Political Nationalism

French Revolution and Napoleonic Era

 Topics
• French Revolution
• Causes
• Political Trends

• Napoleonic Era
French Revolution- Context
 France at the Eve of Revolution
Absolute monarchy
• France was an absolute
monarchy.

• Divine kingship. Holy Roman

Empire

• Some checks on power

were the traditions or
conventions, the Church
and the Estates-General
 French Society: The Ancien Regime
• Heavily segregated and unequal.

The society was divided into different social orders called the Estates.
There were three Estates in the French Ancien Regime:
• First Estate: Clergy
• Second Estate: Nobility
• Third Estate: Peasants and Bourgeoisie
The Clergy The Nobility The Commoners

• They were less than 1% of • They were less than 2% of • 98% of the population.
the total people the population.
• It can be divided into the
• They owned 10% of land • They owned 20% of the land. bourgeoisie, the artisans and
labourers and the farmers and
• They paid little taxes. • They paid no taxes. the peasants.

• “State within a state” • The entire tax burden fell on

them.

• All of them were highly

dissatisfied because of poor
wages, corruption in
administration, the feudal
setup, high taxation, etc.
 On the Eve of French Revolution

• Second-largest population and economy in Europe

• Government was bankrupt due to maladministration

• Taxation and collection of taxes was also faulty

• Reforms had failed

 1.Oblivious[No Idea of the level of
people's sorrows and economic system
2.Unsupportive of the
Louis XV --->Austrian War of Succession Commercial Class
Louis XVI --->7 Years War, 3.Overspending
American War of Independence 4.Mismanagement
of Funds
5.No Central Bank
6.Unneccessary Funding to Wars

French Revolution
 [Enlightenment]Ideological Causes
• Prominent French intellectuals (philosophes) like Montesquieu, Voltaire,
Rousseau and Diderot influenced the people.

• Montesquieu: The Spirit of Laws: Advocated Constitutional form of

government and separation of powers

• Voltaire: Launched a crusade against superstition and attacked traditional

beliefs. Advocated supremacy of reason. Condemned corruptions in the
church. Stood for benevolent despotism.

• Rousseau: Social Contract: Man is born free and is everywhere in chains

kindled the revolutionary spirit of the masses.
 Economic Causes
A Debt crisis arose because of:

• Extravagant lifestyle of Louis XV and

XVI.

• France engaged in the Austrian

Succession War and Seven Years' War
Trade Associations under Louis XV and the American
Revolutionary War under Louis XVI

• Plans to regain American colonies

• No central bank made the state

dependent on private interests for
loans
 Administrative Deficiencies Famines

• No representative institution
● 1780s saw consecutive failure of
harvest, causing famine and
• Inefficiency and corruption inflation.
● Great Fear: General panic in
• Absence of local self- 1789 just before the Revolution
government and excessive ○ Several rural unrests (Bread Riots)
centralization ○ Rumours of aristocratic plot to
starve off the mobilized
population
• Privileged groups opposed ○ People armed themselves and
reforms attacked manor houses
 Social Classes
Bourgeoisie The Artisans-Labourers
• Comprised money lenders,
businessman, teachers, advocates, • Meagre wages
doctors, etc.
• Long working hours
• Grew rich by trade and business The Farmers

• Highly dissatisfied because it wanted • Landlessness

social mobility, political representation
and an efficient administration. • Hunger, especially during the
famines.

• It was this middle class that • Huge tax burden

spearheaded the revolution.
 Immediate Causes
• Political Incompetency

• The American Revolutionary War (1775-83)- France entered the war on the
American side, leading to:
• Worsened the state of finance in France
• Spread of revolutionary ideas

• The king’s Finance Minister, Jacques Necker, continued to float loans and
presented a false account of the king’s finances even as the crown was
going bankrupt.

• Necker was replaced with Charles-Alexandre de Calonne in 1781, who

tried to bring financial reforms.
 Finance Minister
Road to Revolution
• Calonne convoked an Assembly of Notables made of representatives from the three
Estates.
• Calonne proposed systemic reforms in administration.
The Assembly of • The Assembly of Notables opposed the reforms and no step was taken.
Notables, 1787 • Calonne was sacked.
Aristocratic Rebellion on proposal of Taxes

Proposal for more taxes on 3rd State

• Brienne called the Estates-General, the representative assembly of the three Estates.
• Representation of the three Estates
The Estates- • Feuds, debates and discussions among the Third Estate
General of May • June 17, 1789: Third Estate passes “National Assembly” resolution
5,1789
 Tennis Court Oath
Emmanuel- Joseph Sieyes • The National Assembly met
released a pamphlet "What is in a tennis court where they
the Third Estate?" to mobilize the took an oath that the
people. National Assembly couldn't
be dissolved until they frame
He asked: themselves a new written
• What is the Third Estate? constitution.
Everything. • More priests and nobles
• What has it been until now in started joining.
the political order? Nothing.
• What does it ask? To become • Estates- General later
replaced with National
something.
Assembly.
 • Shortage of food and inflation led to rumours
• Necker was reinstated and sacked again
• People started rioting in the streets.
Storming of
• July 14, 1789: Commoners stormed Bastille, a major prison fortress and royal
the Bastille, Armoury.
July 14, 1789

• 14 July was declared a national day.

• A new tricolour flag was waived.
• A new municipal government known as the Paris Commune was formed.
Significance of • Lafayette, a noble, was appointed the commander of the Commune militia called
the National Guard.
Bastille
 National Assembly:1789-1791
The August Decrees, August 1789

The Great Fear, July-

August, 1789 • Night of 4th August, 1789: The
National Assembly abolished the
feudal system to calm the masses.
Lack of grains and • The August decrees were 18
increased prices ordinances which abolished the feudal
regime, tithes, old judicial system, sale
Rumours spread around
of administrative offices, etc.
Peasants attacked • The Declaration of Rights was
manors and estates proclaimed on August 26th 1789.
• It was prepared by Sieyes and Lafayette
in consultation with Thomas Jefferson
and had 17 articles.
 The Declaration of Rights of Man and of the Citizen
• Man is invested with some natural rights which he acquires by birth such as the right of
individual security, right to freedom, right to equality, the right to property, etc.
• Law is the expression of common will and everyone is equal before the law.
• Nobody should be arrested unlawfully without a judicial order.
• The freedom of speech and press is guaranteed and the security of public rights is the
duty of the state.
• Sovereignty was vested in the nation instead of state or parliament.
• All people have the right to acquire government ranks according to merits.
• Private property is an inviolate and unbreachable right. Nobody will be deprived of it.
• All are free to diffuse religion and thoughts provided they do not violate the limits
prescribed by law.
• Freedom lies in those activities that do not harm others.
• All officers of the state are accountable to the public.
 Impact of Declaration

• The tithe, a tax levied by the

Church, was abolished.
• All Church property was
nationalized.
• A national system of Church
with elected clergy was Constitution of
introduced. 1791
• This anti-clerical attitude split
the country and created
circumstances of a civil war.
• King Louis XVI immediately
sanctioned the August Decrees
and the Declaration.
 Constitution of 1791
• The Declaration of Rights formed the
preamble of the constitution.
• It gave birth to a constitutional monarchy. Flight of Louis
• Legislative Assembly was the sovereign body. XVI, June 1791
Provisions Fearing the
• King had a suspensive veto to overrule growing
Legislative Assembly. violence, the
• Separation of powers ruler attempted
to escape to
• No war and peace without approval from the
Austria but was
Legislative Assembly.
captured.
• The Judges were to be elected by the public.
 Factionalism in the Legislative Assembly
Rise of Constitutionalists and Republicans

Left ---> Change

Right ---> Status Quo Jacobines Girondists

What was driving these political moves?

• Radical tendencies of the public
• Demands of a republic
• Political clubs
• Riots on the streets
• Unmet demands of social equality
 The Jacobins
Radical Liberal Republicans

• Wanted to drive the Revolution forward to establish a republic

• Consisted of deputies, leading thinkers and progressive members of the society

• These sat on the left of the Legislative Assembly, came to be called the Leftists. Jacobins came to be known as
the Sans-Culottes

Jacobin club
• Less prosperous sections of society
• Small shopkeepers, artisans such as shoemakers, pastry cooks, watch-makers, printers, servants and daily-
wage workers.
• Leader was Maximilian Robespierre
• Wore long striped trousers similar to those worn by dock workers.
• Different from the fashionable sections of society, especially nobles.
 Rising Tensions
• Secret negotiations with the King of Prussia.

• Rulers of other neighbouring countries worried by the developments in

France

• National Assembly voted in April 1792 to declare war against Prussia and
Austria.

• Thousands of volunteers thronged from the provinces to join the army.

• War of the people against kings and aristocracies all over Europe.
 Impact of Revolutionary Wars with Prussia
• Brought losses and economic difficulties to the people.

• Men were away fighting, women were left to cope with the tasks of
earning a living and looking after their families.

• Constitution of 1791 gave political rights only to the richer sections

of society.

• Political clubs became an important rallying point for people for

e.g., Jacobins
 The Girondins
• Moderates Storming of the Tuileries, August
10th 1792

• Considered a constitutional
● Armed revolutionaries of sans-
monarchy essential, i.e.
culottes stormed the palace at
monarchists Tuileries, taking the royal
family captive and marking the
fall of the Girondins
• They were lawyers, intellectuals
and journalists with reputation ● Monarchy was suspended.
among the businessmen.
● National Convention
established.
• Sat on the right of the Legislative
Assembly so called the rightists
 21 September, 1792:
September genocide They abolished the
Jacobins won
killed thousands on monarchy and the
National Convention
Paris streets First Republic of
France was founded.

National Convention
discovered the links King Louis XVI was
King was convicted of
between the guillotined summarily
high treason.
Austrians and Louis on 21 January, 1793.
XVI.
 Reign of Terror [1793-94]
The Jacobins of extreme left,
The temporary government
Counter-revolutionary activity called “the Mountain” or the
Montagnards, thus sidestepped
consisted of:
demanded decentralization the implementation of the Committee of Public Safety
and economic liberalization democratic Constitution of 1793
and implemented the “Terror”. Committee of General Safety

The Committee of General

The Committee of Public Safety discharged the function The Committee tried to quell
Safety was headed by of police and put even a little
Robespierre and it became innumerable persons in dissent.Thousands were killed
the supreme institution. prison from where they were by “Revolutionary tribunals”.
presented before the Tribunal.
 Dismantling Ancien
Regime Thermidorian Reaction, 1794

• New calendar in ● In July 1794, the French

1793. month of Thermidor, the
Girondins arrested
Robespierre and his allies.
• New revolutionary
symbols were ● They were guillotined, the
adopted, like a
female image of Paris Commune was
liberty and republic. dismantled, the Jacobin
Clubs were banned and
the Girondins took control.
• “De-Christianization”
and “temples of
reason”.
 Why the Reaction?
• Robespierre turned the Revolution Constitution of 1795
upside-down.
● The Thermidorean National
• Women-right activists like Olympe de Convention passed a new,
Gouges and influential philosophes more conservative
like Marquis de Condorcet were constitution.
guillotined, destroying enlightened
reason itself. ● The ruling setup included:
1. A bicameral legislature
2. A collective executive
• Robespierre had become so insecure of 5 directors, called
and intolerant that he went on to the Directory
execute his own friends like Danton,
the first president of the Committee
on Public Safety.
 Context for Rise of Napoleon
September 4, 1797: Three
Elections held in 1797
members of the Directory
returned many royalists
Coup of 1797 annulled the election
and Jacobins to the
results and unseated other
legislature and the
two members of the
Directory.
Directory

Sieyes, a director, plotted 9th November, 1799:

with Talleyrand, the General Napoleon
Coup of 1799
foreign minister, to Bonaparte overthrew the
overthrow the Directory. Directory.
 First phase: Second phase:
Bourgeoisie National Assembly (1789- Legislative Assembly
Phase
91) (1791-92)

Third phase: Fourth phase:

Extremist National Convention (1792- Directory (1795-1799)
Phase 95)
Napoleonic Era
 France on the Eve of Napoleon

Despicable situation of France

High inflation Financial Government

led to condition was was corrupt
depreciation of deteriorating
currency
The bourgeoisie thus wanted stability and growth
over the lofty ideas of the Revolution.
Napoleon had proved himself
repeatedly
Defeated Italy Spread ideals of Considered
and Austria the Revolution epitome of law
in Europe and order
Was neither a rightist or a leftist everyone found
something in him

• Born in 1769 on the island of Corsica which was later conquered by

the French
• Education in a French military college
• French revolution gave him the opportunity to show his talent as a
commander.
 Napoleon Bonaparte
Napoleon initially favoured the
Revolution because:
• Curtail the abuses of the Ancien
Regime
• Get a better status for his island Consulate Rule
home (1799-1804)
• Opportunity for own promotion
• Napoleon became a Jacobin.
• He took part in campaigns of the
Terror. Stability to the France
• In the Thermidor, he helped put
down a royalist uprising.
 Constitution of 1799
• Napoleon himself oversaw its drafting.
• Three Consuls but actual power was with the First Consul, i.e. Napoleon.
• Legislative body with three houses.
• Focus on establishing order, restoring peace, settling peace with
neighbours.
• War of the Second Coalition: France defeated Austria in 1801 and made
peace with England in 1802.
• Peace returned to Europe after a decade.
Administrative Reforms
• Focus on strong and well-organized government
• Retained principles of equality and elimination of privileges
• Napoleonic code of laws streamlined the legal procedures.
 Napoleonic Code of Law, 1804
Political Reforms
There were five codes:

Code of
Code of Civil Commercial
Civil Code Penal Code Criminal
Procedure Code
Procedure

• Embraced both Old and Radical laws.

• Open court hearings
• Principle of Equality before Law
• Women rights were absent
 Educational Reforms
• Replaced Church control with public control

• Education classified into primary, secondary, technical and university

• Vocational schools started

• Paris University restructured

• Napoleon appointed prominent teachers himself

• Scholarships to brilliant students

• Promoted literature, art and sciences

 Economic Reforms
• Bank of France was opened in 1800

• Public loans were granted to citizenry

• Land redistribution

• Development of means of transport

• Promoted Automation

• Exhibitions to promote French commodities

• Colonial mode of trade with subjugated countries

 [Religious Reforms] The Concordat
• An agreement with Pope Pius VII, called the Concordat, made
Catholicism the state religion.

• The Pope could appoint bishops but only on Napoleon’s

recommendations.

• Church abandoned claims to property which had been nationalized.

• The Gregorian calendar was reintroduced.

• The Church was brought under the state’s supervision entirely.

 Napoleon on the Throne (1804-1814)

1802 1804
Senate elects Napoleon Senate declares
consul for life Napoleon hereditary
Emperor of France

• After gaining power, Napoleon turned • Napoleon believed that he

into a dictator. was meant to spread the
• He strangled the freedom of press and ideals of the Revolution
quashed any dissent. throughout Europe.
• His political opponents were • He chose the path of
imprisoned. conquest for this purpose.
• Soon, he planned to spread the ideals • This also led to his downfall.
of the Revolution.
 Napoleonic Wars
1803 – England declared Battle of Trafalgar (1805) • French and Spanish
war on France, fleets destroyed by the
beginning the War of the British
Third Coalition (1803-05) • Napoleon receded
• This was a colonial from naval battles and
and imperialistic focussed on the field
war
• England wanted Battle of Austerlitz (1805) • Napoleon defeated
safety for its Indian Austria and Prussia
Empire and to • The “Confederation of
spread its business
the Rhine” was formed
• France wanted to by Peace of Pressburg
subjugate entire
Europe and disrupt The Holy Roman Empire was dissolved in August,
English trade 1806 when the Austrian Emperor had to abdicate
his throne.
 Continental System
• Only adversary left was Britain whose power was in its fleet.
• Napoleon decided to go after British trade and commerce with the
continental system
Continental System of Napoleon

European countries Economic boycott of Barricading of the

must carry out England and embargo British Isles and its
Napoleon’s ordinances on British ships colonies
and orders

• England issued orders to prevent French ships from crossing regions

dominated by it.
• It suspended trade with Napoleon and his allies.
 Russia adopted the
Moscow Campaign, Napoleon attacked
strategy of retreat
1812 Russia in June, 1812.
and scorched earth.

Napoleon lost and a Battle of Nations or Battle

large part of army Treaty of of Leipzig, 16-19 October,
1813: Napoleon was
perished due to Fontainebleau, 14th defeated by a joint front of
hunger and severe April, 1814 Prussia, Austria, Britain and
winter. Sweden

Napoleon had to He was made the He was awarded an

abdicate the throne ruler of the island of annual pension of 20
of France. Elba. lakh Francs.
 The countries
The winning
Bourbon initially
countries Her frontiers
Congress of monarchy was disagreed over
convened the were restored
Vienna, 1814 reinstated in the larger
Congress of to 1792 limits.
France. problems of
Vienna in 1814.
Europe.
 Battle of Waterloo, 18th June, 1815
• Napoleon took advantage of the disagreement between the
European powers at the Congress of Vienna.
• He returned from Elba and volunteers started enlisting in his army.
• Battle of Waterloo, 1815: The Seventh Coalition defeated Napoleon
and he was exiled to St. Helena.

Very ambitious, turned friends Repeated and prolonged

Dictatorial attitude
into enemies warfare

Surge of nationalism in Failure of the Continental Peninsular War was a big

subjugated territories System failure

Undue attachment with blood

Russian campaign was suicidal Weak French navy
relatives
 Summary

1789-99 ----> Period of Chaos

1799-1803 ----> Period of Stability

Cartography ----> The Science of making maps

Summary
Summary