CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Children are born with significant but unrealized potential, much like wrapped gifts. Education,

particularly formal schooling, is essential for nurturing, preparing, and developing this potential,

allowing children to contribute to society and lead fulfilling lives. Access to basic and post-

primary education is a fundamental right for every child, as it reveals their inherent abilities and

is crucial for the exercise of all other human rights. Education promotes individual freedom,

empowerment, and provides important developmental benefits. It imparts knowledge, skills,

character, and values that are essential for national development and personal self-fulfillment

(Asiegbu, Okorji & Bosah, 2014). According to Johnson & Lee, (2019), Education also opens

doors to better job opportunities, which often come with higher income levels and improved

living conditions. Additionally, Smith (2020) indicates that individuals with higher educational

attainment tend to adopt healthier lifestyles, leading to better health outcomes and longer

lifespans. Education also opens doors to better job opportunities, which often come with higher

income levels and improved living conditions (Johnson & Lee, 2019).

Education is a vital tool for economically and socially marginalized individuals, enabling them to

break free from poverty and fully participate as citizens (United Nations Educational, Scientific

and Cultural Organization, UNESCO, 2017). It is one of the most important aspects of human

civilization. Throughout history, various societies have made strides in educational

advancement. Many countries prioritize education in their agendas, recognizing that a nation's

progress is closely tied to its educational achievements.

However, many developing countries, especially in Africa, continue to struggle with significant

challenges related to the education of girls. Females face numerous barriers that hinder their

educational development, such as early marriage, sexual violence, and gender discrimination.

Mama (2024): Despite the expansion of higher education in Africa, gender disparities persist,

with women underrepresented in both enrollment and senior academic positions. Institutional

and cultural factors continue to hinder gender equity, demonstrating the slow progress in

addressing historical exclusions. According to Ahmad & Najeemah, (2013), women without

formal education are often denied the opportunity to reach their full potential and to

contribute equally and productively to their families, communities, countries, and the world at

large.

The education of the girl child significantly contributes to the development of families,

societies, and nations. According to Psacharopoulos and Patrinos (2004), educating girls

positively impacts various aspects of their lives, including increased productivity, improved

family health and nutrition, reduced fertility rates, and lower child mortality rates. It empowers

them to become self-sufficient adults capable of making decisions and controlling their lives.

Jatau, as cited in Esomonu (1999), emphasized the vital role of women in nation-building,

stating that women are essential for creating harmonious homes and raising well-educated,

well-behaved children.
The importance of girl-child education cannot be overstated, it is a global human rights issue

requiring legislative attention worldwide due to the discrimination faced by girls. Similarly, the

OHCHR (2023) underscores that denying education to girls constitutes severe discrimination,

impoverishing societies by depriving them of their contributions. Such barriers are rooted in

cultural and structural inequalities, demanding global and local efforts to ensure equal access to

education as a fundamental human right

Despite global progress in education, gender parity remains unachieved. In developing regions,

particularly Sub-Saharan Africa, access to education for girls continues to be low. Globally, two-

thirds of those without access to education are girls and women. Around 65 million females

have never attended school, and 100 million fail to complete primary education due to poor

quality and unequal opportunities compared to boys (Iwalaiye et al., 2016). A World

Development report (2012) highlighted persistent gender gaps in education for impoverished

women, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa and parts of South Asia. In northern Nigeria, literacy

and educational attainment among women remain critically low, with significant disparities

compared to the rest of the country. Data shows that in the North East and North West regions,

female primary net attendance rates are only 47.7% and 47.3%, respectively. This means that

more than half of the girls in these areas are not attending school. Various factors, including

socio-cultural norms, poverty, and security challenges, contribute to this educational

deprivation, particularly in rural and conflict-affected areas (UNICEF, 2024). In Nigeria, girl-child

education continues to face numerous challenges, hindering its development as outlined

earlier.
Education of the girl child has been show to contribute immensely to the development of the

family,the societies and the nation. Psacharopoulos and Patrinos, (2014) reported that child girl

education contributes to the various aspects oftheir lives such as increased productivity,family

health and nutrition,reduced fertility rates and related child mortality rates.Child girl education

empower the girl child to become,self-sufficient adult capable of taking decision and controlling

her life. Jatau in Esomonu (2021) believes that the burden of nation building rests much on

women. She goes on "we need women to create a blissful home, have well-educated and well-

behaved children.

The important of child girl education cannot be overemphasized. It is a global human right

concern demanding legislation across the nations of the world as child girls are discriminated

against. They are victims of various traditional and cultural practices, they suffer

degradation,they are objects of poverty, their faces are only to be seen but their voices not to

be heard,they are seen as being sub-servient to their male counterparts; they are the inferior

set, thei place is in the kitchen (Ahmad & Najeemah,2013).

Despite many gains recorded with regards to overall level of education worldwide and more

children than ever are now attending primary school (King, 2017),there is still not world-wide

gender parity in education. Girl child access to formal education has continued to be low in

developing part of the world especially in Sub-Sahara Africa. Globally, two thirds of all those

who have no access to education are girls and women. Sixty-five million gils and women never

even started school, and an estimated 100 million do not complete primary education, often

because the quality is poor and their opportunities are far from equal to those of boys
(Iwalaiye, Abah, Johnson, Giwa & Ali, 2016). In a research by World Development (2019), there

exist a sizeable gender gaps for poor women and women in poor places.The report revealed

that in education where gaps have narrowed in most countries, girls'enrollment in primary and

secondary schools in sub-Saharan African countries and some parts of south Asia have not

improved much (Anah,2023). In Nigeria,particularly, the north part of the country,access to

basic education among the girl child have remain low. As only 20 per cent of women in the

North West and North East of the country are literate and have attended school (Unicef,2024).

In Nigeria also,girl-child education has suffered a setback and continues to be littered with

some factors that prevent it froi developing as mentioned earlier. United Nations Economic and

Social Council (2019): The Council emphasized that gender equality and the empowerment of

women are essential for the achievement of sustainable development, poverty eradication, and

overall economic growth. It also stressed the need for women’s equal participation in

leadership and decision-making processes at all levels.

In line with this declaration, education is considered a basic right, as recognized since the

adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948. Additionally, Section 18 of the

Nigerian Constitution, the Universal Basic Education (UBE) Act of 2004, the Child Rights Act of

2003, and Article 17 of the African Charter all guarantee the right of every Nigerian child to

education. The UBE Act and the Child Rights Act specifically mandate free and compulsory basic

education up to the junior secondary level for all children.

However, despite these legislative efforts, the level of girl-child education attainment in Nigeria

remains low. Many girls drop out before completing their junior education due to various
reasons. This calls for an investigation into the factors hindering the progress of girl-child

education in Akko Local Government Area of Gombe State to develop effective counseling

interventions.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Education is one of the most vital tools individuals use to succeed in various aspects of life. In

every society, it is a powerful instrument that enables people to achieve self-esteem and self-

actualization. Globally, there is a significant disparity between educated individuals and those

who lack education. Similarly, at the international level, a stark gap exists in national

development between countries that prioritize education and those that do not.

There is a direct correlation between girls’ enrollment in primary schools and a nation’s gross

national product and life expectancy. Due to this connection, school enrollment represents one

of the most significant investments in human capital for any society. The rapid socio-economic

development of a country has been observed to depend largely on the education of its women.

Consequently, nations and societies strive to attain a certain level of education to align with

modern global standards.

However, in Nigeria, girl-child education remains in a state of crisis, particularly in the northern

regions where girls lag behind in educational achievement compared to their peers in other

parts of the country. This is a troubling and disheartening situation because, while educating a

boy benefits an individual, educating a girl benefits a family, a community, and even a nation.
Therefore, the purpose of this study is to identify the factors hindering the progress of girl-child

education in Akko Local Government Area of Gombe State.

1.3 Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to identify the factors that impede the progress of girl-child

education in Akko Local Government Area of Gombe State. The specific objectives are:

1. To identify the factors hindering the progress of girl-child education in Akko L.G.A. of

Gombe State.

2. To examine the effects of socio-cultural practices on girl-child education in Akko L.G.A.

3. To assess the impact of religious misconceptions on girl-child education in Akko L.G.A.

4. To evaluate the effect of teenage pregnancy and early marriage on girl-child education

in the study area.

5. To investigate the impact of child labor on girl-child education in the study area.

1.4 Research Questions

The following research questions are formulated to guide this study:

1. What are the factors militating against girl-child education in Akko L.G.A. of Gombe

State?

2. What are the effects of socio-cultural patterns on girl-child education in Akko L.G.A.?

3. What is the impact of religious misconceptions on girl-child education in the study area?

4. To what extent do teenage pregnancy and early marriage affect girl-child education in

the area under study?

 5. What is the effect of child labor on girl-child education in Akko L.G.A.?

1.5 Significance of the Study

The significance of girl-child education in national development cannot be overstated. This

study will be immensely beneficial to parents, federal and state ministries of education,

stakeholders in education, policymakers, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), teachers,

pupils, students, and all others concerned with the status of girl-child education in Akko Local

Government Area of Gombe State.

Additionally, the findings of this study will be valuable for other areas in Nigeria experiencing

similar challenges regarding girl-child education. By addressing these issues, the study aims to

contribute to a better understanding and provide solutions for the advancement of girl-child

education in such contexts.

1.6 Scope of the Study

This study focuses exclusively on Akko Local Government Area of Gombe State. However, its

findings will be applicable to areas facing similar challenges. Due to constraints in time and

resources, a sampling method will be used to select schools within Akko Local Government

Area. These selected schools will serve as a representative sample for the entire area, and the

findings will be generalized accordingly. Data collection will be conducted through

questionnaires.

1.7 Operational Definition of Terms

To suit the purpose and requirements of this study, the following terms are defined as follows:
Girl-child:

The term "girl-child" refers to a biological female aged from birth to 18 years. This period

encompasses infancy (0 to 5 years), primary school age (6 to 12 years), and secondary school

age (12 to 18 years), which is before the transition to young adulthood.

Education:

Education is the process by which the girl-child acquires knowledge, develops her potential, and

uses it for self-actualization. It enables her to contribute positively to herself and others while

preserving, transmitting, and advancing the culture of society.

Development:

Development, as used in this study, refers to the process of improving the quality of life and

capabilities of all individuals, particularly the girl-child, by enhancing her standard of living, self-

esteem, and freedom.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter examines existing literature on girl-child education, aiming to identify key

challenges impeding the educational progress of female students in public secondary schools.

The review delves into various aspects, including conceptual issues surrounding girl-child
education, barriers to access, and a discussion of relevant empirical studies. It concludes with a

summary, providing insights into the findings and gaps in previous research. The overarching

objective is to establish a comprehensive understanding of the factors that hinder the

development of girl-child education, particularly within Akko Local Government Area of Gombe

State.

2.1 Theoretical Framework

2.1.1 Radical Feminism Theory

This study is grounded in the Radical Feminism Theory, which critically examines the structural

factors that perpetuate the subjugation of women and girls in society. Central to this theory is

the concept of patriarchy, defined as a system where men dominate, oppress, and exploit

women. Patriarchy is considered a universal phenomenon that transcends time and culture,

influencing various societal domains, including education.

Radical feminists argue that patriarchy is embedded in private and public spheres, affecting the

opportunities available to women and girls. For example, within the household (private

patriarchy), girls are socialized to be dependent on male authority, limiting their autonomy and

access to education. In the public domain, patriarchal structures manifest in economic systems,

state policies, and cultural norms that prioritize male interests over female advancement.

Walby (1990) and other scholars, such as Reese (2005) and Igube (2010), identify key

patriarchal structures that restrict women and girls' educational opportunities. These include:

 Unequal access to well-paying jobs.

  Cultural norms discouraging formal education for girls.

 Violence against women and girls that the state often fails to adequately address.

In Nigeria, patriarchal beliefs often result in cultural practices that prioritize male education

over female education. This is evident in lower enrollment rates for girls at all educational levels

compared to boys, especially in rural and economically disadvantaged areas. These systemic

barriers reinforce gender inequalities and limit the potential of girls to contribute meaningfully

to society.

By applying Radical Feminism Theory, this study explores how patriarchal norms and structures

perpetuate the challenges faced by girl-child education in Akko Local Government Area of

Gombe State. This framework provides a lens to analyze the socio-cultural and systemic factors

that hinder educational access and development for girls, offering insights into possible

interventions.

2.1.2 Gender and Development (GAD) Theory

This study also draws on the Gender and Development (GAD) Theory, proposed by Caroline

Moser (1989) and Naila Kabeer (1994), which emphasizes the importance of addressing

systemic gender inequalities that hinder the development and empowerment of women and

girls. The GAD approach focuses on understanding how socio-economic structures, cultural

norms, and institutional practices reinforce disparities between males and females, particularly

in accessing opportunities like education.

GAD moves beyond simply advocating for women's inclusion in development; it critically

examines the root causes of gender disparities and highlights the need for structural

transformation to achieve equity. According to this theory, the barriers to girl-child education

are often rooted in broader societal constructs, such as poverty, discriminatory cultural

practices, and gender-based power imbalances.

Key principles of the GAD theory relevant to this study include:

 Intersectionality: Recognizing that factors such as class, ethnicity, religion, and

geography intersect with gender to compound inequalities faced by the girl child.

 Empowerment: Advocating for education as a tool to empower girls, enabling them to

challenge existing power dynamics and participate equally in societal development.

 Community Engagement: Stressing the importance of involving families, communities,

and policymakers in addressing systemic barriers to girl-child education.

This framework is particularly suited to the Nigerian context, where gender norms and socio-

cultural practices disproportionately disadvantage girls, especially in rural and northern regions.

It underscores the need for policies and interventions that address these structural inequities,

ensuring that girls have equal access to education and opportunities for personal and

community development.

By applying the GAD theory, this research investigates the interplay between systemic factors

and cultural practices that hinder girl-child education in Akko Local Government Area. This

approach facilitates a holistic understanding of the issue and informs strategies for sustainable

change.
2.2 Conceptual Issues in Girl-child Education

Girl-child education is a vital component of human development that has garnered significant

attention from researchers, policymakers, and educators over the years. Despite advancements

in increasing access to education for girls, numerous conceptual issues continue to impede the

realization of their full educational potential. A comprehensive understanding of girl-child

education extends beyond the mere provision of formal education; it encompasses the intricate

social, cultural, and economic contexts that shape girls' educational experiences. Barriers to

girl-child education are multifaceted and include poverty, which disproportionately affects girls

from low-income households, as highlighted by UNICEF in 2020. Cultural and social norms often

prioritize domestic responsibilities over education, further complicating girls' access to

schooling, as noted by Plan International in 2019. Inadequate access to educational

infrastructure in rural or disadvantaged areas limits opportunities for girls, while the prevalence

of violence and harassment in schools can deter them from attending, according to the Global

Partnership for Girls' and Women's Education in 2018. Gender dynamics further complicate

these challenges, as girls often face stereotyping and bias that limit their academic pursuits. A

lack of female role models can hinder girls' aspirations and self-efficacy, as emphasized by

UNESCO in 2019, and experiences of sexism and misogyny in schools can undermine their

confidence and performance, as highlighted by the OECD in 2019.

The impact of girl-child education on broader development goals is profound. Educated girls are

more likely to achieve economic empowerment, securing better-paying jobs and contributing to

their families' income, as noted by the World Bank in 2018. Education significantly improves
health outcomes for girls, leading to lower rates of child marriage, early pregnancy, and the

spread of diseases such as HIV/AIDS, according to UNICEF in 2020. Educated girls tend to

engage more actively in civic activities, challenge prevailing social norms, and advocate for their

rights, fostering social mobility and progress, as stated by Plan International in 2019. Various

policy and programmatic strategies have been implemented to address these conceptual

issues, including targeted interventions such as scholarships and mentorship programs aimed at

increasing girls' access to education. Curriculum reforms that promote gender equality and

challenge stereotypes are also critical, along with teacher training initiatives designed to

address gender biases and create inclusive learning environments. Ultimately, addressing the

complex and multifaceted challenges of girl-child education requires a collaborative effort

among policymakers, educators, and researchers. By recognizing and addressing the barriers

faced by girls, stakeholders can work towards creating an educational landscape that supports

the empowerment and success of girls worldwide. Girl-child education is a vital component of

human development that has garnered significant attention from researchers, policymakers,

and educators over the years. Despite advancements in increasing access to education for girls,

numerous conceptual issues continue to impede the realization of their full educational

potential. A comprehensive understanding of girl-child education extends beyond the mere

provision of formal education; it encompasses the intricate social, cultural, and economic

contexts that shape girls' educational experiences. Barriers to girl-child education are

multifaceted and include poverty, which disproportionately affects girls from low-income

households. Cultural and social norms often prioritize domestic responsibilities over education,

further complicating girls' access to schooling. Inadequate access to educational infrastructure

in rural or disadvantaged areas limits opportunities for girls, while the prevalence of violence

and harassment in schools can deter them from attending. Gender dynamics further complicate

these challenges, as girls often face stereotyping and bias that limit their academic pursuits. A

lack of female role models can hinder girls' aspirations and self-efficacy, and experiences of

sexism and misogyny in schools can undermine their confidence and performance.

2.3 Peculiar Problems Facing Girl-Children In Nigeria

Girl-children in Nigeria face a range of peculiar challenges that significantly hinder their

educational opportunities. One of the most pressing issues is poverty, which often forces

families to prioritize the education of boys over girls. According to UNICEF, approximately 10.5

million children are out of school in Nigeria, with girls disproportionately affected (UNICEF,

2021). Cultural norms and practices, such as early marriage and childbearing, further

exacerbate this problem, as many families view girls primarily as future wives and mothers

rather than as individuals with educational aspirations (Plan International, 2019).

Another significant challenge is the lack of access to quality education, particularly in rural areas

where educational infrastructure is inadequate. The World Bank reports that schools may be far

away, poorly equipped, or lacking in female teachers, which can discourage girls from attending

(World Bank, 2020). Additionally, the prevalence of violence and harassment in schools,

including bullying and sexual abuse, creates an unsafe environment that deters girls from

pursuing their education (Global Partnership for Education, 2018).

The influence of extremist groups, such as Boko Haram, has also had a devastating impact on

girls' education in northern Nigeria. The abduction of schoolgirls and targeted attacks on
educational institutions have instilled fear in families, leading to increased dropout rates and

reluctance to send girls to school (Human Rights Watch, 2019).

Gender stereotypes and societal expectations further complicate the situation, as girls often

face discrimination and bias in educational settings. This can manifest in lower expectations

from teachers and peers, which can undermine their confidence and academic performance

(UNESCO, 2020). Moreover, the lack of female role models in education and leadership

positions can limit girls' aspirations and hinder their motivation to pursue higher education (UN

Women, 2021).

The intersection of these challenges creates a complex web of barriers that requires

comprehensive strategies to address and support the educational needs of girl-children in

Nigeria. Efforts to improve girl-child education must focus on community engagement, policy

reforms, and targeted interventions that promote gender equality and empower girls to

overcome these obstacles.