Flight Performance & Planning : PPL 5

Chapter 5

FLIGHT PERFORMANCE AND PLANNING

This is certainly one of the most important subjects in the syllabus. We do nothing without
planning, even though we may not be aware of it at the time. Walking back to the dining room
for lunch after the morning’s lectures, we plan our route each time. Sometimes there is a need
to go via the office, or even the toilet. Occasionally the weather forces us into breaking out of a
set routine, and then we have no choice but to reconsider our options.

The same thing happens to us each and every time we fly. The same conditions are very
seldom, if ever, encountered from one flight to another. Even on the same day conditions in the
afternoon are never the same as they were in the morning. Temperature, pressure, wind and
humidity are constantly changing, and each one affects the aircraft differently

Introduction

1. This chapter discusses the factors that performance data, as well as the meanings of the
affect aircraft performance, which include the aircraft various terms used in expressing performance
weight, atmospheric conditions , runway capabilities and limitations.
environment, and the fundamental physical laws
governing the forces acting on an aircraft. PERFORMANCE

2. The performance or operational information Abbreviations, Terminology & Definitions

section of the Aircraft Flight Manual/Pilot’s Operating Applicable to Performance
Handbook (AFM/ POH) contains the operating data
for the aircraft; that is, the data pertaining to takeoff, Airspeed terminology (refer to chapter 2 para 285)
climb, range, endurance, descent, and landing. The
use of this data in flying operations is mandatory for ASI Airspeed indicator.
safe and efficient operation. Considerable IAS Indicated airspeed.
knowledge and familiarity of the aircraft can be CAS Calibrated airspeed.
gained through study of this material. RAS Rectified airspeed.
EAS Equivalent airspeed.
3. It must be emphasized that the TAS True airspeed.
manufacturers’ information and data furnished in the GS Groundspeed.
AFM/POH is not standardized. Some provide the
data in tabular form, while others use graphs. In Distance terminology (refer to chapter 3 para 55)
addition, the performance data may be presented on
the basis of standard atmospheric conditions, ANM Air nautical miles.
pressure altitude, or density altitude. The performance SAD Still air distance.
information in the AFM/POH has little or no value GNM Ground nautical miles.
unless the user recognizes those variations and
makes the necessary adjustments. Performance terminology (refer to the chapter 5
para 54)
4. To be able to make practical use of the
aircraft’s capabilities and limitations, it is essential to SR Specific range.
understand the significance of the operational data. SFC Specific fuel consumption.
The pilot must understand the basis of the

Flight Performance & Planning : 1

Temperature terminology (refer to chapter 4 para 7) aircraft and must be attained at the
35-foot height at the end of take-off
IOAT distance required. It may not be less
Indicated Outside Air Temperature as read than 1.2 V with
s the critical engine
from the indicator (not corrected) inoperative.

OAT Vx Best Angle of Climb Speed. This is

Outside Air Temperature (corrected) when the greatest vertical distance is
gained for the least horizontal
Temp Dev distance travelled.
The difference between the actual OAT and
the temperature of that level in the ISA Vy Best Rate of Climb Speed. This is
atmosphere when the least time is taken for the
greatest vertical distance gained.
General speed definitions
Landing speed definitions
Va Design Manoeuvring Speed. This is
the maximum speed at which full V fe Maximum Flaps Extended Speed.
aerodynamic control can be applied This is the maximum speed of the
without overstressing the aircraft. aircraft with the flaps extended.

Vs Stall Speed. This is the minimum V fo Maximum Flaps Operating Speed.

steady flight speed at which the This is the maximum speed of the
aircraft is controllable. aircraft with the flaps operating,
extending or retracting.
V so Stall Speed in the landing
configuration. V le Maximum Landing Gear Extended
Speed. This is the maximum speed of
V ne Never Exceed Speed. This is the the aircraft with the landing gear
maximum speed of the aircraft, it extended.
must never be exceeded.
V lo Maximum Landing Gear Operating
Take-off and climb speed definitions Speed. This is the maximum speed of
the aircraft with the landing gear
Vr Rotation Speed. This is the speed at operating, extending or retracting.
which the rotation of the aircraft is
initiated. The speed cannot be less V ref Reference Speed. This is the
than V 1or less than 1.05 times V mc. reference speed of the aircraft in the
With an engine failure, it must also landing configuration, it may not be
allow for the acceleration to V at2the less than 1.3 V so. This is the required
35-foot height at the end of the speed at the 50-foot height above
runway. the threshold of the runway.

V lof Lift Off Speed. This is the speed at Pressure and Temperature
which the aircraft first becomes
airborne, the wheels leave the 5. Although the atmosphere was covered in
ground. Meteorology, it is necessary to review two dominant
factors, pressure and temperature, because these two
V2 Take-Off Safety Speed. This is characteristics of the atmosphere have a major effect
essentially the best one-engine on performance.
operative angle of climb speed for the

Flight Performance & Planning : 2

6. Though there are various kinds of pressure, 9. Most performance graphs contain positioning
pilots are mainly concerned with atmospheric pressure. for pressure altitude and temperature; a calculation to
It is one of the basic factors in weather changes, helps determine density altitude is not required.
to lift the aircraft, and actuates some of the most
important flight instruments in the aircraft. These Solution:
instruments often include the altimeter, the airspeed To calculate density altitude, convert airfield
indicator (ASI), the vertical speed indicator, and the elevation to pressure altitude, then compute
manifold pressure gauge. The density of air has using a van. computer.
significant effects on the aircraft’s performance. As air
becomes less dense, it reduces: Airfield Elevation 3275 ft QNH 1025 hPa
-360 ft 30 ft x 12 hPa
a. Power, because the engine takes in less air. Pressure Altitude 2 915 ft QNE 1013 hPa

b. Thrust, because the propeller is less efficient OAT +32°C DA 5489 feet.
in thin air.

c. Lift, because the thin air exerts less force on Pressure Datum’s
the aerofoils.
10. The sub-scale of an altimeter is normally set
The pressure of the atmosphere varies with to one of three datum’s:
time and altitude.
QFE
7. Pressure altitude is the height above the The barometric altimeter setting which will
theoretical level where the pressure of the atmosphere cause the altimeter to read zero, measured
is 1013.2 hPa. As atmospheric pressure changes, this above a fixed point from the earth’s surface,
level may be below, at, or above sea level. Pressure usually observed from an airfield datum point.
altitude is important as a basis for determining aircraft
performance, as well as for assigning flight levels. QNH
The barometric altimeter setting which will
8. Density altitude is pressure altitude corrected cause the altimeter to read airfield elevation
for nonstandard temperature. As the density of the air when on the airfield. The QFE is reduced to
increases (lower density altitude), aircraft performance mean sea level (MSL) pressure using the
increases. Conversely, as air density decreases standard atmosphere temperature lapse rate.
(higher density altitude), aircraft performance The pressure altimeter is calibrated to the
decreases. Density altitude is determined by first standard atmosphere, and so when QNH is
finding pressure altitude, and then correcting this set on the altimeter sub-scale the instrument
altitude for nonstandard temperature variations. The indicates the airfield elevation.
density of the air, of course, has a pronounced effect
on aircraft and engine performance. Regardless of the QNE
actual altitude at which the aircraft is operating, it will W hen flying above the transition altitude the
perform as though it were operating at an altitude barometric altimeter is set to1013 hPa to
equal to the existing density altitude. maintain a specific flight level. A Flight Level is
a standard nominal altitude of an aircraft, in
Example: hundreds of feet, measured from the ISA
The higher the density altitude, the lower the pressure datum of 1013.25 hPa.
air density and performance of the aircraft's
engines. Runway length requirements
increase with a potential corresponding
reduction in the take-off weight.

Flight Performance & Planning : 3

 Fig 5.1. Pressure Datum’s

ISA Deviation fast speeds, or travel long distances is essential

performance for operators of airline and executive type
11. ISA Deviation is the difference between the aircraft. The primary factors most affected by
ambient & ISA temperatures. The ISA temperature at performance are the takeoff and landing distance, rate
sea level is +15ºC, this is the starting point of of climb, ceiling, payload, range, speed,
calculating the ISA deviation. If the ambient manoeuvrability, stability, and fuel economy. Some of
temperature at sea level is +20 ºC, then it will be ISA these factors are often directly opposed: for example,
+5, because it is 5ºC warmer than the ISA high speed versus short landing distance, long range
temperature. If it is ISA +5 conditions, the versus great payload, and high rate of climb versus
temperature at FL210 will be -22 ºC. fuel economy. It is the pre-eminence of one or more of
these factors that dictates differences between aircraft
and explains the high degree of specialization found in
modern aircraft. The various items of aircraft
performance result from the combination of aircraft
and power plant characteristics. The aerodynamic
characteristics of the aircraft generally define the
power and thrust requirements at various conditions of
flight, while power plant characteristics generally
define the power and thrust available at various
conditions of flight. The matching of the aerodynamic
configuration with the power plant is accomplished by
the manufacturer to provide maximum performance at
the specific design condition (eg, range, endurance,
and climb).
Fig 5.2. ISA Deviation
13. The majority of pilot-caused aircraft accidents
AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE occur during the takeoff and landing phase of flight.
Because of this fact, the pilot must be familiar with all
12. Performance is a term used to describe the the variables that influence the takeoff and landing
ability of an aircraft to accomplish certain things that performance of an aircraft and must strive for
make it useful for certain purposes. For example, the exacting, professional procedures of operation during
ability of an aircraft to land and take off in a very these phases of flight. Takeoff and landing
short distance is an important factor to the pilot who performance is a condition of accelerated and
operates in and out of short, unimproved airfields. decelerated motion. For instance, during takeoff, an
The ability to carry heavy loads, fly at high altitudes at aircraft starts at zero speed and accelerates to the

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takeoff speed to become airborne. During landing, Longer grass ( $ 8 inches) will increase the
the aircraft touches down at the landing speed and take-off distance by 30%.
decelerates to zero speed. Takeoff or landing
performance will depend on a number of factors. Wet Runway
These factors include: This is not much of a problem on a paved
runway unless there is standing water. Most
Weight tarred runways are designed in such a way
Any extra weight will require extra lift to that surface water runs off. But on grass
overcome it. Speed and lift are directly runways it is a different story. In the case of
related, and the Aircraft will only generate wet, short grass, the take-off distance will
enough lift once it is flying fast enough. The increase by 25%, and with wet, long grass,
heavier your aircraft, the longer it will take to 30%.
get to take-off speed, and therefore, the
more runway length it will require to do so. Runway Slope
This increase in take-off distance required is Very few runways are level. An uphill slope of
about 20% for an increase in weight of 10%. 2% (2 ft for every 100 ft of length) will
increase take-off distance by 10%.
Airfield Elevation
The greater the elevation, the thinner the air. Wind
The engine needs as much as it can get, A take-off is usually done into wind, but there
and if the airfield elevation is increased by are runways that may require you to take-off
1000 feet, the take-off distance will increase with a tailwind component. If the tailwind
by about 10%. component is 10% of the lift off speed, then
take-off distance will increase by 20%. An
Temperature example of this: if take-off speed is 60 knots,
Any increase in temperature will cause an a tail wing component of 6 knots will increase
increase in Density Altitude. This means that the take-off distance by 20%.
although an airfield is at sea level, an outside
air temperature of 35 ° C will mean a density 14. The performance graphs and graphs of most
altitude of 2 275 feet. That will be the aircraft have one or more of the parameters
effective height at which the aircraft is mentioned above already factored in. If you have
actually working. This is due to the fact that calculated a take-off distance using the Aircraft
35 ° C at sea level is 20 ° C hotter than the graphs, and some of the above mentioned parameters
Standard Atmosphere. An increase of 10 °C have not been factored in, those that have not been
will require a take-off distance increase of included have to be included in the calculation. If you
10%. In the case mentioned above, the take- are confronted by more than one of the above un-
off distance would have been 20% more factored parameters, they are accumulative. If °T
(This is also borne out by the fact that the increases by 10°C (factor 1.1), and the weight
“elevation” is effectively more than 2000 feet increases by 10% (factor 1.2), the basic value must be
higher, which also mean a 20% would multiplied by 1.1 and then the answer by 1.2.
increase).
Example:
Runway Surface You have calculated that the take-off distance
All performance graphs are calculated for a on a paved, level, dry runway is 2 000 feet.
“Paved, Level, Dry” runway surface. Change But there is a 2% uphill slope, the runway is
any of the three factors, and the take-off short grass, and it has been raining. The
distance will change. If the runway is grass, factors are 10% for the slope (increase by
then the take-off distance will increase. The 1.1), 20% for grass (x 1.2), and 25% for the
increase will also depend on the length of fact that the grass is wet (x 1,25). Take-off
the grass. Short grass ( # 8 inches) will mean distance 2 000ft X 1.1 = 2 200ft X1.2 = 2 640ft
a 20% increase in the take-off distance. X 1.25 = 3 300ft is th runway length required.

Flight Performance & Planning : 5

Take-off and Landing Distance Factors Clearway
An area beyond the take-off runway over
which an aircraft may accelerate after take-
VARIATION INCREASE FACTOR
off. It must be at least 300ft either side of the
IN
centre line of the runway and must have an
DISTANCE
elevation equal or less than the elevation of
10% increase in weight 20% 1.2 the runway threshold. It may not be longer
than 1.5 X that of the runway length or the
Increase of 1 000' of 10% 1.1
restriction as per Flight Manual. It must be
Rwy alt
free of obstacles, promulgated and under

Increase in ET of 10 EC 10% 1.1 control of the airport authorities.

Dry grass $ 8" 20% 1.2 Stopway

An area beyond the take-off runway that can
Dry grass # 8" 30% 1.3
be used by an aircraft to stop during an
W et grass $ 8" 25% 1.25 emergency. It must be able to support the
aircraft weight, have a coefficient equal or
W et grass # 8" 30% 1.3 greater than the runway and be free of
obstacles. It must be promulgated for use in
decelerating an aircraft during an emergency
2% uphill slope 10% 1.1
and it must be under the control of the airport
Soft ground or snow 25% 1.25 authorities. You can only use the stopway
during emergency planning, not for planning
TW C 10% of landing 20% 1.2 normal flying.
speed

Displaced Threshold
Performance Terminology A threshold located at a point on the runway
other than the designated beginning of the
15. W hen we determine the performance of our runway, marked with arrows painted on the
aircraft, we have to establish what distances are runway prior to the displaced threshold bar.
available for take-off and landing from the airfield
parameters and then we have to determine what are Climb Gradient
the distances required from the graphs from of the The ratio of change in height proportional to
Flight Manual. Before we discuss distances, let’s look horizontal distance travelled in the same time.
at definitions and terminology that’s used for take-off
and landing performance.

Fig 5.3. Clearway

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 Fig 5.4. Stopway

Fig 5.5. Displaced Threshold

Take-off Run
The distance required to accelerate an aircraft from brake release rotating
, at V and liftr off at V , when lof
the wheels leave the ground.

Take-off Distance
The distance required to accelerate an aircraft from brake release rotating
, at V and reaching
r V at 35ft 2
AGL.

Fig 5.6. Take-off Run and Take-off Distance

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Landing Distance
The distance required from 50ft above the threshold, at V , to land
ref and decelerate an aircraft to a full
stop.

Ground Roll
The distance required from touch down and decelerate an aircraft to a full stop.

Fig 5.7. Landing Distance

Flight Profile Take-Off Distance Available (TODA)

The length of the runway plus any clearway
16. W hen planning a flight it can be broken down promulgated for that runway, the stopway
into phases: can be taken as clearway for TODA.

Take-off Accelerate Stop Distance Available (ASDA)

Climb The length of the runway plus stopway
Cruise promulgated for that runway, if available.
Descent
Landing 21. Takeoff graphs are typically provided in
General several forms and allow a pilot to determine the Take-
Off Run Required (TORR) and Take-Off Distance
17. Suitable graphs may be used to solve all the Required (TODR) of the aircraft with no flaps or with
phases of flight. a specific flap configuration. The takeoff run and
take-off distance graphs provides for various aircraft
Take-Off Performance weights, altitudes, temperatures, winds, and obstacle
heights.
18. For any particular take-off you must ensure
that the distances required for take-off, in the prevailing Example:
conditions, do not exceed the distances available at the W hat is the TORR and TODR for the
take-off airfield. following conditions?
Airfield PA is 4 000ft
19. First you must calculate available distances OAT is 25ºC
according to the take-off airfields parameters: TOW is 2 300lbs
HW C is 10kts
Take-Off Run Available (TORA) Flaps up
20. The length of the runway suitable for normal
operations, just the runway length. 22. Ensure that you are using the correct graph,

Flight Performance & Planning : 8

check and recheck the heading of the graph with Line 2 crosses the weight reference line until it
parameters given. The example graphs from CAA crosses Line 3, the 2 300lbs weight line (Line 4).
compensate for density, weight and wind, it does not
compensate for runway surface and runway slope. If 24. W here Line 3 & 4 cross, draw a horizontal
necessary you must compensate for surface and slope line to the wind reference line (Line 5). Draw a vertical
by applying the correct distant factors. On the example line on the 10kts wind line (Line 6). Follow the
graphs from CAA you determine the TORR and TODR guideline from where Line 5 crosses the wind
on one graph, it is possible that it could be separate reference line until it crosses Line 6, the 10kts wind
graphs. line (Line 7). Daw a horizontal line until it crosses the
Ground roll reference line (Line 8). Extend the
23. Draw a line vertical line on the 25ºC line until it horizontal line to the right, this is the TORR which is
crosses the 4 000ft PA line (Line 1). W here the two 1 250ft (Line 9). Follow the guideline from where Line
cross, draw a horizontal line until it crosses the weight 8 crosses the Ground roll reference line until it
reference line (Line 2). Draw a vertical line on 2 300lbs crosses the 50ft barrier line (Line 10). This is the
weight line (Line 3). Follow the guideline from where TODR which is 2 250ft.

Graph 5.1. Take-off Performance

25. If you have calculated the TORA or TODA, you Airfield PA is 4 000ft
can determine your MTOW by reversing the process. OAT is 25ºC
HW C is 10kts
Example: Flaps up
W hat is the MTOW for the following TORA is 1 250ft
conditions? TODA is 2 450ft

Flight Performance & Planning : 9

26. Again, ensure that you are using the correct the wind reference line to the left (Line 8). W here Line
graph, check and recheck the heading of the graph 8 and 3 crosses, draw a line vertically down, read off
with parameters given. the MTOW for these parameters (Line 9). The MTOW
for TODA is 2 400lbs.
27. Draw a vertical line on the 25ºC line until it
crosses the 4 000ft PA line (Line 1). W here the two 28. You must determine the MTOW for TORA.
cross, draw a horizontal line until it crosses the weight Again we start from the other end of the graph. Most
reference line (Line 2). Following the guide lines, draw of the lines are already drawn on the graph. From the
a line to the right (Line 3). Now we start from the other 1 250ft mark at the end of the graph draw a horizontal
end of the graph. Let’s do TODA first. From the 2 450ft line until it cross the 10kts wind line, Line 5 (Line 10).
mark at the end of the graph, follow the guideline to the Follow the guideline until it crosses the wind reference
ground roll reference line (Line 4). Draw a vertical line line (Line 11). Draw a horizontal line from where Line
on the 10kts wind line (Line 5). Draw a horizontal line 11 crosses the wind reference line until it crosses Line
from where Line 4 crosses the ground roll reference 3 (Line 12). W here Line 12 and 3 cross, draw a line
line until it cross the 10kts wind line (Line 6). Follow the vertically down, read off the MTOW for these
guideline until it crosses the wind reference line (Line parameters (Line 13). The MTOW for TORA is
7). Draw a horizontal line from where Line 7 crosses 2 300lbs.

Graph 5.2. Take-off Performance

The lesser weight is the limiting weight. The MTOW for these parameters will be 2 300lbs.

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Climb Performance diminishes with altitude. The speeds for maximum rate
of climb, maximum angle of climb, and maximum and
29. Climb performance is a result of using the minimum level fight airspeeds vary with altitude. As
aircraft’s potential energy. The maximum angle of altitude is increased, these various speeds fin ally
climb would occur at greatest difference between converge at the absolute ceiling of the aircraft. At the
thrust available and thrust required; i.e., for the absolute ceiling, there is no excess of power and only
propeller-powered aircraft, the maximum excess thrust one speed will allow steady, level flight. Consequently,
and angle of climb will occur at some speed just above the absolute ceiling of an aircraft produces zero rate of
the stall speed. Thus, if it is necessary to clear an climb. The service ceiling is the altitude, at which the
obstacle after takeoff, the propeller-powered aircraft will aircraft is unable to climb at a rate greater than 100 feet
attain maximum angle of climb at airspeed close to—if per minute (fpm),
not at—the takeoff speed. Of greater interest in climb
performance are the factors that affect the rate of 31. To determine climb performance we will use
climb. The vertical velocity of an aircraft depends on the sample graph as supplied by CAA.
the flight speed and the inclination of the flightpath.
In fact, the rate of climb is the vertical component of the Example:
flightpath velocity. The climb performance of an W hat is the Rate of Climb (ROC) for the
aircraft is affected by certain variables. A change in an following conditions?
aircraft’s weight produces a twofold effect on climb
performance. First, a change in weight will change the a. PA is 4 000ft
drag and the power required. This alters the reserve OAT is 25ºC
power available, which in turn, affects both the climb
angle and the climb rate. Secondly, an increase in b. PA is 8 000ft
weight will reduce the maximum rate of climb, but the OAT is 10ºC
aircraft must be operated at a higher climb speed to
achieve the smaller peak climb rate. 32. Draw vertical lines from the given temperatures
until they cross the given PA’s. From where they cross
30. An increase in altitude also will increase the draw horizontal lines to cross the reference line. From
power required and decrease the power available. these crossings, draw vertical lines down and read off
Therefore, the climb performance of an aircraft the rate of climb.

Graph 5.3. Climb Performance

The ROC for “a” would be 470fpm and “b: would be 320fpm.

Flight Performance & Planning : 11

33. To determine time, distance and fuel to climb Example:
we will use the sample graph as supplied by CAA. If Determine the time, distance and fuel to climb
you are departing from an inland airfield (ie not at sea from an airfield 4500ft amsl to F090 under ISA
level) then you need to calculate the climb in 3 steps: conditions, aircraft weight 2500 lbs. (Temp at
4500’ will be +15°C, and at F090 will be -3°C).

1. From sea level to cruise level 34. Follow the same procedures as the previous
- 2. From sea level to airfield elevation graphs. Start with temperature, to the pressure
= 3. From airfield elevation to cruise level altitude, then to the fuel, time and distance lines and
then to the bottom again to determine your fuel, time
and distance to climb.

Graph 5.4. Time, Distance and Fuel to Climb

Fuel Tim e Distance

SL to FL 090 4.0gal 0:13 19nm
SL to 4 500 ft 2.0gal 0:07 9nm
2.0gal 0:06 10nm
It will take you 0:06 minutes, you will travel 10nm (remember this is still air distance) and will use 2 gallons of
fuel to climb from 4 500ft to FL 090.

35. The procedure is the same for both climb and is still air distance, and then apply wind to your track to
descent. Determine the Time, Fuel and Distance from get heading & groundspeed. With the calculated
the respective graphs. Use the Time and Distance to groundspeed you can now calculate distance flown as
calculate TAS, because the distance from the graph leg time is unaffected by wind.

Flight Performance & Planning : 12

Cruise Performance tables for cruise performance. These graphs and
tables include everything from fuel, time, to the best
36. All of the principal components of flight power setting during cruise, to cruise range
performance involve steady-state flight conditions and performance.
equilibrium of the aircraft. For the aircraft to remain in
steady level flight, equilibrium must be obtained by a 38. The first graph to check for cruise
lift equal to the aircraft weight and a power plant thrust performance is engine performance, to calculate your
equal to the aircraft drag. Thus, the aircraft drag engine speed for different power settings. Then we
defines the thrust required to maintain steady, level can determine our speed and range for either
flight. performance or economy cruise and our endurance for
a specific flight.
37. Cruise graph and table information is based
on actual flight tests conducted in an aircraft of the Example:
same type. This information is extremely useful when Determine the engine speed for a flight at
planning a cross country flight to predict the 7 500ft, temperature 10ºC at 65% power? Use
performance and fuel consumption of the aircraft. the same graph techniques as for the
Manufacturers produce several different graphs and previous graphs.

Graph 5.5. Engine Performance

You have to set 2 430RPM to maintain a 65% power cruise for these conditions.

39. W e have determined our power setting for Example:

these conditions. Now we have to determine our Determine the TAS and Range for a flight at
speed and range for either power performance or 7 500ft, temperature 10ºC at 65% power? Use
economy cruise. the same graph techniques as for the
previous graphs.

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 Graph 5.6. Speed Power Performance Cruise

Your TAS will be 132kts.

Graph 5.7. Best Power Mixture Range

Your range with reserves will be 590nm. and without reserves will be 675nm.

40. W e now have to determine our endurance. mixture.

Endurance is always done at the best economy

Flight Performance & Planning : 14

Example: 41. Use the same graph techniques as for the
Determine the endurance at 8 000ft, previous graphs.
temperature 5ºC at 55% power?

Graph 5.8. Endurance - Best Economy Mixture

The endurance with reserves will be 06:16 and without reserves will be 07:07.

Descent descending to 4 500ft.

42. The same technique as we have used for the 44. The procedure is the same for both climb and
climb, is used to determine time, distance and fuel to descent. Determine the Time, Fuel and Distance from
descent. W e will use the sample graph as supplied by the respective graphs. Use the Time and Distance to
CAA. If you are descending to an inland airfield (ie not calculate TAS, because the distance from the graph is
at sea level) then you need to calculate the descend still air distance, and then apply wind to your track to
in 3 steps: get heading & groundspeed. With the calculated
groundspeed you can now calculate distance flown as
1. From cruise level leg time is unaffected by wind.
- 2. From airfield elevation to sea level
= 3. From cruise level to airfield elevation
Example:
Determine the time, distance and fuel to
43. Follow the same procedures as the previous descend from FL 090 to 4500ft amsl under
graphs. Start with temperature, to the pressure ISA conditions, aircraft weigh 2500 lbs. (Temp
altitude, then to the fuel, time and distance lines and at 4500’ will be +6°C, and at F090 will be -
then to the bottom again to determine your fuel, time 3°C).
and distance to descend. Remember you are

Flight Performance & Planning : 15

 Graph 5.9. Time, Distance and Fuel to Descent

Fuel Tim e Distance

FL 090 to SL 2.0gal 0:19 45nm
4 500 ft to SL 1.0gal 0:11 29nm
1.0gal 0:08 16nm

It will take you 0:08 minutes, you will travel 16nm (remember this is still air distance) and will use 1.0 gallons
of fuel to descend from FL 090 to 4 500ft.

Landing Performance 46. For any particular landing you must ensure
that the distance required for landing, in the prevailing
45. Landing performance is affected by variables conditions, does not exceed the distance available at
similar to that affecting take-off performance. It is the landing airfield.
necessary to compensate for differences in density
altitude, weight of the aircraft and wind. Like take-off 47. Landing Distance Available (LDA). Only the
performance graphs, landing distance information is length of the runway can be used. If there is a
available as landing ground roll and landing distance. displaced threshold in the landing direction, only the
As usual, read the associated conditions and notes in length from the displaced threshold to the end of the
order to ascertain the basis of the graph information. runway may be used. If the displaced threshold is on
Remember, when calculating landing distance that the the opposite side of the landing direction, then the
landing weight will not be the same as the takeoff length from the displaced threshold to the end of the
weight. The weight must be recalculated to runway may be used as it is part of the ground roll.
compensate for the fuel that was used during the
flight. 48. Landing graphs are typically provided in
several forms and allow a pilot to determine the

Flight Performance & Planning : 16

Landing Ground Roll and Landing Distance Required Ground Roll and LDR on one graph; it is possible that
(LDR) of the aircraft with no flaps or with a specific it could be separate graphs.
flap configuration. The landing graphs provide for
various aircraft weights, altitudes, temperatures, Example:
winds, and obstacle heights. W hat are the Landing Ground Roll and LDR
for the following conditions?
49. Ensure that you are using the correct graph,
check and recheck the heading of the graph with Airfield PA is 4 000ft
parameters given. The example graphs from CAA OAT is 25ºC
compensate for density, weight and wind, they does LW is 2 100lbs
not compensate for runway surface and runway slope. HW C is 10kts
If necessary you must compensate for surface and 40º Flaps
slope by applying the correct distant factors. On the
example graphs from CAA you determine the Landing

Graph 5.10. Landing Performance

In these conditions the Landing Ground Roll required will be 750ft and the LDR will be 1200ft.

50. If you have calculated the LDA, you can IAS for different flap settings are corrected by this
determine your MLW by reversing the process. graph.

General Graphs Example:

W hat is the CAS if the IAS is 110kts with 40º
51. To determine CAS you have to use the Flap?
Airspeed System Calibration graph. All the errors of CAS 106kts (see overleaf).

Flight Performance & Planning : 17

 Graph 5.11. Airspeed Calibration

52. Stall speed performance graphs are designed Example:

to give an understanding of the speed at which the W hat is the CAS stall speed for 0º and 40º
aircraft will stall in a given configuration. This type of flaps, when the aircraft weighs 2 100lbs at a
graph will typically take into account the angle of bank 40º angle of bank?
and flaps and you can determine the stall speeds for
IAS and CAS.

Graph 5.12. Stall Speeds

The CAS stall speed for 0º is 73kts and for 40º flaps is 65kts.

Flight Performance & Planning : 18

53. For most of the graphs there are tables
available to solve performance criteria. Enter the
tables with available parameters, interpolate between
the parameters for the answers. or

Range Performance

54. The ability of an aircraft to convert fuel energy

into flying distance is one of the most important items 58. If maximum specific range is desired, the flight
of aircraft performance. In flying operations, the condition must provide a maximum of speed per fuel
problem of efficient range operation of an aircraft flow.
appears in two general forms:
59. The values of specific range versus speed are
1. To extract the maximum flying distance affected by three principal variables:
from a given fuel load.
1. Aircraft gross weight.
2. To fly a specified distance with a minimum
expenditure of fuel. 2. Altitude.

55. A common element for each of these 3. The external aerodynamic configuration of
operating problems is the specific range; that is, the aircraft.
nautical miles (NM) of flying distance versus the
amount of fuel consumed. Range must be clearly 60. Specific range is defined as the distance an
distinguished from the item of endurance. Range aircraft will fly per unit fuel, or the amount of fuel
involves consideration of flying distance, while required to fly per unit distance.
endurance involves consideration of flying time. Thus,
it is appropriate to define a separate term, specific 61. Specific fuel consumption is defined as the
endurance. amount of fuel used per hour, fuel flow.

HELICOPTER PERFORMANCE

or 62. Your ability to predict the performance of a

helicopter is extremely important. It allows you to
determine how much weight the helicopter can carry
before takeoff, if your helicopter can safely hover at a
56. Fuel flow can be defined in either pounds or specific altitude and temperature, how far it will take to
gallons. If maximum endurance is desired, the flight climb above obstacles, and what your maximum climb
condition must provide a minimum fuel flow. During rate will be. A helicopter’s performance is dependent
ground operations or when taking off and climbing, the on the power output of the engine and the lift
airspeed is low and fuel flow is high. As airspeed is production of the main rotor. Any factor that affects
increased, power requirements decrease due to engine and rotor efficiency affects performance. The
aerodynamic factors and fuel fl ow decreases. three major factors that affect performance are density
Increases in airspeed come at a cost. Airspeed altitude, weight, and wind.
increases require additional power and fuel flow
increases with additional power. Density Altitude

57. Cruise flight operations for maximum range 63. You need to thoroughly understand the terms
should be conducted so that the aircraft obtains “high density altitude” and “low density altitude.” In
maximum specific range throughout the flight. The general, high density altitude refers to thin air, while
specific range can be defined by the following low density altitude refers to dense air. Those
relationship. conditions that result in a high density altitude (thin air)

Flight Performance & Planning : 19

are high elevations, low atmospheric pressure, high You can also determine density altitude by means of
temperatures, high humidity, or some combination your Pathfinder. Go to “Flight” then “Altitude” then
thereof. Lower elevations, high atmospheric pressure, “Density Alt” and then enter your pressure altitude and
low temperatures, and low humidity are m ore outside air temperature. Density altitude according to
indicative of low density altitude (dense air). However, the Pathfinder is 4 828ft.
high density altitudes may be present at lower
elevations on hot days, so it is important to calculate 66. Most performance charts do not require you to
the density altitude and determine performance before determine density altitude. Instead it is already built
a flight. One of the ways you can determine density into the performance chart itself. All you have to do is
altitude is through the use of graphs designed for that enter the chart with the correct pressure altitude and
purpose. the temperature.

Example: Weight
W hat is the Density Altitude for the following
conditions? 67. Lift is the force that opposes weight. As weight
increases, the power required to produce the lift
Airfield Elevation is 3 000ft needed to compensate for the added weight must also
OAT is 25ºC increase. Most performance charts include weight as
QNH 1020 one of the variables. By reducing the weight of the
helicopter, you may find that you are able to safely
64. First correct elevation to pressure altitude, take off or land at a location that otherwise would be
this can be done either with your W hizwheel or impossible. However, if you are ever in doubt about
mathematics. PA is 2 816ft. whether you can safely perform a takeoff or landing,
you should delay your takeoff until more favourable
66. Let’s determine the density altitude by means density altitude conditions exist. If airborne, try to land
of a sample graph. at a location that has more favourable conditions, or
one where you can make a landing that does not
require a hover. In addition, at higher gross weights,
the increased power required to hover produces more
torque, which means more anti-torque thrust is
required.

Wind

68. Wind direction and velocity also affect

hovering, takeoff, and climb performance.
Translational lift occurs anytime there is relative airflow
over the rotor disc. This occurs whether the relative
airflow is caused by helicopter movement or by the
wind. As wind speed increases, translational lift
increases, resulting in less power required to hover.
The wind direction is also an important consideration.
Headwinds are the most desirable as they contribute
most to increase performance. Strong crosswinds and
tailwinds may require the use of more tail rotor thrust
to maintain directional control. This increased tail rotor
thrust absorbs power from the engine, which means
there is less power available to the main rotor for the
Graph 5.13. Density Altitude production of lift. Some helicopters even have a critical
Density altitude is 4 800ft wind azimuth or maximum safe relative wind chart.
Operating the helicopter beyond these limits could

Flight Performance & Planning : 20

cause loss of tail rotor effectiveness. Takeoff and 70. Autorotation is the state of flight where the
climb performance is greatly affected by wind. W hen main rotor system is being turned by the action of
taking off into a headwind, effective translational lift is relative wind rather than engine power. It is the means
achieved earlier, resulting in more lift and a steeper by which a helicopter can be landed safely in the event
climb angle. W hen taking off with a tailwind, more of an engine failure. In this case, you are using altitude
distance is required to accelerate through translation as potential energy and converting it to kinetic energy
lift. during the descent and touchdown. You can determine
your horizontal distance during autorotation by means
Hovering Performance of a graph.

69. Helicopter performance revolves around Example:

whether or not the helicopter can be hovered. More W hat is the horizontal distance you have
power is required during the hover than in any other travelled when doing an autorotation from
flight regime. Obstructions aside, if a hover can be 7 000ft to 3 500ft?
maintained, a takeoff can be made, especially with the
additional benefit of translational lift. Hover charts are
provided for in ground effect (IGE) hover and out of From 7 000ft to sea level 4.8nm
ground effect (OGE) hover under various conditions. - From 3 500ft to sea level 2.4nm
The “in ground effect” hover ceiling is usually higher = From 7 000ft to 3 500ft 2.4nm
than the “out of ground effect” hover ceiling because
of the added lift benefit produced by ground effect.

Example:
W hat is the maximum weight you can hover
IGE with the following conditions?

PA is 5 000ft
OAT is 25ºC

Graph 5.16. Never Exceed Speed

VNE is 109 kts.

Graph 5.17. Normal Operating Speed Graph 5.18. Autorotation Performance

VNO is 99 kts.

Flight Performance & Planning : 21

71. A height/velocity (H/V) diagram, published by altitudes and airspeeds shown within the crosshatched
the manufacturer for each model of helicopter, depicts or shaded areas of the H/V diagram may not allow
the critical combinations of airspeed and altitude enough time for the critical transition from powered
should an engine failure occur. Operating at the flight to autorotation.

Graph 5.19. Height - Velocity Diagram

WEIGHT AND BALANCE far enough away from the Datum, the man would not
be able to get down again. It has to do with the
Introduction distance from the Datum, called the Arm, and the
Weight of each of the two. Multiply the arm by the
72. W hen it comes to the loading of an aircraft, weight, and the result is called the Moment.
we must think back to POF where the relationship
between Centre of Pressure and Centre of Gravity 74. If our adult weighed 200 pounds (I use pounds
(CG) was discussed. W e saw there that the two are because the Performance Manuals of all US aircraft do
very close together. If they are moved far apart, the the same), and was sitting 5 feet from the Datum, his
aircraft becomes more difficult to control, and could moment would be 200 x 5 = 1000 foot/pounds (ft/lb). A
even become uncontrollable. Similarly, if the wrong child of 50 lb, sitting 20 ft from the Datum would
one of the two is in front, then the aircraft could produce the same moment (50 x 20 = 1000). They
become uncontrollable. would be in a state of balance.

73. Think of a see-saw. Place a small child on 75. If the child were to sit a further 10 ft away from
one end, and a large grown man on the other. If the the Datum, at 30 ft, the moment would increase to
man were to sit closer to the Datum than the child, it 1500 ft/lb, and the man would stay up there until the
is possible for the child to lift the man. If the child were child decides to let him down!

Flight Performance & Planning : 22

76. Another way for the man to get back into a
state of balance would be to increase his weight to Reference Point or Datum
300 lb (300 x 5 = 1500). This is not always possible. A point designated by the manufacturer on the
longitudinal axis (or extension thereof) from
77. Exactly the same thing applies to the loading which all measurements are taken in the
of an aircraft. Place an item of baggage too far away calculation of CG. The Datum is also the
from the Datum (in this case the CG) and the moment reference line from which all th e
could be too much for the flight controls to correct. If measurements regarding the position of
the item of baggage is loaded far enough away from components are taken. The Datum is
the CG, it does not even have to weigh all that much. sometimes called the “Fulcrum”.

78. It is absolutely imperative that you never Arm

attempt to fly any aircraft if the centres of gravity The distance, measured in inches, from the
limitations have been exceeded when loading the Datum to the point at which the weight of a
Aircraft. If you adhere to the placard weight limits of component acts. All arms aft of the Datum are
the baggage compartment when loading the Aircraft, positive and all arms forward of the Datum are
you should always be within limits. Placard limits are negative.
those specified by the manufacturer in the Aircraft
Manual. Flight Station
Flight Station (FS) and Centroid are terms
79. Remember too, that the floor of your aircraft used to indicate a particular position on the
is not made of cast iron, so be careful of the weight of fuselage of the aircraft measured from the
each single item. A very heavy item of baggage, if it Datum .
has a very small “footprint”, could quite easily cause
damage to the baggage compartment floor. Think of Moment
the effect of high heels shoes - a small petite woman The turning effect of a weight around the
wearing high heels will produce a greater pressure Datum, it is the product of the weight
per unit area than a heavy man with big, flat shoes. multiplied by the arm.

80. Because the majority of the flying that you will Aircraft Empty Weight (AEW)
be doing during your Private Pilot Licence course will The precise weight of an aircraft when all non
be on the Cherokee 140, these notes will concentrate removable components are assembled.
on the Owner’s Handbook and Performance Charts of
that Aircraft and the sample graphs from CAA. Once Basic Empty Weight (BEW)
you have mastered the use of the charts and graphs, The weight of an aircraft with oil, hydraulics
you will find that the graphs of most light aircraft are and unusable fuel.
very similar. Only the numbers change a bit, the
technique stays the same. Operating Empty Weight (OEW)
The basic empty weight plus crew and
Terminology and Definitions catering for a specific flight.

Centre of Gravity Payload

Centre of Gravity (CG) is defined as the The payload is considered to be the cargo and
position through which the weight of the the passengers.
aircraft acts. The Centre of Gravity is also
the point of balance and as such it affects the
stability of the aircraft. Maximum Zero Fuel Weight (MZFW)
The Maximum Zero Fuel W eight is a structural
Centre of Gravity Limitations limitation and must never be exceeded. The
The most forward and most aft position of the Zero Fuel W eight is the Operating W eight of
CG at which the aircraft is permitted to fly. an aircraft plus the payload, it is the weight of

Flight Performance & Planning : 23

 an aircraft with everything loaded except the destination. Because you are not allowed to exceed
required fuel for the flight. your MLW , you start your calculations with MLW .
Calculate your TOW by adding the trip fuel, if you
Ramp Weight exceed your MTOW limitation, use the structural
The Ramp W eight is the maximum weight an limitation figure and carry on with your calculations, if
aircraft is allowed to taxi. you do not exceed your MTOW limitation, carry on with
your calculation with your calculated TOW . Calculate
Maximum Take-Off Weight (MTOW) your ZFW by subtracting the total fuel for your flight
This is the maximum weight that an aircraft is from the TOW . If you exceed your MZFW limitation,
allowed to commence the take-off. use the structural limitation figure and carry on with
your calculations, if you do not exceed your MZFW
Total Fuel limitation, carry on with your calculation with your
The total fuel consists of the trip fuel, taxi fuel calculated ZFW . Now you can calculate your payload
and reserve fuel. by subtracting the BOW from the calculated ZFW .

Burn Off (BO) or Trip Fuel 82. If the MLW of an aircraft is the same as its
This is the fuel requirement to fly from your MTOW , you start your calculation with MTOW .
departure to your destination. Subtract the total fuel for the flight from MTOW to
determine your ZFW , if you do not exceed your MZW
Weight Schedule limitation, carry on with your calculation. If you exceed
your MZFW limitation, use the structural limitation
81. There are three factors limiting any take-off, figure and carry on with your calculations. Now you can
MZFW , MTOW and MLW . W hen calculating the calculate your payload by subtracting the BOW from
maximum payload for a trip, you first have to calculate the calculated ZFW .
the trip and total fuel needed to fly from departure to

WEIGHT SCHEDULE STRUCTURAL LIMITATION

Aircraft Empty W eight (AEW )

+ Unusable Fuel, Oil etc

= Basic Empty W eight (BEW )

+ Crew & Catering

= Operating Empty W eight (OEW )

+ Payload

= Zero Fuel W eight (ZFW ) Maximum Zero Fuel Weight (MZFW)

+ Total Fuel

= Ramp Weight (RW ) Maximum Ramp Weight (MRW)

- Taxi Fuel

= Take-off W eight (TOW ) Maximum Take-off Weight (MTOW)

- Burn Off (Trip Fuel)

= Landing W eight (LW ) Maximum Landing Weight (MLW)

Flight Performance & Planning : 24

Specific Gravity your conversions:

83. W hen you have refuelled your aircraft, the

amount of fuel loaded will normally be given to you in
a unit of volume. W hen you calculate the performance
or weight and balance of an aircraft, you have to use or
a unit of weight. You thus have to convert the volume
of the fuel to the weight of the fuel. The weight or
“heaviness” of fuel is measured in terms of the density
or the specific gravity of the fuel. Specific gravity is the
ratio of the weight of a unit volume of fuel and the 87. Remember, you can always convert from
weight of an equal volume of water (remember the SG water volume to fuel volume or vice versa, volume is
of water is 1). volume. A 100 Litres of water is a 100 Litres of fuel.
W hen converting fuel weight to water weight or vice
84. W hen you convert fuel volume to volume or versa, you have to use SG because the specific
weight to weight, the conversion factor always remains gravity of water and fuel are not the same, water is
constant. W hen converting fuel volume to fuel weight heavier than fuel. You can always convert water
or fuel weight to fuel volume, there is no constant volume to water weight, or vice versa, but you can
factor, the conversion depends on the density or the never convert fuel volume to fuel weight, or vice
SG of the fuel. versa, directly. You have to divide the fuel weight by
the SG to get water weight or multiply the water weight
by the SG to get fuel weight.

Example:
You have loaded 600 Litres of fuel with a SG
of 0.65, what is the weight in kilograms?

600L of water is 600Kg of water

Fig 5.8. Relationship of Weights and Volumes

85. The following conversion factors will come in 600Kg X 0.65 = 390Kg
handy when converting between different units:

1 Imp Gal = 1.2 US Gal

1 Imp Gal = 4.54 Litres
1 Imp Gal of H O2 = 10 Lbs Example:
1 US Gal of H O2 = 8.33 Lbs You have loaded 200 Kg of fuel with a SG of
1 Litre of H O
2 = 1 Kg 0.8, what is the amount of gallons you have
1 Kg = 2.205 Lbs loaded?

86. Specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of a

unit volume of fuel and the weight of an equal volume
of water, thus you can use the following formula to

Flight Performance & Planning : 25

 withstand 6.0 times their weight. The lift produced by
a wing is determined by its aerofoil shape, angle of
attack, speed through the air, and the air density.
W hen an aircraft takes off from an airport with a high
200Kg ÷ 0.8 = 250Kg density altitude, it must accelerate to a speed faster
than would be required at sea level to produce enough
lift to allow takeoff; therefore, a longer takeoff run is
necessary. The distance needed may be longer than
the available runway. W hen operating from a high-
250Kg of water is 250L of water density altitude airport, the Pilot’s Operating Handbook
(POH) or Aircraft Flight Manual (AFM) must be
consulted to determine the maximum weight allowed
for the aircraft under the conditions of altitude,
temperature, wind, and runway conditions.

250L of water is 250L of fuel Effects of Weight

89. Most modern aircraft are so designed that if all

seats are occupied, all baggage allowed by the
baggage compartment is carried, and all of the fuel
250L of fuel is 55 Imp Gal (66 USG) of fuel tanks are full, the aircraft will be grossly overloaded.
This type of design requires the pilot to give great
Weight Control consideration to the requirements of the trip. If
maximum range is required, occupants or baggage
88. W eight is a major factor in Aircraft must be left behind, or if the maximum load must be
construction and operation, and it demands respect carried, the range, dictated by the amount of fuel on
from all pilots. Excessive weight reduces the board, must be reduced. Some of the problem s
efficiency of an aircraft and the safety margin caused by overloading an aircraft are:
available if an emergency condition should arise.
W hen an aircraft is designed, it is made as light as the a, The aircraft will need a higher takeoff speed,
required structural strength will allow, and the wings or which results in a longer takeoff run.
rotors are designed to support the maximum allowable
weight. W hen the weight of an aircraft is increased, b. Both the rate and angle of climb will be
the wings or rotors must produce additional lift and the reduced.
structure must support not only the additional static
loads, but also the dynamic loads imposed by flight c. The service ceiling will be lowered.
manoeuvres. For example, the wings of a 3,000-
pound Aircraft must support 3,000 pounds in level d. The cruising speed will be reduced.
flight, but when the Aircraft is turned smoothly and
sharply using a bank angle of 60°, the dynamic load e. The cruising range will be shortened.
requires the wings to support twice this, or 6,000
pounds. Severe uncoordinated manoeuvres or flight f. Manoeuverability will be decreased.
into turbulence can impose dynamic loads on the
structure great enough to cause failure. The structure g. A longer landing roll will be required because
of a normal category Aircraft must be strong enough the landing speed will be higher.
to sustain a load factor of 3.8 times its weight. That is,
every pound of weight added to an aircraft requires h. Excessive loads will be imposed on the
that the structure be strong enough to support an structure, especially the landing gear.
additional 3.8 pounds. An aircraft operated in the utility
category must sustain a load factor of 4.4, and 90. The POH or AFM includes tables or charts
acrobatic category aircraft must be strong enough to that give the pilot an indication of the performance

Flight Performance & Planning : 26

expected for any weight. An important part of careful and record the new empty weight and EW CG in the
pre-flight planning includes a check of these charts to aircraft weight and balance record. The A&P mechanic
determine the aircraft is loaded so the proposed flight or repairman conducting an annual or condition
can be safely made. inspection must ensure the weight and balance data in
the aircraft records is current and accurate. It is the
Weight Changes responsibility of the pilot in command to use the most
current weight and balance data when operating the
91. The maximum allowable weight for an aircraft aircraft.
is determined by design considerations. However, the
maximum operational weight may be less than the Stability and Balance Control
maximum allowable weight due to such considerations
as high-density altitude or high-drag field conditions 93. Balance control refers to the location of the
caused by wet grass or water on the runway. The CG of an aircraft. This is of primary importance to
maximum operational weight may also be limited by aircraft stability, which determines safety in flight. The
the departure or arrival airport’s runway length. One CG is the point at which the total weight of the aircraft
important pre-flight consideration is the distribution of is assumed to be concentrated, and the CG must be
the load in the aircraft. Loading the aircraft so the located within specific limits for safe flight. Both lateral
gross weight is less than the maximum allowable is and longitudinal balance are important, but the prime
not enough. This weight must be distributed to keep concern is longitudinal balance; that is, the location of
the CG within the limits specified in the POH or AFM. the CG along the longitudinal. An Aircraft is designed
If the CG is too far forward, a heavy passenger can be to have stability that allows it to be trimmed so it will
moved to one of the rear seats or baggage can be maintain straight and level flight with hands off the
shifted from a forward baggage compartment to a rear controls. Longitudinal stability is maintained by
compartment. If the CG is too far aft, passenger ensuring the CG is slightly ahead of the centre of lift.
weight or baggage can be shifted forward. The fuel This produces a fixed nose-down force independent of
load should be balanced laterally: the pilot should pay the airspeed. This is balanced by a variable nose-up
special attention to the POH or AFM regarding the force, which is produced by a downward aerodynamic
operation of the fuel system, in order to keep the force on the horizontal tail surfaces that varies directly
aircraft balanced in flight. W eight and balance of a with the airspeed.
helicopter is far more critical than for an Aircraft. With
some helicopters, they may be properly loaded for 94. As long as the CG is maintained within the
takeoff, but near the end of a long flight when the fuel allowable limits for its weight, the Aircraft will have
tanks are almost empty, the CG may have shifted adequate longitudinal stability and control. If the CG is
enough for the helicopter to be out of balance laterally too far aft, tail heavy, it will be too near the centre of lift
or longitudinally. Before making any long flight, the CG and the Aircraft will be unstable, and difficult to recover
with the fuel available for landing must be checked to from a stall. If the unstable Aircraft should ever enter
ensure it will be within the allowable range. a spin, the spin could become flat and recovery would
be difficult or impossible.
92. Changes of fixed equipment may have a
major effect upon the weight of the aircraft. Many
aircraft are overloaded by the installation of extra
radios or instruments. Fortunately, the replacement of
older, heavy electronic equipment with newer, lighter
types results in a weight reduction. This weight
change, however helpful, will probably cause the CG
to shift and this must be computed and annotated in
the weight and balance record. Repairs and alteration
are the major sources of weight changes, and it is the
responsibility of the A&P mechanic or repairman
making any repair or alteration to know the weight and Fig 5.9. CG too far Forward
location of these changes, and to compute the CG

Flight Performance & Planning : 27

95. If the CG is too far forward, nose heavy, the a. The total weight of the aircraft must be no
downward tail load will have to be increased to greater than the maximum weight allowed for
maintain level flight. This increased tail load has the the particular make and model of the aircraft.
same effect as carrying additional weight; the aircraft
will have to fly at a higher angle of attack, and drag will b. The centre of gravity, or the point at which all
increase. of the weight of the aircraft is considered to be
concentrated, must be maintained within the
allowable range for the operational weight of
the aircraft.

98. The term arm, usually measured in inches,

refers to the distance between the centre of gravity of
an item or object and the Datum. Arms ahead of, or to
the left of the Datum are negative (-), and those
behind, or to the right of the Datum are positive (+).
W hen the Datum is ahead of the aircraft, all of the
Fig 5.10. CG too far Aft arms are positive and computational errors are
minimized. W hen weight is removed from an aircraft,
96. `The lateral balance can be upset by uneven it is negative (-), and when added, it is positive (+). The
fuel loading or burn off. The position of the lateral CG manufacturer establishes the maximum weight and
is not normally computed for an Aircraft, but the pilot range allowed for the CG, as measured in inches from
must be aware of the adverse effects that will result the reference line called the Datum. The Datum may
from a laterally unbalanced condition. This is be located anywhere the manufacturer chooses; it is
corrected by using the aileron trim tab until enough often the nose of the aircraft, or the leading edge of
fuel has been used from the tank on the heavy side to the wing, or the engine firewall. The Datum of some
balance the Aircraft. The deflected trim tab deflects helicopters is the centre of the rotor mast, but this
the aileron to produce additional lift on the heavy side, location causes some arms to be positive and others
but it also produces additional drag, and the Aircraft negative. To simplify weight and balance
flies inefficiently. Helicopters are affected by lateral computations, most modern helicopters, like Aircraft,
imbalance more than Aircraft. If a helicopter is loaded have the Datum located at the nose of the aircraft or a
with heavy occupants and fuel on the same side, it specified distance ahead of it.
could be out of balance enough to make it unsafe to
fly. It is also possible that if external loads are carried 99. A moment is a force that tries to cause
in such a position to require large lateral displacement rotation, and is the product of the arm, in inches, and
of the cyclic control to maintain level flight, the fore- the weight, in pounds. Moments are generally
and-aft cyclic control effectiveness will be limited. expressed in pound-inches (lb-in) and may be either
positive or negative. The weight and balance problems
are based on the physical law of the lever. This law
states that a lever is balanced when the weight on one
side of the fulcrum multiplied by its arm is equal to the
weight on the opposite side multiplied by its arm. In
other words, the lever is balanced when the algebraic
sum of the moments about the fulcrum is zero. This is
the condition in which the positive moments (those
that try to rotate the lever clockwise) are equal to the
Fig 5.11. Lateral CG negative moments (those that try to rotate it counter-
clockwise).
Centre of Gravity

97. Two elements are vital in the weight and

balance considerations of an aircraft.

Flight Performance & Planning : 28

 102. To establish a balance, a total of 5,000 in-Kg
must be applied to the other end of the board. Any
combination of weight and distance which, when
multiplied, produces a 5,000 in-Kg moment will balance
the board. For example, if a 100-Kg weight is placed at
a point (station) 25 inches from the datum, and another
50-Kg weight is placed at a point (station) 50 inches
from the datum, the sum of the product of the two
weights and their distances will total a moment of 5,000
in-Kg, which will balance the board.

Fig 5.12. Equal Positive & Negative Moments

Determining the CG

100. One of the easiest ways to understand weight

and balance is to consider a board with weights
placed at various locations. W e can determine the CG
of the board and observe the way the CG changes as
the weights are moved and may be determined by
using these four steps:
Fig 5.14. Balanced
1. Measure the arm of each weight in inches
from the Datum. Loadsheet

2. Multiply each arm by its weight in pounds to 103. W e determine the CG of an aircraft by
determine the moment in pound-inches of completing a loadsheet.
each weight.
Example:
3. Determine the total of all weights and of all From the following data calculate the CG:
the moments.
Basic Empty W eight 1 350 lbs and a
4. Divide the total moments by the total weight CG of 81.5”.
to determine the CG in inches from the
Datum . Pilot and passenger in the front seats at
FS 72.8”.
101. To illustrate, assume a weight of 50 K g is
placed on the board at a station or point 100 inches 1 X Passenger in the rear seats at FS 110.6”
from the datum. The downward force of the weight
can be determined by multiplying 50 Kg by 100 20 Gal of fuel at a SG of 0.80 at FS 91.0”.
inches, which produces a moment of 5,000 in-Kg.
24 lbs of baggage at FS 134.5”.

Average weight of pilot and passengers are

170 lbs.

The Maximum All Up weight of this aircraft is

2 200 lbs

Fig 5.13. Unbalanced

Flight Performance & Planning : 29

 LOAD SHEET
Item W eight Arm Moment

Basic Empty W eight 1 350 81.5 110 025

Pilot & Passenger @ 170Lbs each 340 72.8 24 752

1 X Passenger @ 170Lbs 170 110.6 18 802

Baggage 24 134.5 3 228

Fuel: SG 0.8 is 200Lbs X .8 160 91.0 14 560

Totals 2 044 171 367

CG = Total Moments divided by total weight

CG = 83.84”

104. The weight and CG limits are published in the Aerobatic Category
aircraft’s manuals. Some aircraft may have different All manoeuvres in the previous categories as
weight and CG limits for operations in different well as aerobatic manoeuvres according to the
categories: aircraft’s manual.

Normal Category 105. Another method for determining the loaded

Manoeuvres used in normal flight with less weight and CG is the use of graphs provided by the
than 60 E angle of bank. Aerobatic manoeuvres manufacturers.
(including spins) are not permitted.
Example:
Utility Category If the pilot and front passenger weighs 260 Lbs,
All manoeuvres in the normal category as well what is the Load Moment/1 000?
as spins and steep turns with an angle of bank
in excess of 60 E.

Graph 5.20. Loading Graph

The load moment/1 000 = 9.6

Flight Performance & Planning : 30

106. If you have calculate you CG as 86.5" aft of the Datum at a weight of 1 700 Lbs, you may only operate in
the normal category according to Graph 3.21.

Graph 3.21. CG Envelope

Helicopter Weight & Balance point, it would balance like a teeter-totter. For
helicopters with a single main rotor, the CG is usually
107. It is vital to comply with weight and balance close to the main rotor mast. Improper balance of a
limits established for helicopters. Operating above the helicopter’s load can result in serious control problems.
maximum weight limitation compromises the structural The allowable range in which the CG may fall is called
integrity of the helicopter and adversely affects the “CG range.” The exact CG location and range are
performance. Balance is also critical because on some specified in the rotorcraft flight manual for each
fully loaded helicopters, centre of gravity deviations as helicopter. In addition to making a helicopter difficult to
small as three inches can dramatically change a control, an out-of-balance loading condition also
helicopter’s handling characteristics. Taking off in a decreases manoeuvrability since cyclic control is less
helicopter that is not within the weight and balance effective in the direction opposite to the CG location.
limitations is unsafe. Helicopter performance is not only
affected by gross weight, but also by the position of that 109. You can recognize CG forward of the forward
weight. It is essential to load the aircraft within the limitation when coming to a hover following a vertical
allowable centre of gravity range specified in the takeoff. The helicopter will have a nose-low attitude, and
rotorcraft flight manual’s weight and balance limitations. you will need excessive rearward displacement of the
cyclic control to maintain a hover in a no-wind condition.
108. The centre of gravity is defined as the You should not continue flight in this condition, since you
theoretical point where all of the aircraft’s weight is could rapidly run out of rearward cyclic control as you
considered to be concentrated. If a helicopter was consume fuel. You also may find it impossible to
suspended by a cable attached to the centre-of-gravity decelerate sufficiently to bring the helicopter to a stop.

Flight Performance & Planning : 31

In the event of engine failure and the resulting coming to a hover following a vertical takeoff. The
autorotation, you may not have enough cyclic control to helicopter will have a tail-low attitude, and you will need
flare properly for the landing. excessive forward displacement of cyclic control to
maintain a hover in a no-wind condition. If there is a
110. You can recognize the aft CG condition when wind, you need even greater forward cyclic.

Fig 5.15 Helicopter CG

Lateral Balance

111. For most helicopters, it is usually not necessary 113 To answer the first question, just add the weight
to determine the lateral CG for normal flight instruction of the items comprising the useful load (pilot,
and passenger flights. This is because helicopter cabins passengers, fuel, oil, if applicable, cargo, and baggage)
are relatively narrow and most optional equipment is to the basic empty weight of the helicopter. Check that
located near the centre line. However, some helicopter the total weight does not exceed the maximum
manuals specify the seat from which you must conduct allowable gross weight. To answer the second question,
solo flight. In addition, if there is an unusual situation, you need to use CG or moment information from
such as a heavy pilot and a full load of fuel on one side loading charts, tables, or graphs in the helicopter flight
of the helicopter, which could affect the lateral CG, its manual. Then using one of the methods described
position should be checked against the CG envelope. below, calculate the loaded moment and/or loaded CG
If carrying external loads in a position that requires large and verify that it falls within the allowable CG range
lateral cyclic control displacement to maintain level shown in the rotorcraft flight manual.
flight, fore and aft cyclic effectiveness could be
dramatically limited. 114. Balance is determined by the location of the
CG, which is usually described as a given number of
Determining the CG inches from the reference Datum. The horizontal
reference Datum is an imaginary vertical plane or point,
112. W hen determining whether your helicopter is arbitrarily fixed somewhere along the longitudinal axis of
properly loaded, you must answer two questions: the helicopter, from which all horizontal distances are
measured for weight and balance purposes. There is no
fixed rule for its location. It may be located at the rotor
1. Is the gross weight less than or equal to the mast, the nose of the helicopter, or even at a point in
maximum allowable gross weight? space ahead of the helicopter.

2. Is the centre of gravity within the allowable CG

range, and will it stay within the allowable range
as fuel is burned off?

Flight Performance & Planning : 32

 116. W e determine the CG of a helicopter by
completing a loadsheet.

Example:
From the following data calculate the CG:

Basic Empty W eight 1 350Lbs and a of CG

81.5”.

Pilot and passenger in the front seats at FS

72.8”.

1 X Passenger in the rear seats at FS 110.6”

20 Gal of fuel at a SG of 0.80 at FS 91.0”.

Fig 5.16. Datum Lines 24Lbs of baggage at FS 134.5”.

115. The lateral reference Datum, is usually located Average weight of pilot and passengers are
at the centre of the helicopter. The location of the 170Lbs.
reference Datum’s is established by the manufacturer
and is defined in the rotorcraft flight manual. The Maximum All Up weight of this helicopter
is 2 500Lbs

LOADSHEET

Item Weight Arm Moments

Basic Empty Weight 1350 111 110025

Pilot & Fwd Pas @ 170Lbs 340 52.5 24752

Fwd Baggage 75 48 3600

2 X aft Pas @ 160Lbs & 420 110 46200

80Lbs Baggage

ZFW 2185 184577

Main Fuel 150 110 16500

Aux Fuel 100 112 11150

Totals 2435 212227

CG = Total Moments divided by total weight

CG = 87.16”

117. Another method for determining the loaded

weight and CG is the use of graphs provided by the
manufacturers.
Fig 5.17. Lateral Datum

Flight Performance & Planning : 33

 Weight Shift, Removal & Addition

118. One common weight and balance problem

involves moving passengers from one seat to another
or shifting baggage or cargo from one compartment to
another to move the CG to a desired location. This
problem can be solved by using the basic weight and
balance equation:

119. This equation can be rearranged to find the

distance a weight must be shifted to give a desired
change in the CG location:
Fig 5.22. Helicopter Longitudinal CG Graph

120. This equation can also be rearranged to find

the amount of weight to shift to move the CG to a
desired location:

121. It can also be rearranged to find the amount the

CG is moved when a given amount of weight is shifted:

122. Finally, this equation can be rearranged to find

Fig 5.23. Helicopter Lateral CG Graph the total weight that would allow shifting a given amount
of weight to move the CG a given distance:

Example:
A passenger weighing 170Lbs gets up from his
seat at FS 290 and moves to a seat at FS 110
in an aircraft weighing 12 000Lbs. W hat is the
effect on CG?

Fig 5.24. Moments vs Weight

Flight Performance & Planning : 34

123. Problems regarding weight added or removed
can be solved by using the following equation: Solution by Table

125. The easiest way to calculate a weight shift is to

subtract the weight and moment from the FS it is shifted
from and add the weight and moments at the FS it has
been shifted to. W eight and moments can be added or
Example: subtracted but Arm or FS’s can not be added or
A paratrooper weighing 200Lbs jumps from the subtracted. Remember, weight X arm = moments and
rear cargo door, FS150, the aircraft weighed that the CG is calculated by the total moments divided
4 600Lbs wit a CG of 100” before the jump. by the total weight
W hat is the change of the CG of the aircraft?
Example:
Shortly before take-off a passenger, weighing
Lbs, moves from FS 259 to FS 315. Before the
transfer the aircraft weight was 12 200Lbs and
its CG was 100". How many inches aft does
the CG moves?

Item Weight Arm Moment

Aircraft 12 200 Lbs 100" 1 220 000 In/Lbs

Passenger - 170 Lbs 259" - 44 030 In/Lbs

124. W hen you are required to determine the Passenger + 170 Lbs 315" + 53 550 In/Lbs
maximum load that can be loaded at a specific FS, the
following equation can be used: Total 12 200 Lbs 100.78" 1 229 520 In/Lbs

The CG moved 0.78 inches aft.

Floor Loading

Example 126. The floor loading may be defined as the

The original load of an aircraft is 12 000Lbs physical bearing strength of the aircraft floor. It is an
with a CG of 193”. W hat is the load that can be expression of maximum weight that can be loaded per
added at FS 325 not to exceed the CG limit of surface area on the floor. Remember the formulas to
196.3”? calculate area.

a. The area of a rectangular surface is calculated

by using the formula:

b. The area of a circular surface is calculated by

using the formula:
c. Care should be taken to keep all units of
measurement the same.

Flight Performance & Planning : 35

 Aircraft Performance
127. Problems regarding floor loading can be solved
128. Refer to the Meteorology chapter regarding
Icing, Rain, condition of the airframe, wake turbulence
and windshear. Refer to the Principles of Flight chapter
using the equation: regarding aquaplaning.

Example:
W hat weight can be loaded on a pallet with
dimensions 24” by 24”? The weight of the
pallet and tie downs is 100Lbs and the floor
loading of the aircraft is 200Lbs per square
foot.

(Remember there is a difference between

“square feet” and “feet square”)

Flight Performance & Planning : 36

TYPICAL EXAM QUESTIONS

Here are some examples, the first one is a simple calculation.

A loaded aircraft's CG is 91.0", weight 2400 lbs. A passenger weighing 160 lbs located in a front seat (arm 77.8")
changes place with a passenger weighing 100 lbs located in a rear seat (arm 116.6"), the pilot loads an additional
50 lbs of fuel (arm 93.0”). The new CG is:-

a. 92.0"
b. 89.3"
c. 81.2"
d. 96.5"

Answer and explanation:

To solve this problem you have to do three calculations. Two weight shift problems, the two passengers changing
seats, and a weight add problem, the additional fuel. W e solve these problems by means of the different equations
of the CG formula.

Passenger 1:

Passenger 2:

The change in CG caused by passenger “1" was 2.59" backwards and by passenger “2" 1.62" forward, the total
change is therefore 2.6" - 1.6" = 0.97" backwards. The new CG, before we load the extra fuel, is now 91.97"

Another method is to use the difference in weight between the two passengers and use that as weight shifted, you
will get the same answer.

Flight Performance & Planning : 37

Fuel:

The new CG will therefore be 0.02" backwards, 91.97" + 0.02 = 91.99"

The answer is therefore “a”.

The second question is an example of plain theoretical fact.

2. The presence of a stopway :-

a. W ill affect the landing distance available.

b. W ill not affect the landing distance available.
c. Is not used for emergencies.
d. W ill affect the take-off run available.

Answer and explanation:

A stopway is an extension of the runway that has the same strength and coefficient as the runway. It is only allowed
to be used during an emergency and not for normal operations. It therefore can not have an affect on either take-off
run or landing distance available.

The answer is therefore “b”.

The third type of question relates to the practical application of facts.

3. In order to avoid the wake turbulence when landing behind a heavy aircraft which has just landed, a lighter
aircraft should:-

a. Attempt to land before the point at which the heavy aircraft landed.
b. Attempt to land at the same point at which the heavy aircraft landed.
c. Attempt to land after the point at which the heavy aircraft landed.
d. Don’t attempt to land.

Answer and explanation:

Wake turbulence is caused by the movement of aircraft through the air, the larger and heavier the aircraft the
stronger the wake turbulence it produces. By staying above the aircraft’s approach path in front of you and aiming

Flight Performance & Planning : 38

to touch down well beyond its touchdown point, you will avoid its wake turbulence.
The answer is therefore “c”.

The fourth type of question is the interpolation of performance graphs.

4. With reference to Figure 1-3: Flaps Up Take-off Ground Roll. Airfield elevation 650 ft, QNH 1018, OAT
+25°C, weight 2500 lbs, 5 kts tailwind. The ground roll required is approximately:-

a. 1 540ft.
b. 1 650ft.
c. 1 450ft.
d. 1 540ft.

Answer and explanation:

Before you enter the graph, you have to calculate your pressure altitude first, this you can solve by using your
pathfinder, pressure altitude is 521ft.

Start with temperature, line1, then pressure altitude, where the two cross, horizontal to your weight reference line,
line 2. Draw in your weight line, line 3, it is on the reference line. Draw a line horizontal to your wind reference line,
line 4. Draw in your 5 kts tailwind line, line 5. From where line 4 meets the wind reference line, follow the guide line
until it crosses line 5, now horizontal across to read your ground roll required.
The answer is therefore “c”.

Try the following questions using the processes prescribed in the preceding questions.

Flight Performance & Planning : 39

1. Runway length 1150 metres, stopway 30 metres, displaced threshold 25 metres. The landing distance
available is:-

a. 1175
b. 1125
c. 1150
d. 1180

2. With reference to the 25° Flaps Take-off Performance graph. Pressure altitude 4000 ft, temperature +20°C,
5 kts headwind, take-off distance available 2 000 ft. The maximum weight at which take-off can be made
is approximately:-

a. 2250lbs
b. 2440lbs
c. 2150lbs
d. 2400lbs

3. With reference to the Best Power Mixture Range. Pressure altitude 10 500 ft, temperature ISA, 55% power.
The range with no reserve is approximately:-

a. 700nm
b. 600nm
c. 710nm
d. 685nm

4. The floor loading of an aircraft is 28 kg/m . 2W hat is the weight that a pallet weighing 4 kg and measuring
1.8 x 2.4 can carry?

a. 121 kg
b. 107.5 kg
c. 117 kg
d. 101.5 kg

5. Runway 01 threshold elevation 1275 feet, Runway 19 threshold elevation 1365 feet, Runway length 1078
m. W hat is the slope of Runway 19?

a. 8.34% Downhill
b. 2.55% Downhill
c. 8.34% Uphill
d. 2.55% Uphill

6. Upon landing, an aircraft encounters a sudden increase in headwind component. The aircraft would tend
to :

Flight Performance & Planning : 40

 a. Overshoot
b. Undershoot
c. Experience no change in it’s flight-path

7. Maximum Zero-Fuel weight (MZFW ) is:

a. Basic Empty weight plus un-usable fuel and full oil.

b. Basic Empty weight plus un-usable fuel, full oil, crew, payload and trip fuel.
c. Basic Empty weight plus un-usable fuel, full oil, crew, payload trip- and taxi fuel.
d. Basic Empty weight plus un-usable fuel, full oil, crew and payload.

W hen approaching a wet runway to land one can expect :

8.

a. The landing distance to decrease.

b. The landing distance to increase.
c. The landing distance to remain the same.

With reference to the AIRSPEED SYSTEM CALIBRATION graph. W hat will the CAS be with 40% flap at
9.
106 kts IAS

a. 100
b. 107
c. 100
d. 105
With reference to STALL SPEEDS (Graph 2). Aircraft weight 2250 lbs, 25° flaps on the CAS graph with
10.
an angle of bank of 30°, what would the stall speed be?

a. 59
b. 61
c. 67.
d. 77

ANSWERS

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

b a d c b a d b c a
.

Flight Performance & Planning : 41

ANSWERS EXPLAINED

1. Stopway is not part of the equation as it may only be used during an emergency, not for normal operations.
W hen approaching to land, you must be 50' above the threshold, in this case 50' above the displayed
threshold. You must thus subtract the displayed threshold from the runway length.

2. Again, ensure that you are using the correct graph, check and recheck the heading of the graph with
parameters given. Draw a vertical line on the 20ºC line until it crosses the 4 000ft PA line. W here the two
cross, draw a horizontal line until it crosses the weight reference line. Following the guide lines, draw a line
to the right. Now we start from the other end of the graph. TODA is 2 000ft, from the 2 000ft mark at the
end of the graph, follow the guideline to the ground roll reference line. Draw a vertical line on the 5kts wind
line. Draw a horizontal line from the ground roll reference line until it cross the 5kts wind line. Follow the
guideline for a headwind until it crosses the wind reference line. Draw a horizontal line from the wind
reference line to the left. W here the two lines cross, draw a line vertically down, read off the MTOW for
these parameters. The MTOW for TODA is 2 250lbs. Refer to para 27 for a full explanation regarding
MTOW using TODA and TORA.

3. Ensure that you are using the correct graph, check and recheck the heading of the graph with parameters
given. It is ISA condition, W here the standard temperature (ISA) line cross the 10 540ft pressure altitude
line, is our starting point. Draw a horizontal line to the right until it crosses the range with no reserves 55%
power line, draw a line vertically down, range is 710nm.

2
4. With the formula substitute 28 = x/ 4.32m and by simple cross-multiplication you get the answer remember
to subtract the pallet weight of 4 Kg. The answer is 117 Kg.

5. This one is tricky. Firstly get all measurements in the same units. Convert runway length to feet. Then
deduct the smaller threshold elevation from the larger one and divide it by the runway length. Multiply by
100 to get a percentage. Determine which direction is higher or lower and select the correct answer. A
simple drawing prevents mistakes!!
Thus 1078m equals 3537' and the difference in elevation is 90'. 90/3537 x 100 = 2.55%. To determine if
it is up-slope or down-slope check for which runway they require the slope and see if it is higher or lower
than the other one. In this case for runway 19 it is down-slope.

6. The implication of an increase in headwind component is that the RAM air that gives you your ASI reading
increases. This would create an increase in airspeed and you would compensate by pulling back on your
control stick to counter-act this. Therefore the aircraft would gain height and you would overshoot.

7. As the name ZERO FUEL W EIGHT implies, it includes all parameters EXCLUDING USABLE fuel.

8. You would expect the landing distance to increase because you can not apply your brakes as normal,
You have to make more use of aerodynamic braking ie increase the drag as much as possible.

Simply draw a line up at the IAS of 106 to the reference line of 40° flap and read off the CAS as 103.
9.

10. Enter the graph on the left bottom at the CAS side at weight 2250 lbs op to the 25° flaps line. Move across

Flight Performance & Planning : 42

 horizontally to the reference line. Draw a vertical line upwards from the angle of bank at 30° and follow the
guidelines until the 2 intersect. Now move horizontally across to get the stall speed of 65 kts.

The following questions do not offer any options, There may be more than one correct answer, so use your
knowledge and the Flight Planning and Performance text to find possible solutions.

1. W hat is Maximum Ramp W eight?

2. On the 25° flap Take-off Performance graph: Elevation 2380, QNH 1009, temp ISA +5 and aircraft weight
2250 lbs with a 7 kts HW C, what is the ground roll and distance over the 50’ barrier respectively?

3. During approach to land you encounter a sudden drop in TW C. W hat can you expect regarding your flight
path?

4. W hat speeds does V x, V , yV and

fe V stand
no for respectively?

5. Pressure altitude 9500, temp -7°C. W hat would the BEST POW ER MIXTURE RANGE graph be with
reserves at 65% power?

6. W hat would the best GLIDING RANGE graph be from pressure altitude 11000’ to an airfield elevation
2800’, QNH 1023?

7. On the AIRSPEED CORRECTION TABLE if your KIAS is 87 kts, what would your KCAS be for 10° flaps?

8. Airfield Pressure Altitude 1800ft, QNH 1023. The elevation is:-

9. On the MAXIMUM RATE OF CLIMB Table:- aircraft weight 2400 lbs, pressure altitude 5000’ and temp ISA
+7°. W hat is your maximum rate of climb in fpm?

2
10. W hat is the floor-loading of a pallet with an area of 2.5 feet and a weight of 115lbs in kg/m ? 2

11. On the LANDING DISTANCE AVAILABLE table: Aircraft weight 2400 lbs, pressure altitude 3500, temp ISA
+9, HW C 7 kts and a grass runway. W hat would the distance be to clear 50’?

12. Would an aircraft with a weight of 1620 lbs and a COG of 84.1’’ be able to spin according to the CG
ENVELOPE graph?

13. On the FLAPS UP TAKE OFF PERFORMANCE graph:- pressure altitude 5500’, temp ISA, 50’ barrier
distance available with a headwind of 12 kts is 1 950’, what is the maximum weight possible to take off
with?

14. An aircraft is to fly from A to B, distance 235 nm, TAS 90 kts, tailwind 5 kts, cruise fuel flow 8.5 USG/Hr,
assume 3 USG is unusable and the reserve fuel requirement is 9 USG. The total fuel required is:-

15. W hen taking off behind a heavy aircraft that just landed, where should a small aircraft rotate?

Flight Performance & Planning : 43

16. An aircraft flies 3.5 nm/lb. If the fuel flow for the trip is 8.7 USG/HR (SG 0.72) and you have a tailwind
component of 7 kts, what is your TAS?

17. A loaded aircraft’s COG is 89.6’’,weight 2350 lbs. A passenger weighing 150 lbs (arm 78.2’’) changes
places with a passenger weighing 110 lbs (arm 114.5’’). W hat will the new CG be?

18. If the pilot in Q17 added on 245 kg of fuel (arm 190.5’), what will the new COG be?

19. Define Basic Empty W eight.

W hat does the speeds V and V represent?

20. a ne

21. With 38 USG of fuel and a fuel-flow of 8.6 USG/hr allowing 7 USG as diversion, what is the endurance of
the aircraft?

22. Upon landing you suddenly experience a drop in tailwind. How would this affect your flight-path?

23. If you land behind a landing larger aircraft, where should your touch-down point be?

24. How do you determine the COG of an aircraft?

25. Aircraft weight 2500 lbs, COG 91.3’’ :- if you burn off 435 lbs of fuel (arm 87’’)during flight what would the
new COG be?

26. At what V-speed should you fly to attain maximum vertical distance in the least horizontal distance?

27. W hat are the symptoms of carburettor icing?

28. W hat are the 3 categories of COG with regards to Mass and Balance?

29. Can a clearway be part of TODA?

30. W hen doing graphs and you work from left to right, what process must be followed to reach the
required answer?

Answers to the straight questions.

1. Maximum Ramp W eight is Maximum All Up W eight AND taxi- fuel.

2. Ground roll is 600' and over 50' barrier is 1000'.

3. You will undershoot.

Flight Performance & Planning : 44

4. Vx - Best angle of climb.
Vy - Best rate of climb.
Vfe - Maximum speed with flaps extended.
Vno - Normal operating speed.

5. 585 nms.

6. 18.5 nms.

7. 88 kts.

8. 2100'.

9. 407 fpm.

10. 224.5 kg/m2.

11. 1298'.

12. Yes.

13. 2260'.

14. 33 USG.

15. After the larger aircraft’s touchdown point.

16. 175.6 kts.

17. 90.2'’

18. 108.94'’

19. Aircraft weight plus full oil and un-useable fuel.

20. Va - Maximum design manoeuvring speed.

Vne - Never exceed speed.

21. 3 hrs 36 min.

22. You will undershoot.

23. After his touchdown point.

24. Total moments divided by the Total mass.

Flight Performance & Planning : 45

25. 92.2'’.

26. Vx - best angle of climb speed.

27. Rough running engine and a drop in manifold pressure.

28. Normal, Utility and Aerobatic categories.

29. Yes.

30. Enter graph at the reference point of for example intersection of temperature and pressure altitude,
move horizontally to the right to the next reference line. Proceed to determine your next vertical
parameter, for example your weight. Follow the guidelines down until the 2 lines intersects and from
that point move horizontally to the right to the next reference line. Repeat this process until you read
off your result on the right hand side of the graph.

Flight Performance & Planning : 46