Production Engineering Lab course

By:-Akalewold Seifu Feleke (Msc)

Ethiopian Geological institute
Course code PENG 3132 E-mail: [email protected]
Addis Ababa
Ethiopia
For the student 4rd and 5th student -2nd Semester
November ,2024
Production Engineering Lab course
For the student 4th year and 5th -2nd Semester
Course code PENG 3132

The Lecturer Will Start in :

Minutes
Thank you for your
kind attention
 1 Introduction:
Special core analysis gives information about the distribution of oil, gas and water in the
reservoir (capillary pressure data), residual oil saturation and multiphase flow characteristics
(relative permeabilities). Measurements of electrical and acoustic properties are occasionally
included in special core analysis. This information is mainly used in the interpretation of well
logs.

The effect of pressure and temperature on rock and fluid properties is in some reservoir
formations significant, and laboratory measurements should therefore be made at, or corrected
to, reservoir conditions wherever possible.

calculate drilling mud properties and rhe ology (the study of the flow of matter), and the
properties of rock porosity, permeability (an indication of the ability for fluids to flow through
rocks) and relative permeabilities.

The viscosity of a fluid is an important property in the analysis of liquid behavior and fluid
motion near solid boundaries.
 2. POROSITY :
From the viewpoint of petroleum engineers Reservoir Rock two most important properties of
a reservoir rock are porosity and permeability. Porosity is a measure of the storage capacity of
a reservoir. It is defined as the ratio of pore volume to bulk volume, and it may be expressed as
either a percent or a fraction. In equation form

Two types of porosity may be measured: total or absolute porosity and effective porosity.
Total porosity is the ratio of all the pore spaces in a rock to the bulk volume of the rock.
Effective porosity fe is the ratio of interconnected void spaces to the bulk volume. Thus, only
the effective porosity contains fluids that can be produced from wells. For granular materials
such as sandstone, the effective porosity may approach the total porosity, however, for shales
and for highly cemented or vogular rocks such as some limestones, large variations may exist
between effective and total porosity.

Vb  Vma
Vp
Porosity    
Vb Vb
 2. POROSITY cont…
A maximum theoretical porosity of 47.6 % is achieved with cubic packing of spherical grains,
as shown in Figure 1.1a. Rhombohedral packing, which is more representative of reservoir
conditions, is shown in Figure 1.1b; the porosity for this packing is 26%. If a second, smaller
size of spherical grains is introduced into cubic packing (Figure 1.1c), the porosity decreases
from 47.6% to 14%. Thus, porosity is dependent on the grain size distribution and the
arrangement of the grains, as well as the amount of cementing materials. Not all grains are
spherical, and grain shape also influences porosity. Typical reservoir sand is illustrated in
Figure 1.1d.

Figure 1.1 a) Cubic packing, b) rhombohedral packing, c) cubic packing with two grain
sizesand d) typical sand with irregular grain shapes
 2.1. Effect of Compaction on Porosity
Compaction is the process of volume reduction due to an externally applied pressure. For
extreme compaction pressures, all materials show some irreversible change in porosity. This is
due to distortion and crushing of the grains or matrix elements of the material, and in some
cases, re-crystallization. The variation of porosity with change in pressure can be represented
By:-

Where f2 and f1 are porosities at pressures P2 and P1, respectively, and Cf is formation
compressibility. Formation compressibility is defined as summation of both grain and pore
compressibility. For most petroleum reservoirs, grain compressibility is considered to be
negligible. Formation compressibility can be expressed as

Where dP is change in reservoir pressure. For porous rocks, the

compressibility depends explicitly on porosity.
 2.3. Porosity Measurements
 From the definition of porosity, it is evident that the porosity of a sample of porous material
can be determined by measuring any two of the three quantities: bulk volume, pore volume or
grain volume. The porosity of a reservoir rock may be determined by
- Core analysis
- Well logging technique
- Well testing.

 2.3.1. Bulk Volume Measurement Although the bulk volume may be computed from
measurements of the dimensions of a uniformly shaped sample, the usual procedure utilizes
the observation of the volume of fluid displaced by the sample. The fluid displaced by a sample
can be observed either volumetrically or gravimetrically. In either procedure it is necessary to
prevent fluid penetration into the pore space to the rock. This can be accomplished (1) by
coating the sample with paraffin or a similar substance, (2) by saturating the core with the fluid
into which it is to be immersed, or (3) by using mercury.

Gravimetric determinations of bulk volume can be accomplished by observing the loss in

weight of the sample when immersed in a fluid or by observing the change in weight of a
pycnometer with and without the core sample.
 2.3.2. Pore Volume Measurement
All the methods of measuring pore volume yield effective porosity. The methods are based on
either the extraction of a fluid from the rock or the introduction of a fluid into the pore spaces
of the rock. One of the most used methods is the helium technique, which employs Boyle’s law.
The helium gas in the reference cell is isothermally expanded into a sample cell.

2.3.3. Grain Volume Measurement

The grain volume of core samples is sometimes calculated from sample weight and knowledge
of average density. Formations of varying lithology and, hence, grain density limit applicability
of this method. Boyle’s law is often employed with helium as the gas to determine grain
volume. The technique is fairly rapid, and is valid on clean and dry samples.
 3. PERMEABILITY
Permeability is a property of the porous medium and is a measure of capacity of the
medium to transmit fluids. Permeability is a tensor that in general is a function of pressure.
Usually, the pressure dependence is neglected in reservoir calculations, but the variation
with position can be pronounced. Very often the permeability varies by several magnitudes,
and such heterogeneity will of course influence any oil recovery.

3.2. Darcy’s Law

Darcy [1856] performed a series of experiments on the relationship affecting the downward
flow of water through sands. The generalized equation called Darcy’s law may be written in the
form
 Permeability
• There must be some continuity between pores to have permeability.

• Q = A k/ M * dp/ dL
• A= Cross sectional Area
• M= Fluid viscosity
• dP= Differential Pressure
• dL= Length
Permeability is dependent upon the arrangement of grains and the type of cementation process
that has occurred. Permeability is the basics of how fluid flows to the well bore and one of the
most important factors for any type of commercial production of hydrocarbons to occur
 4. CAPILLARY PRESSURE
When two immiscible fluids are in contact in the interstices of a porous medium, a
discontinuity in pressure exists across the interface separating them. The difference in
pressure Pc is called capillary pressure, which is pressure in the non-wetting phase minus the
pressure in the wetting phase
 4. CAPILLARY PRESSURE cont….
Thus, the capillary pressure may have either positive or negative values. For an oil-water , gas-
water or gas-oil system, capillary pressure is defined as
 4.1. Capillary Pressure Measurement Methods
Porous Plate Method (restored state)
Water saturated samples for air-water or oil-water tests and oil saturated cores for air-oil tests
are placed on a semi-permeable diaphragm, and a portion of the contained liquid is displaced
with the appropriate fluid of air or oil. A schematic diagram of an apparatus for performing
such tests is seen in Figure 5.2. It consists of a cell for imposing pressure, a semi-permeable
diaphragm C, a manometer for recording pressure M, and a measuring burette for measuring
produced volumes.

During measurement, the pressure is increased in steps and final equilibrium produced
volumes of the wetting phase are recorded for each step. The porous plate method is slow and
one full curve may take up to 40 days or more to obtain.
 4.2 Centrifuge Method
Hassler and Brunner [1945] presented the basic concepts involved in the use of the
centrifuge by relating the performance of a small core in a field of high acceleration. If a
cylindrical core of length L is subjected to an acceleration as ac= - w2r where w is angular
velocity of the centrifuge and r is the distance from the axis of rotation, then from Eq. (5.4)
we have

The difference in pressure Pc is called capillary pressure

Given the boundary conditions shown in Figure 5.3, the differential equation can be solved by
simple integration
 4.2 Centrifuge Method cont..
Given the boundary conditions shown in Figure 5.3, the differential equation can be solved by
simple integration
 5. SURFACE AND INTERFACIAL TENSION
Surface and interfacial tension of fluids result from molecular properties occurring at the
surface or interface. Surface tension is the tendency of a liquid to expose a minimum free
surface. Surface tension may be defined as the contractile tendency of a liquid surface
exposed to gases. The interfacial tension is a similar tendency which exists when two
immiscible liquids are in contact. In the following, interfacial tension win be denoted for both
surface and interfacial tension. Figure 6.1 shows a spherical cap which is subjected to a
interfacial tension a around the base of the cap and two normal pressures P1 and P2 at each
point on the surface. The effect of the interfacial tension a is to reduce the size of the sphere
unless it is opposed by a sufficiently great difference between pressures P1 and P2.

 Note that the phase on the concave

side of the surface must have a
pressure P2 which is greater than the
pressure P1 on the convex side.
5.1. Methods of Interfacial Tension Measurements
6.1.1. Capillary Rise Method
 This method is based on rising of a liquid in a capillary tube and the fact that the height of
the liquid, depends on interfacial tension. Let us consider a circular capillary tube of radius r,
wetted by the liquid to be tested. The liquid with density r immediately rises to a height h
above the free liquid level in the vessel (Figure 6.2). The column of liquid in the capillary
must be held up against the gravity pull by a force, the so-called capillary suction. We may
write
5.1.2. Wilhelmy Plate Method

A thin plate of glass or platinum will “carry” or hold up part of liquid which is in contact with
the plate. The dynamic measurement of interfacial tension is shown in Figure 5.3a. In this
method, the necessary force to break the liquid film at this position will be determined

Where 2(x+y) is the contact area between the liquid and the plate, and Wp is the weight of the
plate.
5.1.3. Ring Method

The ring or du Noüy method of measuring surface and interfacial tension is commonly used and
the apparatus is called a ring tensiometer. To measure interfacial tension, a platinum ring is
placed in the test liquid. The force necessary to withdraw it from the liquid is determined
(Figure 6.4).
5.1.3. Ring Method cont…
x
6. LIQUID DENSITY
 x

API classification for the crude oil according to the

following Equ.:
°API = (141.5/SGr) - 131.5
Where,
SGr : is the stock tank oil specific gravity OR relative
density (to water at 60 °F).
6.1. Measurement of density

The most commonly used methods for determining density or specific gravity of a liquid are
1. Westphal balance
2. Specific gravity balance (chain-o-matic)
3. API hydrometer
4. Pycnometer
5. Bicapillary pycnometer.
The first two methods are based on the principle of Archimedes: A body immersed in a liquid
is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the liquid it displaces. A known volume of the
liquid to be tested is weighed by these methods. The balances are so constructed that they
should exactly balance in air.
The API hydrometer is usually used for determining oil gravityin the oil field. When a
hydrometer is placed in oil, it will float with its axis vertical after it has displaced a mass of oil
equal to the mass of hydrometer (Figure 7.1a).
The pycnometer (Figure 7.1b) is an accurately made flask which can be filled with a known
volume of liquid. The specific gravity of liquid is defined as the ratio of the weight of a volume
of the liquid to the weight of an equal volume of water at the same temperature.

The water and the liquid must both be at the same temperature. The bicapillary pycnometer
(Figure 7.1c) is another tool for accurate determination of density. The density of the liquid
sample drawn into the pycnometer is determined from its volume and weight.
6.1. Measurement of density Cont….
 7. VISCOSITY
Viscosity is defined as the internal resistance of fluid to flow. The basic equation of
deformation is given by
8. VISCOSITY Cont…..

In the oil industry viscosity generally is expressed in centipoises, cp (1 cp=10-3 Pa-s).

8.1. Effect of pressure and temperature on viscosity
Viscosity of fluids varies with pressure and temperature. For most fluids the viscosity is
rather sensitive to changes in temperature, but relatively insensitive to pressure until rather
high pressures have been attained.

 The viscosity of liquids usually rises with pressure at constant temperature.

 Water is an exception to this rule; its viscosity decreases with increasing pressure at
constant temperature.

 For most cases of practical interest, however, the effect of pressure on the viscosity of
liquids can be ignored. Temperature has different effects on viscosity of liquids and gases.

 A decrease in temperature causes the viscosity of a liquid to rise.

Effect of molecular weight on the viscosity of liquids is as follows; the liquid viscosity
increases with increasing molecular weight.
7.1. Methods for Measuring Viscosity
7.1.1. Capillary Type Viscometer
 Viscosity of liquids is determined by instruments called viscosimeter or viscometer.
One type of viscometer for liquids is the Ostwald viscometer (Figure 8.3). In this
viscometer, the viscosity is deduced from the comparison of the times required for a
given volume of the tested liquid and of a reference liquid to flow through a given
capillary tube under specified initial head conditions. During the measurement the
temperature of the liquid should be kept constant by immersing the instrument in a
temperature-controlled water bath.

In this method the Poiseuille’s law for a

capillary tube with a laminar flow regime is
used
 7.1. Methods for Measuring Viscosity
7.1.1. Capillary Type Viscometer Cont…..

The capillary constant is determined from a liquid with known viscosity.

7.1.2. Falling Ball Viscometer

 Another instrument commonly used for determining viscosity of a liquid is the falling (or
rolling) ball viscometer (Figure 8.4), which is based on Stoke’s law for a sphere falling in a fluid
under the effect of gravity. A polished steel ball is dropped into a glass tube of a somewhat
larger diameter containing the liquid, and the time required for the ball to fall at constant
velocity through a specified distance between reference marks is recorded. The following
equation is used
 7.1.2. Falling Ball Viscometer Cont…

The rolling ball viscometer will give good results as long as the fluid flow in the tube remains
in the laminar range. In some instruments of this type both pressure and temperature may be
controlled.
 7.1.3. Rotational Viscometer
Other often used viscometers especially for non-Newtonian fluids are the rotational type
consisting of two concentric cylinders, with the annulus containing the liquid whose viscosity
is to be measured (Figure 8.5). Either the outer cylinder or the inner one is rotated at a
constant speed, and the rotational deflection of the cylinder becomes a measure of the liquid’s
viscosity.
8. VAPOR PRESSURE OF A PURE LIQUID

When a pure liquid is placed in an evacuated bulb, molecules will leave the liquid phase and
enter the gas phase until the pressure of the vapor in the bulb reaches a definite value, which
is determined by the nature of the liquid and its temperature.

 The equilibrium vapor pressure is independent of the quantity of the liquid and vapor present
as long as both phases exist inequilibrium with each other at the specified temperature. As the
temperature is increased, the vapor pressure also increases to the critical point, at which the
two-phase system becomes a homogeneous, one-phase fluid.

 If the pressure above the liquid ismaintained at a fixed value (say by admitting to the bulb
containing the liquid), then the liquid may be heated up to a temperature at which the vapor
pressure is equal to the external pressure.

At this point vaporization will occur by the formation bubbles in the interior of the liquid as
well as at the surface; this is the boiling point of the liquid at the specified external pressure is
seen to be identical with the variation of the vapor pressure with temperature.
 9. RESERVOIR

The reservoir is a heterogeneous porous media that contains oil, gas and water under
pressure and where wells have been drilled and completed. The wellbores are at a pressure
lower than reservoir pressure which causes the migration of fluid from the neighboring porous
media to the wells. The flow deliverability of the formation depends, among other things, on the
pressure at the wellbore, the rock properties, the average reservoir pressure, fluid properties,
flow restrictions in the vicinity of the wellbore, extension and shape of the drainage area. The
deliverability of the reservoir will be typically reduced with time as fluids are drained from it,
the average pressure declines and the distribution and saturation of fluids in the reservoir
changes.

A simplistic but useful analogy of a reservoir system is a tank with fluid under pressure
inside. The well is a small exit port with a restriction. The average reservoir pressure (i.e. the
tank pressure, pR) drives fluid from the tank to the wellbore (pwf, pressure at the exit). The
restriction represents the pressure losses that are generated when the fluid flows through the
formation towards the well. When fluid is drained from the tank (formation) the tank pressure
(reservoir pressure) is reduced, thus reducing the flow rate that the tank can deliver at a fixed
wellbore pressure.
9. RESERVOIR Cont…

Reservoir models are typically history matched to production data. Production system models
are typically tuned with pressure, temperature and rate measurements along the production
system.

The reservoir is represented by a tank with

oil, gas and water under pressure (Figure 1‐2).
Calculations are executed in a stepwise
manner where the amount of oil or gas
produced from the reservoir is given as an
input and the new saturation of fluids and
pressure inside the tank are calculated by
applying conservation of mass in the tank. The
producing gas oil ratio or water cut of the
produced fluids can be predicted using the
change of the phase mobilities due to changes
in phase saturation.
9. RESERVOIR Cont…

A material balance model requires the oil (or gas) cumulative production as an input and thus
cannot be used to predict the production output of the reservoir with time. For that purpose, an
additional model must be provided to quantify the pressure drop between reservoir and a
downstream condition (e.g. bottom‐hole pressure). This model is often an Inflow Performance
Relationship curve.
Production Engineering Lab course
For the student 4th year and 5th -2nd Semester
Course code PENG 3132

The Lecturer Will Start in :

Minutes
Thank you for your
kind attention
 9.1. PRODUCTION SYSTEM (SURFACE NETWORK)

 The production system is the assembly of wells, pipes, valves, pumps, meters that have the
function of transporting fluids from the reservoir to the processing facilities in a controlled
manner. When the fluid travels from the reservoir(s) (source) to the separator(s) (sink), it must
overcome energy losses (e.g. pressure and temperature drop) and sometimes “compete” with
other fluids in transportation conduits.

In models of the production system, the well inflow at a particular time “t” is usually
represented by an IPR equation (Inflow performance relationship, see Figure 1‐3 for some
examples). The IPR is typically a smooth, monotonic, downwards curve that provides the
bottom‐hole pressure that must be applied at the sand face to deliver a specific standard
condition flow rate. This approach is usually a good approximation to reservoir deliverability.
9.1. PRODUCTION SYSTEM (SURFACE NETWORK) Cont…

The IPR curves come typically from recent well tests, by using analytical equations together
with limited field data, or generated by a reservoir simulator.

The produced rates, pressures and temperatures at time “t” are calculated by performing a
flow equilibrium calculation in the production system. This involves solving simultaneously
mass, momentum and energy conservation equations for all elements in the system (conduits,
flowlines, pipelines, valves, pumps, etc). Pipelines are typically discretized in segments. The
boundary conditions upstream are the IPRs, (i.e. the wells’ inflows) and downstream the
pressure(s) of the separator(s).

When there is adjustable equipment in the production system (e.g. adjustable chokes, pumps,
gas lift injection) there is usually a variety of “feasible” equilibrium rates that the system can
produce. For example, in a system with a choked well, the rate of the well can vary depending
if the choke is fully open, fully closed or something in between. If the well has an electric
submersible pump (ESP) then a variety of operational rates can be achieved by changing the
pump rotational speed.
9.1. PRODUCTION SYSTEM (SURFACE NETWORK) Cont…

 When using a reservoir simulation model, the IPR curves are often generated by the reservoir
simulator and transferred to the network model. An example of this methodology is shown in
Figure 1‐5.
9.1. PRODUCTION SYSTEM (SURFACE NETWORK) Cont…

There are multiple approaches to couple reservoir and production system models. The two
approaches discussed before are explicit because, for a given time step, rates are calculated
only once in the network model and then imposed in the reservoir model

In a producing field, the reservoir deliverability follows a trend with depletion similar to
reservoir pressure, i.e. is reduced with time.

This is not only due to reservoir pressure decline, but for example, in an oil well, an increase of
the well’s producing GOR and WC will reduce the oil productivity as well. Changes in reservoir
deliverability affect all components of the production system downstream the reservoir, for
example if the well producing gas oil ratio (GOR) changes, then pressure losses will change in
all downstream conduits.

Some examples of changes to the production system are man‐made changes in the pipeline
diameter, lowering separator pressure, modification of choke opening, changes in well
completion,
9.1. PRODUCTION SYSTEM (SURFACE NETWORK) Cont…

 installation of artificial lift, well stimulation or frocking, etc. Other changes are reduction of
the conduits’ cross section due to scale deposition, wax deposition, etc. When the modification
is abrupt and occurs at one point in time, the production potential will display a discontinuity
at the particular cumulative production where the change is introduced (as shown in Figure
1‐7).
 9.2. PRODUCTION SCHEDULING

There are two main types of production offtake in a field: period with fixed production rate
(plateau mode) or declining production (decline mode). In plateau mode, as the name indicates,
the field or well is produced at a constant rate for a given period (lower than the production
potential). However, as the production potential is typically reduced with time, there comes a
time when the field rate is the same as the production potential. After that moment, the field
will not be able to sustain the plateau rate and its production starts to decline (e.g. following
the production potential curve). This is shown in Figure 1‐8.
 9.2. PRODUCTION SCHEDULING cont…

In decline mode, as the name indicates, production rates typically decline with time (as shown
in Figure 1‐9). In principle, the objective is to produce as much as possible as early as possible
(i.e. always produce at the production potential of the system). However, the production rates
might be sometimes lower than the production potential but follow a similar decline with time.
This may occur for example when there are additional operational constraints that impede
reaching the production potential, e.g. maximum flow rate to avoid sand production, gas
coning, water coning, maximum drawdown in the formation
 10. FLOW PERFORMANCE IN PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

 The production system is the assembly of wells, pipes, valves, pumps, meters that have the
function of transporting fluids from the reservoir to the processing facilities in a controlled
manner.

Formally, the processing facilities4 should also be considered as part of the production
system but they are excluded from the current discussion. This is because the primary
separator pressure is usually kept constant (e.g. with a control system as shown in Figure 2‐1)

which decouples (in terms of flow and pressure dependence) the system upstream and
downstream the separator.
 10. FLOW PERFORMANCE IN PRODUCTION SYSTEMS C0nt…

The layout and characteristics of the production system might vary significantly
depending on the reservoir characteristics, its geographical location (offshore,
onshore, remote access), the field development concept, the existence of
neighboring fields, among others.
 However, it is possible to define two clear
configurations: standalone wells (e.g. gas
wells in domestic US) where each well is
producing through their own pipeline to a
separator (as in Figure 2‐2a) or surface
networks where well production is gathered
by pipelines that transverse the field and
converge in the main production facilities
(as in Figure 2‐2b).
10. FLOW PERFORMANCE IN PRODUCTION SYSTEMS C0nt…

Numerical models are often used to understand and estimate the flow
equilibrium state of production systems.

The numerical model of a production system is usually a steady state

representation that comprises from the well bottom‐holes (source
nodes) to the first stage separator(s) (sink nodes).

The main purpose of this

model is to compute the
rates from each well and the
pressure and temperature
distribution in the production
system
10.1 MODELLING OF OIL /GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS
There are two types of approaches in modeling of oil/geothermal systems.

1. Conceptual modeling and

2. Numerical modeling

1.CONCEPTUAL MODELLING

A conceptual model is a schematic representation of the current best understanding of a oil

/gas and geothermal system, consistent with all known data and information. The first iteration
(a specified result is Doing or saying again; a repeated performance- ) of a conceptual model
for any new project might be little more than a generic representation of the type of
geothermal play under investigation.

During the Exploration Phase, the conceptual model of the geothermal system is continually
updated as new data are gathered. The model needs to contain sufficient geological,
hydrological, and tectonic information to allow a first pass estimate of reservoir depth,
temperature, and extent.

A good conceptual model should encapsulate the geological framework, heat source, heat
and fluid migration pathways, reservoir characteristics, and surface geothermal features, and
should be consistent with all available data and information.
10.1 MODELLING OF OIL /GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS cont…

At the end of the Exploration Phase, the conceptual model should be of sufficient
detail to allow an estimate of reservoir depth, temperature, and geometry with
sufficient confidence to justify and site wells for the Test Drilling Phase.

The conceptual model can be illustrated with maps (Fig 1), 2D cross sections (Fig
2), or 3D block models (Fig 3). These might be simple free-form drawings at the early
stages of a project, but will develop into robust geological models as more
information is incorporated.

This model must respect and be consistent with all known information. The chart
below provides a flow chart of typical data that may be used to build and develop the
model.
10.1 MODELLING OF OIL /GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS cont…
Literature search

Regional (Reconnaissance Exploration)

Focused (pre feasibility)

Refine/Improve Conceptual Model

10.1 MODELLING OF OIL /GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS cont…
10.1 MODELLING OF OIL /GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS cont…
10.1 MODELLING OF OIL /GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS cont…

Figure 3 Ex of a 3D conceptual block model

10.1 MODELLING OF OIL /GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS cont…

2. NUMERICAL MODELLING
This modeling is based on input of numerical data in which
the geothermal reservoir performance is for casted or
simulated. The approach assumes that the reservoir engineer
provides data to and receives output from another person,
who carries out the simulation.
INPUT DATA for numerical modeling
The basic inputs for modeling are as follows:

1. A conceptual model of the reservoir

2. Natural state pressure and temperature distribution

3. Well tests and interference tests

10.1 MODELLING OF OIL /GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS cont…
4. Production and injection history: mass flow, enthalpy/temperature, and
possibly wellhead pressure (WHP)

5. Changes in reservoir pressure and temperature during production

6. Well specifications (locations of feed zones)

Other data that can be used include the following:

1. Gas and chemical distribution in the natural state

2. Changes in gas and chemistry during production and injection

3. Changes in gravity during production and injection

4. Changes in surface elevation during production and injection

5. Changes in surface activity

6. Tracer tests
10.1 MODELLING OF OIL /GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS cont…

In general a model needs constraints: observational data of relevant

physical parameters. More constraints improve the model by restricting
possible models.

 Introducing a different type of data usually provides a different

constraint on the model, affecting different parameters. For example,
the natural (steady) state of a reservoir depends only on rock
permeability and not at all on porosity, while changes in enthalpy, gas,
or chemistry under production or during well testing in a two-phase
reservoir are highly sensitive to porosity.
10.1 MODELLING OF OIL /GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS cont…
Explanation to Inputs for numerical modeling

A. CONCEPTUAL MODEL
The conceptual model is the first guide to the numerical model. This incorporates the
mental models of the geoscientists working on the reservoir: the construction of a pattern
from the mixture of physical information available. The reservoir engineering data is
important; temperatures and pressures provide an indication of where fluid is flowing. The
geophysics provide an estimate of the boundary of the reservoir beyond the drilled area.
Normally the model will start by assuming that the permeable reservoir extends across the
area of geophysical anomaly, with permeability decreasing at the edges. The drilled wells or
geophysics may or may not indicate a bottom to the reservoir..

B. NATURAL STATE
The first step in model calibration is to match the natural state. The relevant data are the
natural temperatures and pressures and the amount of surface discharge as both heat and
mass. The reservoir model is constructed with an input of mass and heat at the bottom,
possible infiltration from the surface, and leaks at sites of surface or subsurface discharge. It
is then run until a steady staten is reached. The temperature and pressure distribution is then
compared against the measured data.
10.1 MODELLING OF OIL /GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS cont…

B. NATURAL STATE cont…

It is important that the information used as input into the model is “real”d that is, the
pressure and temperature measurements must be carefully interpreted to provide the best
estimates of the reservoir temperature and pressure. Some data may turn out to be critical and
this should be rechecked. Model structure is often sensitive to anomalous pressures, and it will
need to be checked that an anomalous pressure genuinely is high or low.

Temperatures are best presented as well-by-well matches of interpreted well temperature

profiles and model results. Sometimes there will be several wells within one model column. In
this case it will be necessary to decide which well data is most representative of the
reservoir, to compare with the modelled results. Figure 6 shows a set of well temperature
matches for the Kawerau model of White (2006), and Figure 7 shows a match of pressure-
depth data from the model of Holt (Personal Communication).
FIGURE
10.1 MODELLING OF OIL /GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS cont…

FIGURE 6 Downhole temperature matches. Source: White, 2006. Reproduced with permission
ofKawerau Geothermal Ltd., and NgatiTuwharetoa Geothermal Assets Lt

FIGURE 7 Pressure-depth profile in natural state of Kawerau Source: Holt, Personal

Communication. Reproduced with permission of Ngati Tuwharetoa Geothermal Assets Ltd.,
and Kawerau Geothermal Ltd
10.1 MODELLING OF OIL /GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS cont…

C. WELL SPECIFICATION

Each of the wells in the field should have been fully interpreted to create a well model. If the
reservoir simulator is coupled to a wellbore simulator, then the specification of feed depth(s)
and productivity/injectivity of each feed, together with the well casing and deviation provides a
full specification of the well. The simulator provides the reservoir pressure and fluid quality at
each feed, and from these the wellbore simulator can calculate the well flow at specified WHP.

D. HISTORY MATCHING

Once the natural state matching has been done, wells are specified, and the model is then
used for production runs to simulate the changes under exploitation. The simulated changes
are compared with actual measurements, and another cycle of parameter adjustments are
made to generate a fit.
10.1 MODELLING OF OIL /GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS cont…

D. HISTORY MATCHING cont…

One of the most important job functions of the reservoir engineer is the prediction of future
production rates from a given reservoir or specific well. Over the years, engineers have
developed several methods to accomplish this task. The methods range from simple decline-
curve analysis techniques to sophisticated multidimensional, multiflow reservoir simulators.

If the calculated rates match the actual rates, the calculation is assumed to be correct and
can then be used to make future predictions. If the calculated rates do not match the existing
production data, some of the process parameters are modified and the calculation repeated.
The process of modifying these parameters to match the calculated rates with the actual
observed rates is referred to as history matching.

The calculation method, along with the necessary data used to conduct the history match, is
often referred to as a mathematical model or simulator.
10.1 MODELLING OF OIL /GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS cont…

 These changes have little direct impact on reservoir performance, but they are critical for calibrating the model representation
of surface and near-surface changes, which are increasingly important for assessments of environmental impact. Figure 13 shows
a history match from the model of Hatchobaru in Japan (Tokita et al., 2000). The model matches a range of data, tracer, pressure,

FIGURE 13 (a)Pressure, (b)Tracer return, (c)Temperature, (d)Gravity. Source: Tokita et al., 2000.
10.1 MODELLING OF OIL /GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS cont…

E. DUAL POROSITY

assumed that the medium is homogeneous. Most simulators offer a dual-porosity option, with
representation of the fractures and block matrix as connected media. This requires additional
parameters to calibrate the model: fracture spacing, fracture and matrix permeability, and
porosity

VALIDATION OF SIMULATION PROCESS (Numerical Modeling)

Ideally a model would be validated by producing a prediction of future field performance

and then observing actual behavior and comparing the two. The traditional rule of thumb is
that model predictions are valid for roughly the length of time that history has been matched.
 10.2. INFLOW PERFORMANCE RELATIONSHIP

Inflow performance relationship (IPR) expressions are

typically derived by solving analytically the partial differential equations (PDE) of
reservoir flow and introducing simplifications and assumptions.

The derivation often yields an expression that relates reservoir and bottom‐hole
pressure with reservoir rates at the transient, steady state and pseudo‐steady state
regimes.

In principle, there should be three independent IPRs, one for each phase that is
produced from the formation (oil, gas and water).

However, often the IPR is made for one of the phases (the main phase, oil or gas)
and the other are expressed by using a ratio (gas oil ratio, GOR, water cut, WC). The
ratio is often assumed to remain constant when rate is varied.
 10.2. INFLOW PERFORMANCE RELATIONSHIP CON……..

Consider the configuration shown in Figure 2‐5. The cross section of a radial reservoir is
shown, with a vertical well drilled in the center. Initially the well is closed so the pressure
across the reservoir is constant and equal to pRo. The well is then open and the wellbore
pressure is fixed to pwf.

Initially, at time t1 only the vicinity of the

well will experience a reduction in pressure
because of flow towards the wellbore (shown
in Figure 2‐5). As time passes the pressure will
be reduced farther away from the wellbore
until it reaches the boundary re (t3). With
time, as the reservoir is depleted and the
reservoir pressure falls, the pressure
distribution will continue to change as shown
in t4.

The period from t0 to t3 is called infinite acting (or transient) and the period after t3 is called
“stabilized flow” or pseudo steady state (pss), after the pressure changes have reached the
outer boundary.
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