ENGM115 – Organisations and
Systems
Session 2a: Introduction to Systems
Introduction to Systems
What is systems theory?
What is a system?
Characteristics & properties of systems
Control systems
Why we need to study systems theory
Recommended reading
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What is Systems Theory?
Systems theory is the study of the
behaviour and interactions within and
between systems
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Definition of a System
The Open University defines a system as follows:-
"A system is an assembly of parts where :
The parts or components are connected together
in an organised way.
The parts or components are affected by being in
the system (and are changed by leaving it).
The assembly does something.
The assembly has been identified by a person as
being of special interest."
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Model of a System
System Boundary
Environment
INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT
Environment
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Types of System
Open - interact with their environment (e.g. social)
Closed - self-contained
Deterministic - predictable
Probabilistic - some conditions can be predicted
(probably!)
Self-organising - adapt and react to inputs and stimuli,
in uncertain way
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Sub-Systems
All systems are composed of inter-related parts,
called sub-systems
Systems are typically viewed as hierarchical, but...
A system as a whole is greater than the sum of its
parts - known as ‘holism’
A part of the system cannot be changed without
affecting the other parts (coupling)
Sub-systems should follow the goals of the higher
systems, not their own (sub-optimality)
Systems contain hard and soft properties
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System Objectives
All systems have objectives, but setting them may not
be easy for a number of reasons:
Personal & organisational objectives
Multiple objectives
Conflicting objectives
Constraints
Systems approach is top-down - what must be done is
determined before how it should be done
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Hard and Soft Properties
Hard properties Soft properties
can be defined, are imprecise and
measured or matters of
assessed in an individual values
objective way and preferences
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Summary So Far…
Systems theory helps us to identify what a system is
and how it will behave
Systems are made up of interacting parts, and the
system itself interacts with its environment (inputs and
outputs)
Systems have objectives i.e. a purpose
Systems have hard and soft properties
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Why do we need control?
To ensure system objectives are being met
A system must be controlled to keep it steady, or to
enable it to change safely
Control is required because unpredictable disturbances
enter the system
In order to have a control system, a plan must exist
Control is dependent on the receipt and processing of
information
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Model of a Control System
Inputs Process Outputs
Effector Comparator Sensor
Standard
Feedback loop
Elements of a Control System
Sensor - receives inputs to the control system
Standard - contains predetermined system objectives
Comparator - compares information or data received
from the sensor against the standard
Effector - exercises control action
Feedback - information returned from the output of the
system to the systems inputs
Feedback loop - term describing the feedback process
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Types of Feedback
Negative feedback - information indicates that
the system is deviating from its planned course,
measures taken to reverse this
Actual course Planned course
Negative feedback
Positive feedback - escalation of deviation,
but may be beneficial
(or not!)
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Feedforward
Senses outputs and environmental events (or factors)
Predicts what will happen (using model)
Corrects the systems activities accordingly to meet
future standards
Corrective action may change inputs, system structure,
system objectives as well as system outputs
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Control System Design
Additional factors to be considered:
What is the importance of environmental factors?
Is control action possible?
How much information should be measured?
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Summary So Far…
Systems are an organised set of components,
which have some purpose and a boundary
Systems are composed of smaller systems or sub-
systems which interact with each other and/or the
environment
The extent of dependence between sub-systems is
known as the degree of coupling
Feedback provides information on the performance
of a system which can be used to adjust its
behaviour
Feedforward incorporates a prediction element in
the control feedback loop
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Total Systems Vs Piecemeal Approach
Total systems approach based on concept that all sub-
systems are related and cannot be considered in
isolation
Activities of some sub-systems may be sub-optimal
when considered alone, but not in context of whole
system e.g. production and stock control
Important in design of computerised information
systems - allows integration of functional areas rather
than traditional demarcations of activities
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Technical & Behavioural Aspects
Business information systems are socio-technical
systems, composed of machines and devices
(technical) and people (social)
Understanding these systems requires a technical
approach and a behavioural approach
Technical - management science, computer science,
operations management (‘hard’)
Behavioural - sociology, psychology, economics (‘soft’)
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Socio-Technical Approach
Combines technical and behavioural aspects in the
study of systems because:
Problems with systems are rarely purely technical or
purely behavioural
Optimising the system as a whole may require sub-
optimisation of technical components to fit
organisational needs
Organisations learn and change which can impact on
the technology
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Why Study Systems Theory?
Useful means of describing & analysing business
systems
Creates awareness of subsystems (& potentially
conflicting goals)
Helps in design & development of IS to ensure serves
goals of organisation as a whole
Helps identify the effect of the environment
Highlights the dynamic aspects of business
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