyclometer Number of revolutions made by a wheel
Cyclotron To accelerate charged particles to high energies
Declinometer Magnetic declination
Densimeter Density
Densitometer Optical density (Continued)

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(Continued)
Instrument Its Use
Dilatometer Volume changes of liquids
Drosometer Amount of dew deposited
Dynameter Magnifying power of telescopes
Dynamo Converts mechanical energy into electrical energy
Dynamometer Measures electrical power
Electrometer Measures very small, potential difference in electric current
Electroscope Detects presence of an electric current
Endoscope Examines internal organs of the body
Eudiometer Volumetric analysis of gas reactions
Extensometer (extensiometer) Small changes of length
Fathometer Depths of water
Fluorometer (fluorimeter) Ultraviolet radiation
Fluxmeter Measures magnetic flux
Galactometer Specific gravity of milk
Galvanometer Small electric currents
Gaussmeter Intensity of magnetic filed
Goniometer Angles between the faces of a crystal
Gradiometer Gradients
Gravimeter Earth’s gravity; specific gravity
Heliometer Small angular distances between celestial bodies
Hydrometer Density of liquids
Hygrometer Humidity of air
Hypsometer Altitude by boiling point of water
Inclinometer (dip circle) Magnetic inclination
Interferometer Wavelengths of light
Konimeter Dust in air
Machometer Speed at and beyond the speed of sound of an aircraft
Magnetometer Magnetic field
Manometer Gas or vapour pressure
Micrometer Accurate measurement of thickness
Odometer (mileometer) Distance over ground
Ohmmeter Electrical resistance
Optometer Range of vision
Orometer Height above sea level

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(Continued)
Instrument Its Use
Osmometer Osmotic pressure
Pedometer Distance walked
Periscope To view objects above sea level (used in sub-marines)
Piezometer Compressibility of material under pressure
Planimeter Surface arc of a plane surface
Planometer Flatness of surfaces
Pluviometer Another term for rain gauge
Pneumatometer Pressure of air inhaled or exhaled during a single breath
Polarimeter Polarisation of light
Potentiometer Potential difference
Potometer Water uptake by a plant
Psychrometer Atmospheric humidity
Pulsimeter Pulse rate
Pyrheliometer Intensity of sun’s heat
Pyknometer Determines the density and coefficient of expansion of liquids
Pyrometer High temperatures
Radar For detecting the direction and range of an approaching plane
by means of radio microwaves
Rain gauge An apparatus for recording rainfall at a particular place
Radiometer Radiation
Reflectometer Ratio of the energy of a reflected wave to the incident wave
Refractometer Refractive index
Rheometer Velocity of blook flow
Saccharimeter Strength of sugar solutions by polarised light
Saccharometer Strength of sugar solutions by specific gravity
Salonometer (salimeter) Amount of salt in a solution
Sclerometer Hardness of material
Seismograph Measures the intensity of earthquake shocks
Salinometer Salinity of solution
Sextant Used by navigators to find the latitude of a place by measuring
the elevation above the horizon of the sun or another star
Sonometer Sound
Spectrometer Deflection of rays by prisms
(Continued)

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(Continued)
Instrument Its Use
Spectrophotometer Photometric intensity of wavelengths in a spectrum
Speedometer Speed (of machines)
Spherometer Curvature of surfaces
Sphygmomanomete Arterial blood pressure
Spirometer Air capacity of lungs
Stereoscope To view two-dimensional pictures
Stethoscope Used by the doctors to hear and analyze heart and lung sounds
Stroboscope To view rapidly moving objects
Tachometer Speed of rotation (rev counter)
Tachymeter (tacheometer) Rapid surveying
Tasimeter Small temperature changes
Telemeter Distant objects
Tellurometer Distances, up to about 50 km
Thermometer Temperature
Teleprinter Receives and sends typed messages from one place to another
Telescope Views distant objects in space
Theodolite Measures horizontal and vertical angles
Thermostat Regulates the temperature at a particular point
Tintometer See colorimeter
Tonometer Pitch of sound
Udometer Another term of rain gauge
Vaporimeter Vapour pressure
Variometer Variations in a magnetic field; rate of climb or descent of an
aircraft
Venturimeter Measures rate of flow of liquids
Viscometer (viscosimeter) Viscosity of liquids
Volumeter Volume of solid, liquid or gas
Voltmeter Voltage
Wattmeter Electric power in watts
Wavemeter Measures the wavelength of radiowave
Zymometer Degree of fermentation

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 Appendices 319

A.3 INVENTORS AND THEIR INVENTIONS

Major Inventions and Their Inventors

Invention/Discovery Date Inventor/Discoverer Country
Aeroplane 1903 Orville and Wilbur Wright USA
Aerosol 1926 Erik Rotheim Norway
Barometer 1643 Evangelista Torricelli Italy
Bifocal lens c.1760 Benjamin Franklin USA
Braille 1829 Louis Braille France
Bronze (copper with tin) c.3700 BC Egypt
Bunsen burner 1855 Robert Wilhelm Bunsen Germany
Car (internal combustion 1844 Gottlieb Daimler Germany
engine)
Cash register 1892 Willim Burroughs USA
Celluloid 1870 John W. Hyatt USA
Cement (Portland) 1824 Joseph Aspdin UK
Chronometer 1735 John Harrison UK
Cinema 1895 Auguste and Louis Lumiere France
Clock (mechanical) 725 I-Hsing China
Clock (pendulum) 1656 Christian Huygens Holland
Clock (quartz) 1929 Warren Alvin Marrison USA
Coffee (instant) 1937 Nestle (company) Switzerland
Compact disc 1979 Phillips/Sony (companies) Holland/Japan
Diesel engine 1892 Rudolf Diesel Germany
Dishwasher (automatic) 1889 (Mrs) W.A. Cockran USA
Electric generator 1831 Michael Faraday UK
Electric light bulb 1879 Thomas Alva Edison USA
Electric motor (DC) 1870 Zenobe Gramme Belgium
Electric motor (AC) 1888 Nikola Tesla USA
Electromagnet 1823 William Sturgeon England
Fax machine 1907 Arthur Korn Germany
Film (with sound tracks) 1896 Lee de Forest USA
Gramophone 1877 Thomas Alva Edison USA
(Continued)

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(Continued)
Invention/Discovery Date Inventor/Discoverer Country
Gun powder c.700 China
Gyrocompass 1905 Elmer A. Sperry USA
Gyroscope 1852 Leon Focault France
Helicopter 1907 Louis and Jacques Brequet France
Hovercraft 1955 Christopher Cockerell UK
Induction, electric 1828 Joseph Henry USA
Lawnmover 1902 James Edward Ransome UK
Lift (mechanical) 1851 Elisha G.Otis USA
Maser (first working model) 1960 Theodore Maiman/ USA
Charles Towns
Match (phosphorus) 1816 Francois Derosne France
Match (friction) 1831 Charles Sauria France
Match (safety) 1855 J.E. Lundstrom Sweden
Microchip 1958 Jack Saint Clair Kilby USA
Microprocessor 1971 Marcian E. Hoff USA
Microphone 1876 Alexander Graham Bell USA
Microscope (compound) 1590 Zacharias Janssen Holland
Microscope (electron) 1933–1939 Vladimir Zworykin USA
Microscope 1982 Gerd Binning and Switzerland
(scanning tunneling) H. Rohrer
Microwave oven 1945 Percy Le Baron Spencer USA
Motorcycle 1885 Gottlieb Daimler Germany
Nuclear fission 1938 Otto Hahn, Fritz Strassmann Germany
Optical sound recording 1920 Lee De Forest USA
Paper c.100 BC China
Paper clip 1900 Johann Vaaler Norway
Parachute 1783 Louis S. Lenormand France
Pen (fountain) 1884 Lewis E. Waterman USA
Pen (ball-point) 1944 Lazlo Biro Argentina
Photoelectric cell 1896 Julius Elster and H.S. Geitel Germany
Photography (on metal) 1816 Joseph Nicephore Niepce France
Photography (on paper) 1838 William Henry Fox Talbot UK
Photography (colour) 1861 James Clerk Maxwell UK

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(Continued)
Invention/Discovery Date Inventor/Discoverer Country
Pressure cooker (early version) 1679 Denis Papin France
Printing (block) c.700 Japan
Printing (movable type) c.1450 Johann Gutenberg Germany
Printing (lithograph, offset) 1796 Aloys Senefelder Germany
Printing (rotary press) 1844 Richard Hoe USA
Printing (linotype) 1884 Ottmar Mergenthaler USA
Rayon 1883 Joseph Swan UK
Record (flat disc) 1888 Emil Berliner Germany
Record (long-playing) 1948 Peter Goldmark USA
Safety-pin 1849 Walter Hunt USA
Screw 3rd cen. BC Archimedes Greece
Sewing machine 1830 Brathelemy Thimonnier France
Ship (steam) 1775 Jacques C. Perier France
Stapler 1868 Charles Henry Gould UK
Steam engine 1769 James Watt UK
Steel (stainless) 1913 Henry Brearley UK
Telephone (first practical) 1876 Alexander Graham Bell USA
Telescope (refracting) 1608 Hans Lippershey Holland
Television (mechanical) 1926 John Logie Baird USA
Television (colour) 1940 Peter Goldmark USA
Thermometer (open-column) c.1593 Galileo Galilei Italy
Thermometer (mercury) 1714 Gabriel D. Fahrenheit Germany
Toaster 1927 Charles Strite USA
Tractor 1900 Benjamin Holt USA
Transformer, electric 1885 William Stanley USA
Transistor 1948 John Bardeen, Walter Brattain USA
and William Shockley
Typewriter 1829 William Burt USA
Typewriter (electric) 1872 Thomas Alva Edison USA
Vacuum cleaner (electric) 1901 Hubert Cecil Booth UK
Vending machine 1883 Percival Everitt UK
Videophone 1927 ATT Company USA
(Continued)

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(Continued)
Invention/Discovery Date Inventor/Discoverer Country
Video recorder 1956 Ampex Company USA
Washing machine (electric) 1907 Hurley Machine Company USA
Watch 1462 Bartholomew Manfredi Italy
Wheel (cart, solid wood) c.3800 BC– Mesopotamia
c.3600 BC
Windmill c.600 Persia
Writing (pictography) c.3000 BC Egypt
Xerography 1938 Chester Carbon USA
Zero c.600 India
Zip-fastener 1893 Whitcomb L. Judson USA

A.4 LIST OF NOBEL LAUREATES IN PHYSICS

Year Laureate Country Rationale

1901 Wilhelm Conrad Germany In recognition of the extraordinary
Roentgen services he has rendered by the
discovery of the remarkable rays
subsequently named after him
1902 Hendrik Antoon Netherlands In recognition of the extraordinary
Lorentz, service they rendered by their
Pieter Zeeman Netherlands researches into the influence of
magnetism upon radiation phenomena
1903 Antoine Henri Becquerel France For his discovery of spontaneous
Pierre Curie France radioactivity; for their joint researches
Marie Curie Poland France on the radiation phenomena discovered
by Professor Henri Becquerel
1904 Lord (John William United Kingdom For his investigations of the densities
Strutt) Rayleigh of the most important gases and for his
discovery of argon in connection with
these studies
1905 Philipp Eduard Anton Austria-Hungary For his work on cathode rays
von Lenard
1906 Sir Joseph John United Kingdom For his theoretical and experimental
Thomson investigations on the conduction of
electricity by gases

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 Appendices 323

Year Laureate Country Rationale

1907 Albert Abraham United States For his optical precision instruments
Michelson and the spectroscopic and metrological
investigations carried out with their aid
1908 Gabriel Jonas France For his method of reproducing
Lippmann colours photographically based on the
phenomenon of interference
1909 Guglielmo Marconi Italy For their contributions to the
Karl Ferdinand Braun Germany development of wireless telegraphy
1910 Johannes Diderik van Netherlands For his work on the equation of state
der Waals for gases and liquids
1911 Wilhelm Wien Germany For his discoveries regarding the laws
governing the radiation of heat
1912 Nils Gustaf Dalen Sweden For his invention of automatic valves
designed to be used in combination
with gas accumulators in lighthouses
and buoys
1913 Heike Kamerlingh Netherlands For his investigations on the properties
Onnes of matter at low temperatures which
led, inter alia, to the production of
liquid helium
1914 Max Theodor Felix Germany For his discovery of the diffraction
von Laue of X-rays by crystals (an important
step in the development of X-ray
spectroscopy)
1915 Sir William Henry United Kingdom For their services in the analysis of
Bragg crystal structure by means of X-rays
Sir William Lawrence (an important step in the development
Bragg of X-ray crystallography)

1916 Prize money withheld

and not awarded this
year
1917 Charles Glover Barkla United Kingdom For his discovery of the characteristic
Röntgen radiation of the elements
(another important step in the
development of X-ray spectroscopy)
1918 Max Karl Ernst Germany For the services he rendered to
Ludwig Planck the advancement of physics by his
discovery of energy quanta
(Continued)

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(Continued)
Year Laureate Country Rationale
1919 Johannes Stark Germany For his discovery of the Doppler
effect in canal rays and the splitting of
spectral lines in electric fields
1920 Charles Edouard Switzerland For the service he has rendered to
Guillaume precision measurements in physics by
his discovery of anomalies in nickel-
steel alloys
1921 Albert Einstein Germany For his services to theoretical physics,
and especially for his discovery of the
law of the photoelectric effect
1922 Niels Henrik David Denmark For his services in the investigation
Bohr of the structure of atoms and of the
radiation emanating from them
1923 Robert Andrews United States For his work on the elementary charge
Millikan of electricity and on the photoelectric
effect
1924 Karl Manne Georg Sweden For his discoveries and research in the
Siegbahn field of X-ray spectroscopy
1925 James Franck Germany For their discovery of the laws
Gustav Ludwig Hertz Germany governing the impact of an electron
upon an atom
1926 Jean Baptiste Perrin France For his work on the discontinuous
structure of matter, and especially
for his discovery of sedimentation
equilibrium
1927 Arthur Holly Compton United States For his method of making the paths of
Charles Thomson Rees United Kingdom electrically charged particles visible by
Wilson condensation of vapour
1928 Sir Owen Willans United Kingdom For his work on the thermionic
Richardson phenomenon and especially for the
discovery of the law named after him
1929 Prince Louis-Victor France For his discovery of the wave nature of
Pierre Raymond de electrons
Broglie
1930 Sir Chandrasekhara India For his work on the scattering of light
Venkata Raman and for the discovery of the effect
named after him

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(Continued)
Year Laureate Country Rationale
1931 Prize money withheld
and not awarded this
year
1932 Werner Heisenberg Germany For the creation of quantum
mechanics, the application of which
has, inter alia, led to the discovery of
the allotropic forms of hydrogen
1933 Erwin Schrodinger Austria For the discovery of new productive
Paul Adrien Maurice United Kingdom forms of atomic theory
Dirac
1934 Prize money withheld
and not awarded this
year
1935 Sir James Chadwick United Kingdom For the discovery of the neutron
1936 Victor Franz Hess Austria For his discovery of cosmic radiation
Carl David Anderson United States
1937 Clinton Joseph United States For their experimental discovery of the
Davisson diffraction of electrons by crystals
Sir George Paget United Kingdom
Thomson
1938 Enrico Fermi Italy For his demonstrations of the existence
of new radioactive elements produced
by neutron irradiation, and for his
related discovery of nuclear reactions
brought about by slow neutrons
1939 Ernest Orlando United States For the invention and development of
Lawrence the cyclotron and for results obtained
with it, especially with regard to
artificial radioactive elements
1940 Prize money withheld
and not awarded this
year
1941 Prize money withheld
and not awarded this
year
1942 Prize money withheld
and not awarded this
year
(Continued)

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(Continued)
Year Laureate Country Rationale
1943 Otto Stern United States For his contribution to the
development of the molecular ray
method and his discovery of the
magnetic moment of the proton
1944 Isidor Isaac Rabi United States For his resonance method for recording
the magnetic properties of atomic nuclei
1945 Wolfgang Pauli Austria For the discovery of the exclusion
principle, also called the Pauli principle
1946 Percy W. Bridgman United States For the invention of an apparatus to
produce extremely high pressures,
and for the discoveries he made there
within the field of high pressure physics
1947 Sir Edward V. Appleton United Kingdom For his investigations of the physics of
the upper atmosphere especially for
the discovery of the so-called Appleton
layer
1948 Lord Patrick United Kingdom For his development of the Wilson
M.S. Blackett cloud chamber method, and his
discoveries therewith in the fields of
nuclear physics and cosmic radiation
1949 Hideki Yukawa Japan For his prediction of the existence of
mesons on the basis of theoretical work
on nuclear forces
1950 Cecil F. Powell United Kingdom For his development of the
photographic method of studying
nuclear processes and his discoveries
regarding mesons made with this
method
1951 Sir John D. Cockcroft Ireland For their pioneer work on the
Ernest T.S. Walton transmutation of atomic nuclei by
artificially accelerated atomic particles
1952 Felix Bloch United States For their development of new methods
Edward Mills Purcell United States for nuclear magnetic precision
measurements and discoveries in
connection therewith
1953 Frits Zernike Netherlands For his demonstration of the phase
contrast method, especially for his
invention of the phase contrast
microscope

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(Continued)
Year Laureate Country Rationale
1954 Max Born United Kingdom For his fundamental research in quantum
Walther Bothe West Germany mechanics, especially for his statistical
interpretation of the wavefunction;
for the coincidence method and his
discoveries made therewith
1955 Willis Eugene Lamb United States For his precision determination of the
Polykarp Kusch United States magnetic moment of the electron
1956 William Shockley United States For their researches on semiconductors
John Bardeen United States and their discovery of the transistor
Walter Houser Brattain United States effect
1957 Chen Ning Yang China For their penetrating investigation of
Tsung-Dao Lee China the so-called parity laws which has led
to important discoveries regarding the
elementary particles
1958 Pavel A. Cherenkov Soviet Union For the discovery and the interpretation
Ilya M. Frank Soviet Union of the Cherenkov effect
Igor Y. Tamm Soviet Union
1959 Emilio Gino Segre United States For their discovery of the antiproton
Owen Chamberlain Italy
1960 Donald A. Glaser United States For the invention of the bubble
chamber
1961 Robert Hofstadter United States For his pioneering studies of electron
Rudolf L. Moessbauer West Germany scattering in atomic nuclei and for
his thereby achieved discoveries
concerning the structure of the
nucleons
1962 Lev Davidovich Soviet Union For his pioneering theories for
Landau condensed matter, especially liquid
helium
1963 Eugene P. Wigner Hungary- For their discoveries concerning
Maria United States nuclear shell structure
Goeppert-Mayer United States
Johannes Hans West Germany
D. Jensen
1964 Charles H. Townes United States For fundamental work in the field of
Nikolai G. Basov Soviet Union quantum electronics, which has led
Alexander M. Soviet Union to the construction of oscillators and
Prokhorov amplifiers based on the maser-laser
principle
(Continued)

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(Continued)
Year Laureate Country Rationale
1965 Sin-Itiro Tomonaga United States For their fundamental work in
Julian S. Schwinger United States quantum electrodynamics, with deep-
Richard P. Feynman Japan ploughing consequences for the physics
of elementary particles
1966 Alfred Kastler France For the discovery and development of
optical methods for studying Hertzian
resonances in atoms
1967 Hans Albrecht Bethe United States For his contributions to the theory
of nuclear reactions, especially his
discoveries concerning the energy
production in stars
1968 Luis W. Alvarez United States For his decisive contributions to
elementary particle physics, in
particular the discovery of a large
number of resonance states, made
possible through his development of
the technique of using hydrogen bubble
chamber and data analysis
1969 Murray Gell-Mann United States For his contributions and discoveries
concerning the classification of
elementary particles and their interactions
1970 Hannes Olof Gosta Sweden For fundamental work and discoveries
Alfven France in magneto-hydrodynamics with
Louis Eugene Felix fruitful applications in different parts of
Neel plasma physics
1971 Dennis Gabor Hungary For his invention and development of
United Kingdom the holographic method
1972 John Bardeen United States For their jointly developed theory of
Leon N. Cooper United States superconductivity, usually called the
Robert J. Schrieffer United States BCS-theory
1973 Leo Esaki Japan For their experimental discoveries
Ivar Giaever United States regarding tunneling phenomena in
Brian D. Josephson Norway semiconductors and superconductors,
respectively
1974 Sir Martin Ryle United Kingdom For their pioneering research in radio
Antony Hewish astrophysics: Ryle for his observations
and inventions, in particular of the
aperture synthesis technique, and
Hewish for his decisive role in the
discovery of pulsars

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(Continued)
Year Laureate Country Rationale
1975 Aage Niels Bohr Denmark For the discovery of the connection
Benjamin R. Mottelson Denmark between collective motion and
Leo James Rainwater United States particle motion in atomic nuclei and
the development of the theory of the
structure of the atomic nucleus based
on this connection
1976 Burton Richter United States For their pioneering work in the
Samuel Ting discovery of a heavy elementary
particle of a new kind
1977 Philip W. Anderson United States For their fundamental theoretical
Sir Nevill Francis Mott United Kingdom investigations of the electronic
John H. Van Vleck United States structure of magnetic and disordered
systems
1978 Pyotr Leonidovich Soviet Union For his basic inventions and discoveries
Kapitsa United States in the area of low-temperature
Arno A. Penzias United States physics; for their discovery of cosmic
Robert W. Wilson microwave background radiation
1979 Sheldon L. Glashow United States For their contributions to the theory of
Abdus Salam Pakistan the unified weak and electromagnetic
Steven Weinberg United States interaction between elementary
particles, including, inter alia, the
prediction of the weak neutral current
1980 James W. Cronin United States For the discovery of violations of
Val Logsdon Fitch United States fundamental symmetry principles in
the decay of neutral K-mesons
1981 Nicolaas Bloembergen United States For their contribution to the
Arthur L. Schawlow United States development of laser spectroscopy;
Kai M.B. Siegbahn Sweden for his contribution to the development
of high-resolution electron
spectroscopy
1982 Kenneth G. Wilson United States For his theory for critical phenomena
in connection with phase transitions
1983 Subrahmanyan India For his theoretical studies of the
Chandrasekhar United States physical processes of importance to the
William Alfred Fowler structure and evolution of the stars;
For his theoretical and experimental
studies of the nuclear reactions of
importance in the formation of the
chemical elements in the universe
(Continued)

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(Continued)
Year Laureate Country Rationale
1984 Carlo Rubbia Italy For their decisive contributions to
Simon Van Der Meer Netherlands the large project, which led to the
discovery of the field particles W
and Z, communicators of weak
interaction
1985 Klaus Von Klitzing West Germany For the discovery of the quantized Hall
effect
1986 Ernst Ruska West Germany For his fundamental work in electron
Gerd Binning West Germany optics, and for the design of the first
Heinrich Rohrer Switzerland electron microscope; For their design
of the scanning tunneling microscope
1987 Georg J. Bednorz West Germany For their important break-through in
Karl Alexander Muller Switzerland the discovery of superconductivity in
ceramic materials
1988 Leon M. Lederman United States For the neutrino beam method and the
Melvin Schwartz United States demonstration of the doublet structure
Jack Steinberger United States of the leptons through the discovery of
the muon neutrino
1989 Norman F. Ramsey United States For the invention of the separated
Hans G. Dehmelt United States oscillatory fields method and its use in
Wolfgang Paul West Germany the hydrogen maser and other atomic
clocks; For the development of the ion
trap technique
1990 Jerome I. Friedman United States For their pioneering investigations
Henry W. Kendall United States concerning deep inelastic scattering
Richard E. Taylor Canada of electrons on protons and bound
neutrons, which have been of essential
importance for the development of the
quark model in particle physics
1991 Pierre-Gilles de France For discovering that methods
Gennes developed for studying order
phenomena in simple systems can be
generalized to more complex forms of
matter, in particular to liquid crystals
and polymers
1992 Georges Charpak France/Poland For his invention and development
of particle detectors, in particular the
multiwire proportional chamber

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(Continued)
Year Laureate Country Rationale
1993 Russell A. Hulse United States For the discovery of a new type of
Joseph H. Taylor, Jr. United States pulsar, a discovery that has opened
up new possibilities for the study of
gravitation
1994 Bertram N. Brockhouse Canada For the development of neutron
Clifford G. Shull United States spectroscopy and for pioneering
contributions to the development of
neutron scattering techniques for studies
of condensed matter; for the development
of the neutron diffraction technique
and for pioneering contributions to
the development of neutron scattering
techniques for studies of condensed matter
1995 Martin L. Perl United States For the discovery of the tau lepton and for
Frederick Reines United States pioneering experimental contributions
to lepton physics; for the detection of the
neutrino and for pioneering experimental
contributions to lepton physics
1996 David M. Lee United States for their discovery of superfluidity in
Douglas D. Osheroff United States helium-3
Robert C. Richardson United States
1997 Steven Chu United States For development of methods to cool
Claude France and trap atoms with laser light
Cohen-Tannoudji
William D. Phillips United States
1998 Robert B. Laughlin United States For their discovery of a new form
Horst L. Stormer Germany of quantum fluid with fractionally
Daniel C. Tsui United States charged excitations
1999 Gerardus ‘t Hooft Netherlands For elucidating the quantum structure
Martinus J.G. Veltman Netherlands of electroweak interactions in physics
2000 Zhores I. Alferov Russia For developing semiconductor
Herbert Kroemer Germany heterostructures used in high-speed-
Jack S. Kilby United States and optoelectronics; for his part in the
invention of the integrated circuit
2001 Eric A. Cornell United States For the achievement of Bose–Einstein
Wolfgang Ketterle United States condensation in dilute gases of alkali
Carl E. Wieman Germany atoms, and for early fundamental studies
of the properties of the condensates
(Continued)

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(Continued)
Year Laureate Country Rationale
2002 Raymond Davis, Jr. United States For pioneering contributions to
Masatoshi Koshiba Japan astrophysics, in particular for the
Riccardo Giacconi Italy detection of cosmic neutrinos;
for pioneering contributions to
astrophysics, which have led to the
discovery of cosmic X-ray sources
2003 Alexei A. Abrikosov Russia For pioneering contributions to
Vitaly L. Ginzburg Russia the theory of superconductors and
Anthony J. Leggett United Kingdom superfluids
2004 David J. Gross United States For the discovery of asymptotic
Hugh David Politzer United States freedom in the theory of the strong
Frank Wilczek United States interaction
2005 Roy J. Glauber United States For their contributions to the
John L. Hall United States development of laser-based precision
Theodor W. Hänsch Germany spectroscopy, including the optical
frequency comb technique
2006 John C. Mather United States For their discovery of the blackbody
George F. Smoot United States form and anisotropy of the cosmic
microwave background radiation
2007 Albert Fert France For the discovery of giant
Peter Grünberg Germany magnetoresistance
2008 Makoto Kobayashi Japan For the discovery of the origin of the
Toshihide Maskawa Japan broken symmetry which predicts the
Yoichiro Nambu United States existence of at least three families of
quarks in nature; for the discovery of
the mechanism of spontaneous broken
symmetry in subatomic physics
2009 Charles K. Kao Hong Kong For groundbreaking achievements
Willard S. Boyle United Kingdom concerning the transmission of light
George E. Smith United States in fibers for optical communication;
Canada for the invention of an imaging
United States semiconductor circuit—the CCD
United States sensor
2010 Andre Geim Russia For groundbreaking experiments
Konstantin Novoselov Netherlands regarding the two-dimensional
Russia material graphene
Netherlands

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 Appendices 333

(Continued)
Year Laureate Country Rationale
2011 Saul Perlmutter United States For the discovery of the accelerating
Brian P. Schmidt Australia expansion of the Universe through
Adam G. Riess United States observations of distant supernovae
United States
2012 Serge Haroche France For ground-breaking experimental
David J. Wineland United States methods that enable measuring and
manipulation of individual quantum
systems

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