1

Topic 2. Epithelial tissue

Control questions
1. Definition the term «tissue», elements of the tissues. Classification of the tissues.
2. Сlassification of epithelium and its functions.
3. General characteristic of epithelial tissues.
4. Polarity of epithelial cells and their surface modifications.
5. Types of the cell junctions.
6. Basement membrane structure and functions.
7. Morphological classification of covering epithelium.
8. Types of simple epithelium. Structure and distribution.
9. Types of stratified epithelium. Structure and distribution.
10. Regeneration of epithelium.
11. Glands. Sources of development. Classifications. Types of secretion.
12. Ultrastructure of the glandular cell. Gland as an organ.

Question 1. Definition the term «tissue», elements of the tissues. Classification

of the tissues.
Tissues are aggregates or groups of cells organized to perform one or more specific functions.
Tissues consist of cells and intercellular substance or extracellular matrix.
The human body is composed of 4 basic types of tissues:
1) Epithelial tissue (epithelium) that covers body surfaces, lines body cavities, and forms
glands;
2) Connective tissue that underlies or supports structurally and functionally the other three basic
tissues;
3) Muscle tissue that is made up of contractile cells and is responsible for movement;
4) Nerve tissue that receives, transmits, and integrates information from outside and inside the
body to control the activities of the body.

Question 2. Сlassification of epithelium and its functions.

All epithelia are classified into 3 main groups according to their functions:
1. Covering or lining;
2. Glandular;
3. Sensory.
The basic functions of epithelial tissue are:
1) Protection (e.g., skin and esophagus);
2) Absorbtion (e.g., tubules of kidney, small and large intestines);
3) Transportation (e.g., cilia-mediated transport in the respiratory organs) and between blood and loose
connective tissue (e.g., endothelium of vessels);
4) Secretion of mucus, hormones, proteins (e.g., in glands);
5) Gases exchange (e.g., alveoli of the lungs);
6) Lubrication between two surfaces (e.g., mesothelium of the pleural, peritoneal and pericardial
cavities);
7) Sensation (e.g., in some sensory organs);
8) Contractility (e.g., myoepithelial cells of some exocrine glands).

Question 3. General characteristic of epithelial tissues.

All epithelial tissues possess some general characteristics:
1) Epithelia are continuous sheet-like cellular layers with little amount of intercellular substance
separating the underlying connective tissue from the external environment or environment of internal
cavities;
 2

2) Epithelial cells are closely apposed and adhere to one another by means of specific cell-to-cell
adhesion molecules that form specialized cell junctions;
3) Epithelial cells rest on a basement membrane;
4) Epithelia are avascular tissue because do not contain blood vessels. They are nourished by diffusion of
substances from underlying capillaries of the loose connective tissue;
5) Epithelial cells exhibit polarity;
6) Epithelial tissues receive a rich supply of sensory nerve endings;
7) Epithelia have a high ability to regeneration. Epithelial tissues are labile structures whose cells are
renewed continuously by means of mitotic activity;
8) Some epithelial cells display surface modifications on their apical domain.

Question 4. Polarity of epithelial cells and their surface modifications.

Epithelial cells exhibit distinct polarity. It

means the epithelial cells have an apical domain
and opposite a basal domain. Except them, there
are two lateral domains in epithelial cells.
The free or apical domain is always
directed toward the exterior surface or the
lumen of an enclosed cavity or tube. The lateral
domain communicates with adjacent cells and is
characterized by specialized attachment areas.
The basal domain rests on the basal lamina
anchoring the cell to underlying connective
tissue [13].
Figure 2.1. Diagram of small intestine absorptive
epithelial cells [13].

Surface modifications of some epithelial cells

In many epithelial cells, the apical domain exhibits special structural surface modifications to carry out specific
functions. They are:
1) Microvilli;
2) Stereocilia (stereovilli);
3) Cilia.
Microvilli
Striated border

Microvilli are fingerlike cytoplasmic

projections on the apical surface of some
epithelial cells. The microvilli greatly increase the
cell apical surface area and absorptive capacity
of epithelial cells. Thus, the cells that principally
transport fluid and absorb metabolites (e.g., those
of the intestine and kidney tubules) have many
closely packed, tall microvilli producing together
a structure called striated or brush border on their
Figure 2.2. Electron micrograph of microvilli apical part.
The internal structure of microvilli contains
a core of actin filaments. Actin filaments extend
down to produce the terminal web laying just
below the base of the microvilli [13].
 3

Stereocilia (stereovilli)
Stereocilia are modified microvilli of epithelial cells in some sensory organs where they are sensitive to the
odorous molecules or to the sound waves; and in some parts of the genital duct where they facilitate an
absorption.

Cilia
Silium in transverse section Both axoneme and basal body of cilia
consists of microtubules. In axoneme the
microtubules are arranged as circular nine
peripheral pairs or doublets and a single central
pair (formula is (9×2)+2 of microtubules). In
basal body the microtubules are arranged as
circular nine peripheral triplets with no central
microtubules (formula is (9×3)+0 of
microtubules).
Each doublet of microtubules exhibits a
pair of “arms” that contain a motor protein called
dynein. Cilia movement originates from the
Figure 2.3. Diagram of a cilium (cross-section). sliding of microtubule doublets, which is
Cilia are hair like extensions of the apical generated by the ATPase activity of the dynein
plasma membrane of ciliated cells. Cilium arms. Cilia beat in a synchronous pattern. Motile
contains an inner core called axoneme. The cilia are capable of moving fluid and particles
axoneme extends from the basal body, laying on along epithelial surfaces [5].
the base of cilium.

Question 5. Types of the cell junctions.

Lateral domain of epithelial cells exhibit several specializations that form intercellular junctions.
There are three principle types of specialized junctions or junctional complexes:
I. Anchoring;
II. Occluding;
III. Communicating.
Classification of anchoring or adhesive junctions

Figure
Anchoring junctions may be classified into:
1. Anchoring junctions on the lateral cell domain,
binding cells together and providing mechanical
stability to epithelial cells:
a) Zonula adherens or adhesive belt, which
interacts with the network of actin filaments
inside the cell;
b) Macula adherens or desmosome, which
interacts with intermediate filaments.
2. Anchoring junctions on the basal cell domain,
binding cells with basal membrane:
c) Hemidesmosomes;
d) Focal adhesions.

Figure 2.4. Diagram of cell junctions [13].

 4

Zonula adherens (adhesive belt)

Zonula adherens is a continuous band or belt like

configuration around the apical part of the
epithelial cell. The zonula adherens is composed
of the transmembrane protein molecules called
cadherin, forming a complex with catenin
molecules presenting on the cytoplasmic side of
cell. Actin filaments of adjacent cells are attached
to the cadherin–catenin complex [13].

Figure 2.5. Diagram of zonula adherens.

Macula adherens (desmosome)

The desmosome is a spot like junction

between lateral domains of adjacent epithelial
cells. In the intercellular area of the desmosome,
the proteins called desmogleins and desmocollins
provide the linkage between the plasma
membranes of adjacent cells.
On the cytoplasmic side of the plasma
membrane of each of the adjoining cells there is a
disc-shaped structure called the desmosomal
attachment plaque, which serve to anchor the
intermediate filaments [13].

Figure 2.6. Diagram of desmosome [13].

.
Hemidesmosome

Hemidesmosomes provide the

attachment of the epithelial cell to the basal
lamina.
Hemidesmosome looks like a half of
desmosome. The majority of
transmembrane proteins found in the
hemidesmosomes belong to the integrin
class.

Figure 2.7. Diagram of hemidesmosome.

 5

Occluding junctions (zonula occludens) or tight junctions

Occluding junctions are impermeable for

most molecules and allow epithelial cells to
function as a barrier. Occluding junctions or
zonula occludens are therefore, also called tight
junctions.
Tight junction is a series of focal fusions
between the cells, created by transmembrane
proteins of adjoining cells called occludin,
claudin [13].

Figure 2.8. Diagram of zonula occludens [13].

Communicating junctions
Communicating junctions are:
1) Synapses. They are junctions binding the neurons;
2) Gap junctions or nexuses. They there are in epithelia, smooth and cardiac muscles.

Gap junctions or nexuses

Gap junction is membranes channels

between two adjoining cells. These channels
are represented by pairs of connexons with a
central opening that bridge the extracellular
space between adjacent cells.
Each connexon is made up of six subunits
of an integral membrane protein called
connexin. Gap junction allow molecules to pass
in both directions [13].

Figure 2.9. Diagram of zonula occludens [13].

Question 6. Basement membrane structure and functions.

All epithelia rest on a sheet-like extracellular structure called the basement membrane. It is a
specialized structure located next to the basal domain of epithelial cells and the underlying connective
tissue stroma. The thickness of basement membrane is 20 to 100 nm.
 6

2) a lamina densa (basal lamina);

3) a fibroreticular lamina.
The fibroreticular lamina consist of
reticular fibrils that merge with under
laying connective tissue.
The lamina densa exhibits a network of
filaments composed of laminins, a type IV
collagen molecule, and various associated
proteoglycans and glycoproteins. Lamina
densa is attached to the under laying
connective tissues by anchoring fibrils
consisting of type VII collagen.
Between the basal lamina and the
Figure 2.10. Diagram of basal specialization beneath an epithelial cell there is a clear or electron-
epithelium.
lucent area called the lamina lucida which is
represented by the integrin family of
Basement membrane consists of three
transmembrane proteins mainly fibronectin and
laminae:
laminin [13].
1) a lamina lucida;
.

Functions of basement membrane

1. Supportive function because the basement membranes are structural bases and attachment sites for
epithelial cells;
2. Barrier function because the basement membranes are selective barriers, limiting epithelia from the
connective tissue and regulating the exchange of macromolecules between them.
3. Regulatory function because the basement membranes influence on epithelial cells proliferation,
differentiation and matabololism.

Question 7. Morphological classification of covering epithelium.

According to the number of cell layers and the shape of surface cells the covering epithelia can
be classified into:
I. Simple epithelium containing only one layer of cells:
a) squamous;
b) cuboidal;
c) columnar
II. Stratified epithelium containing more than one layer of cells:
1) Keratinized squamous;
2) Non-keratinized:
a) squamous;
b) cuboidal;
c) columnar
III. Special epithelia:
1) Pseudostratified (simple);
2) Transitional (stratified) [13].

Question 8. Types of simple epithelium. Structure and distribution.

There are four types of simple epithelium in our organism:
1) Simple squamous;
2) Simple cuboidal;
3) Simple columnar;
4) Pseudostratified.
 7

Simple squamous epithelium

Simple squamous epithelium is composed of a single layer of uniform flat cells, which all rest on
the basement membrane. The nuclei of cells appear flattened.

This type of epithelium is found:

1) Lining the alveoli of the lung;
2) Lining the vessels and hurt chambers
Figure 2.11. Diagram of simple squamous epithelium [5]. (endothelium);
3) Lining the serous body cavities (pericardial,
pleural and peritoneal) and the serous coats of
inner organs (mesothelium);
4) Lining the thin segments of loops of Henle of
the kidney;
5) Lining the smallest excretory ducts of some
glands;
6) Lining the posterior surface of the cornea.

Simple squamous epithelium (mesothelium of peritoneum) (slide)

Stain: silver impregnation Using this slide you must perform the
exercise 2 of album (topic “Epithelial
tissue”)

Figure 2.12. Photomicrograph of mesothelium. Figure 2.13. Diagram of mesothelium [18].

Draw 4-5 cells

Simple cuboidal epithelium

Simple cuboidal epithelium is composed of a single layer of uniform cuboidal cells, which all rest
on the basement membrane. The nuclei of cells are centrally placed and spherical in shape.

This type of epithelium is found:

1) Lining the most tubules of the kidney;
2) Lining the thyroid follicles walls;
3) Lining the excretory ducts of some glands;
Figure 2.14. Diagram of simple cuboidal 4) Pigment epithelium of the retina;
epithelium [5].
5) Subcapsular epithelium of the lens.
 8

Simple cuboidal epithelium in kidney of a rabbit (slide)

Stain: hematoxylin-eosin Using this slide you must perform the exercise
3 of album (topic “Epithelial tissue”)
Kidney tubules in cross section

Figure 2.15. Photomicrograph of kidney tubules Figure 2.16. Diagram of kidney tubule (cross section) [15].
(cross section). 2. Epithelial cells
3. Basal membrane
4. Loose connective tissue

Simple columnar epithelium

Simple columnar epithelium is composed of a single layer of uniform columnar cells, which all
rest on the basement membrane. The elongated ovoid nuclei is most often located in the basal part of the
cells.

This type of epithelium is found:

1) Lining the gall bladder;
2) Lining the uterus and oviducts;
3) Lining the ducts of some glands;
4) Lining the stomach, small and large intestines.

Figure 2.17. Diagram of simple columnar epithelium [5].

Simple columnar epithelium in small intestine (jejunum) of a dog (slide)

Stain: hematoxylin-eosin Using this slide you must perform the exercise
4 of album (topic “Epithelial tissue”)

Loose connective tissue

Figure 2.18. Photomicrograph of small intestine Figure 2.19. Diagram of simple columnar
epithelium. epithelium in small intestine [15].
 9

Pseudostratified epithelium
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium is composed of a single layer of nonuniform cells, which
all rest on the basement membrane. The cells of this epithelium are different shape and height and their
nuclei occupy varying positions. In pseudostratified epithelium, the most widespread cells are ciliated
columnar shaped cells. Except them, there are also goblet (mucus-secreting) cells and basal cells.

This type of epithelium is found:

1) Lining the respiratory tract;
2) Lining the some parts of male and female
reproductive tract.

Figure 2.20. Diagram of pseudostratified columnar epithelium.

Pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium in trachea of a dog (slide)

Stain: hematoxylin-eosin Using this slide you must perform the exercise
5 of album (topic “Epithelial tissue”)

Figure 2.21. Photomicrograph of trachea epithelium. Figure 2.22. Diagram of trachea epithelium [18].

1. Cilia 4. Basal cell

2. Ciliated cells 5. Basal membrane
3. Goblets (mucus-secreting) cells 6. Loose сonnective tissue

Question 9. Types of stratified epithelium. Structure and distribution.

There are five types of stratified epithelium in our organism:
1) Stratified non-keratinized squamous;
2) Stratified non-keratinized cuboidal;
3) Stratified non-keratinized columnar;
4) Stratified keratinized squamous;
5) Transitional.

Stratified non-keratinized squamous epithelium

All stratified epithelia contain several layers of cells, but only the deepest layer of cells there is in
contact with basement membrane. There are three types of stratified non-keratinized epithelium
 10

according to the shape of cells in the superficial layer: squamous, cuboidal and columnar. However, in
our organism more distributing type of stratified non-keratinized epithelia is squamous. Stratified non-
keratinized cuboidal and stratified non-keratinized columnar epithelia have a limited distribution and
can be found in some large ducts of the exocrine glands.
Stratified non-keratinized squamous epithelium consists of tree cell layers:
1) Basal layer presenting by one row of the cuboidal or columnar shape basal cells resting on the
basement membrane;
2) Intermediate layer presenting by several rows of polyhedral shape cells;
3) Superficial layer presenting by 2-3 rows of flattened shape cells.

This type of epithelium is found:

1) Lining the oral cavity organs;
2) Lining the esophagus;
3) Lining the vagina;
4) Lining the true vocal cords of
larynx;
5) Lining the lower third of the anal
canal;
6) Anterior epithelium of the cornea;
Figure 2.23. Diagram of stratified non-keratinized
squamous epithelium [14].

Stratified non-keratinized squamous epithelium in esophagus of a dog (slide)

Stain: hematoxylin-eosin Using this slide you must perform the
exercise 6 of album (topic “Epithelial tissue”)

Figure 2.24. Photomicrograph of esophagus epithelium [5]. Figure 2.25. Diagram of esophagus epithelium [18].
1.1. Basal layer of columnar cells
1.2. Intermediate layer of polyhedral and cuboidal cells
1.3. Surface (superficial) layer of squamous cells
2. Basal membrane
3. Loose сonnective tissue

Stratified keratinized squamous epithelium

Stratified keratinized squamous epithelium is similar to stratified non-keratinized squamous except
that surface cells are nonnucleated instead of nucleated and presentation of five cells layers instead of three.
Stratified keratinized squamous epithelium is found in the skin to produce skin epidermis. It consists of
layers called:
1) Stratum basale;
2) Stratum spinosum;
3) Stratum granulosum;
4) Stratum lucidum;
5) Stratum corneum.
 11

The stratum basale is one-cell-deep layer of the

cuboidal or columnar shape basal cells resting
on the basement membrane.
The stratum spinosum is characterized by
several rows of polyhedral shape cells binding
with each other by desmosomes presenting
within their spiny projections.
The stratum granulosum is characterized
by 1-3 rows of flattened cells containing the
centrally located flattened nuclei and cytoplasm
filling by basophilically staining keratohyalin
granules.
The stratum lucidum is characterized by
several layers of flattened eosinophilic cells, but
due to the highly refraction index, the cells of
stratum lucidum are not visible and this layer
looks like a wavy, translucent, clear strip.
Figure 2.26. Diagram of stratified keratinized The stratum corneum is characterized by
squamous epithelium [4]. 15-20 layers of flattened nonnucleated cells
(horny cells), whose cytoplasm is filled with
protein called keratin.

Stratified keratinized squamous epithelium (epidermis)

of the humans finger skin (slide)
Stain: hematoxylin-eosin Using this slide you must perform the
exercise 7 of album (topic “Epithelial tissue”)

Figure 2.27. Photomicrograph of skin epidermis. Figure 2.28. Diagram of skin epidermis [18].
1.1 Stratum basale
1.2 Stratum spinozum
1.3 Stratum granulosum
1.4 Stratum lucidum
1.5 Stratum corneum
2. Basement membrane
3. Loose сonnective tissue
 12

Transitional epithelium (urothelium)

Transitional epithelium has specific morphological characteristics that allow it to distend.
Transitional epithelium belongs to stratified type because it consists of three cell layers - basal,
intermediate and surface.
The basal layer is represented by the smallest cuboidal cells resting on the basement membrane.
The intermediate layer is represented by average size polyhedral or pear shaped cells.
The surface or superficial layer is represented by the largest, sometimes binucleate, dome shaped
cells called dome cells or umbrella cells. Surface umbrella cells change their shape in response to
stretching and to relaxing. They become flattened, when an organ is filled by the urine.

This type of epithelium is found:

1) Lining the kidney calyces and pelvises;
2) Lining the ureter;
3) Lining the urinary bladder;
4) Lining the proximal part of the urethra.

Figure 2.29. Diagram of transitional epithelium.

Transitional epithelium (urothelium) in urinary bladder of a dog (slide)

Stain: hematoxylin-eosin Using this slide you must perform the exercise
11 of album (topic “Epithelial tissue”)
Umbrella cells

Figure 2.30. Photomicrograph of transitional epithelium. Figure 2.31. Diagram of transitional epithelium [18].

1.1 Basal layer

1.2 Intermediate layer
1.3 Superficial layer
2. Basement membrane
3. Loose connective tissue
 13

Question 10. Regeneration of epithelium.

Epithelia have a high ability to regeneration and belong to the category of continuously renewing cell
populations. The replacement cells are produced by mitotic activity of self-maintaining stem cells. They
are located in sites called niches. For example, in the small intestine, niches of stem cells are located in the
lower portion of the intestinal glands called crypts.
In all stratified epithelia the stem cells, providing their regeneration are located in basal layer (stratum
basale) appropriately named the stratum germinativum.
After mitosis in stratum germinativum, the cells start to differentiate and they are pushed toward the
surface of the epithelium to rich it and, than sloughed off [13].

Question 11. Glands. Sources of development. Classifications. Gland as organ.

Glands are composed of glandular epithelial tissue and classified into exocrine and endocrine according
to how the secretory product leaves the gland. Ductless endocrine glands release their products called
hormones directly into bloodstream or lymph. Exocrine glands secrete their products either through ducts into
the lumen of an organ or directly onto the body surface [3].
Both exocrine and endocrine glands are developed from covering epithelia by the cell proliferation and
invasion into subjacent loose connective tissue. In developing exocrine gland, the distal part of the epithelial
invasion is developed into secretory part, while the proximal part of epithelial invasion forms a duct of
exocrine gland. Thus, the exocrine glands have two parts - the secretory part (portion), which responsible for
the secretory process and the duct. The duct is responsible for releasing of secrets into the surface of the body
or lumens of body cavities.
Endocrine glands are produced the same fashion to exocrine glands, but in further they lose the
contact with the epithelial surface. Therefore, the endocrine gland consists of only a secretory part,
presenting by the cords and clumps of secretory endocrine cells or by follicle like structures.

Figure 2.32. Diagram of glands development [9].

 14

Classifications of exocrine glands

Exocrine glands can be classified into several categories according to the:
1) Nature of their secretory products;
2) Morphology of glands;
3) Mechanisms of secretion.
Classification of exocrine glands according to the nature of secretory product
On the basis of nature of secretory product the exocrine glands can be classified into:
1) Serous. They are protein secreting glands (parotid gland, pancreas);
2) Mucous. They are mucous secreting glands (goblet cells and sublingual salivary gland);
3) Mixed (seromucous). They are both protein and mucous secreting glands (submandibular and
sublingual salivary glands, glands of the trachea and esophagus);
4) Sebaceous. They are lipid producing glands of the skin [3].

Morphology classification of exocrine glands

Figure 2.33. Diagram of simple exocrine glands.

Compound branched tubular Compound branched acinar Compound branched acinar

Figure 2.34. Diagram of compound exocrine glands [9].
 15

Classification of exocrine glands according to the mechanisms of secretion

Exocrine glands are classified by the mechanisms of secretion into 3 types:
1) Merocrine;
2) Apocrine;
3) Holocrine.
In merocrine secretion, the secretory product is released from the cell by exocytosis without the
distraction of cell cytoplasm. Secretory cells of the parotid glands and pancreas are examples of merocrine
type of secretion.
In apocrine secretion. the secretory product is released together with part of the apical cytoplasm of
the secretory cell. Secretory cells of the mammary glands are example of apocrine type of secretion.
In holocrine secretion the secretory product is released by disintegration of the entire cell. Secretory
cells of the sebaceous glands are example of holocrine type of secretion [3].

Question 11. Ultrastructure of the glandular cell. Gland as an organ.

The secretory cells also known as glandular epithelial cells have a well developed synthetic
apparatus and numerous secretory granules. Ultrastructure of secretory cells depends on the nature
of secret producing by them. There are 3 types of secretory cells:
1) Protein secreting cells. They have a well developed r-ER and a supranuclear Golgl
complex. Spherical nucleus disposes at basal part of cell. Secretory granules fill the apical part of
these cells;
2) Mucus secreting. They cells have a well developed r-ER, where the protein component of
mucus is synthesized, and a very well developed Golgl complex where proteins are glycosylated.
Mucus secreting cell contains a flattened nucleus at the base of cell and mucinogen granules filling its
cytoplasm;
3) Steroid producing cells are characterized b y the presence of extensive smooth
endoplasmatic reticulum, and predominance mitochondria with vesicular cristae.

Gland as an organ

All large exocrine glands consist of

parenchyma, stroma and duct system. The
secretory cells of a gland constitute its
parenchyma and perform the essential functions
of gland.
Stroma is supporting fibrous connective
tissue with blood vessels and nerves forming a
capsule surrounding the gland from outside and
connective tissue septa penetrating from the capsule
into the organ to divide gland into lobules.
Ducts of glands are classified into intralobular
(lying within lobules) and interlobular (lying
between lobules within connective tissue septa)
types.
Figure 2.35. Diagram of gland structure as an organ [9].