Fabric Manufacturing

Technology
Fabric Manufacturing
Technology
Weaving and Knitting

K. Thangamani and S. Sundaresan

First edition published 2022
by CRC Press
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ISBN: 978-0-367-42583-8 (hbk)
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DOI: 10.1201/9780367853686
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 This work is dedicated to
my late father R. Kandasamy, mother Chinnammal,
Uncle A. Subramaniam
and my brothers and sisters
who have given me inspiration and support
throughout my educational, and professional life.
Dr. K. Thangamani
Contents
Preface...................................................................................................................... xv
Authors ...................................................................................................................xvii

Chapter 1 Introduction ..........................................................................................1

1.1 Clothing .....................................................................................1
1.2 Raw Materials............................................................................1
1.3 Spinning.....................................................................................1
1.3.1 Ring Spinning ..............................................................2
1.3.2 Open-End Spinning......................................................2
1.4 Yarn Numbering System ...........................................................2

Chapter 2 Fabric Formation Methods ...................................................................5

2.1 Weaving .....................................................................................5
2.2 Knitting......................................................................................7
2.3 Nonwoven ..................................................................................8

Weaving

Chapter 3 Yarn Preparation for Weaving ............................................................ 11

3.1 Winding ................................................................................... 11
3.1.1 Objectives of Winding................................................ 11
3.1.2 Winding Process ........................................................ 11
3.1.3 Winding Machine ....................................................... 12
3.1.3.1 The Winding Drum .................................... 13
3.1.3.2 Yarn Clearers .............................................. 13
3.1.3.3 Supply System............................................. 14
3.1.3.4 Stop Motion ................................................ 14
3.1.3.5 Tensioners ................................................... 15
3.1.4 Yarn Faults ................................................................. 15
3.2 Warping ................................................................................... 15
3.2.1 Necessity for Warping ................................................ 15
3.2.2 Warping Machine ....................................................... 15
3.3 Sizing....................................................................................... 18
3.3.1 Benefts of Sizing ....................................................... 18
3.3.2 Characteristics of Size Film ....................................... 18
3.3.3 Sizing Terms............................................................... 18

vii
viii Contents

3.3.4 Optimum Level of Size Add-On ................................ 18

3.3.5 Sizing Machine........................................................... 19
3.3.5.1 Creel ............................................................ 19
3.3.5.2 Size Box ......................................................20
3.3.5.3 Drying Unit.................................................20
3.3.5.4 Beaming ......................................................20
3.3.6 Preparation of Size Mix or Paste................................20

Chapter 4 Weaving—Basic Mechanisms............................................................ 23

4.1 Shedding .................................................................................. 23
4.2 Weft Insertion ..........................................................................24
4.3 Beat-Up ....................................................................................24
4.4 Warp Let-Off ...........................................................................25
4.5 Fabric Take-Up ........................................................................ 27
4.5.1 Mechanical Take-Up .................................................. 27
4.5.2 Electronic Take-Up .................................................... 27
4.6 Stop Motions............................................................................28

Chapter 5 Shedding............................................................................................. 31
5.1 Tappet or Cam Shedding ......................................................... 31
5.1.1 Negative Cam Shedding ............................................. 31
5.1.2 Positive Cam Shedding............................................... 33
5.2 Dobby Shedding ...................................................................... 33
5.2.1 Negative Dobby .......................................................... 33
5.2.2 Positive Dobby............................................................34
5.3 Jacquard Shedding...................................................................34

Chapter 6 Shuttle Weaving ................................................................................. 39

6.1 Conventional Looms................................................................ 39
6.2 Timing Diagram of Shuttle Loom ...........................................40
6.3 Automatic Looms .................................................................... 41

Chapter 7 Shuttleless Weaving............................................................................ 45

7.1 Limitations of Shuttle Weaving ............................................... 45
7.2 Principles of Shuttleless Weft Insertion .................................. 45
7.3 Weft Accumulators.................................................................. 45
7.3.1 Drum Storage Accumulator .......................................46
7.3.2 Loop Storage Accumulator ........................................ 47
7.4 Selvedges ................................................................................. 48
7.4.1 Conventional or Shuttle Selvedge............................... 48
7.4.2 Tucked-In Selvedge .................................................... 49
7.4.3 Leno Selvedge ............................................................ 49
7.4.4 Fused Selvedge ........................................................... 50
Contents ix

Chapter 8 Projectile Weaving ............................................................................. 51

8.1 Principle of Projectile Weft Insertion ...................................... 52
8.2 Warp Let-Off Mechanism ....................................................... 52
8.3 Shedding Mechanisms............................................................. 52
8.4 Torsion-Rod Picking Mechanism ............................................ 55
8.5 Beat-Up .................................................................................... 57
8.6 Salient Features of Projectile Weaving Machines ................... 58

Chapter 9 Rapier Weaving .................................................................................. 61

9.1 Types of Rapier Weaving Machines ........................................ 61
9.1.1 Single Rapier Machines.............................................. 61
9.1.2 Double Rigid Rapier Machines .................................. 61
9.1.3 Double Flexible Rapier Machines .............................. 62
9.2 Methods of Double Rapier Weft Insertion .............................. 62
9.2.1 Tip Transfer or Dewas System ................................... 63
9.2.2 Loop Transfer or Gabler System ................................64
9.3 Rapier Heads ...........................................................................64
9.4 Rapier Drives ........................................................................... 65
9.5 Rapier Motion .......................................................................... 67
9.6 Salient Features of Rapier Weaving Machines........................ 68

Chapter 10 Air-Jet Weaving .................................................................................. 71

10.1 Principle of Air-Jet Weaving ................................................... 71
10.2 Air-Jet Weft Insertion Confgurations ..................................... 71
10.2.1 Single Nozzle with Confusor Guides and Suction ........ 71
10.2.2 Multiple Nozzles with Guides .................................... 74
10.2.3 Multiple Nozzles with a Profle Reed......................... 74
10.3 Timing Diagram ...................................................................... 74
10.4 Control of Air Blow in Main and Relay Nozzles .................... 76
10.5 Yarn Performance in Air-Jet Insertion .................................... 78
10.6 Air-Jet Weaving Machines ...................................................... 78
10.6.1 Shedding Mechanism ................................................. 78
10.6.2 Yarn Feeders............................................................... 78
10.6.3 Sley Movement ...........................................................80
10.6.4 Selvedge......................................................................80
10.6.5 Air Requirement ......................................................... 81

Chapter 11 Water-Jet Weaving .............................................................................. 83

Chapter 12 Multiphase Weaving ........................................................................... 85

12.1 Weft Direction Shed Wave Principle ....................................... 85
12.2 Warp Direction Shed Wave Principle...................................... 86
12.3 Circular Weaving Machines .................................................... 87
x Contents

Chapter 13 Techno-Economics of Shuttleless Looms .......................................... 89

13.1 Techno-Economics of Projectile Looms ................................. 89
13.2 Techno-Economics of Air-Jet Looms...................................... 89
13.3 Techno-Economics of Rapier Looms ......................................90
13.4 Techno-Economics of Water-Jet Looms..................................90
13.5 Project Cost of Looms and Manufacturing Cost
of Fabrics .................................................................................90
13.5.1 Project Cost and Manufacturing Cost of Fabric
for New Air-Jet Looms ...............................................90
13.5.2 Project Cost and Manufacturing Cost of Fabric
for Second-Hand Projectile Looms ............................92

Chapter 14 Global Weaving Industry ................................................................... 95

14.1 Global Production of Textiles .................................................. 95
14.2 Fabric and Manufacturing Cost at Global Level .....................96
14.2.1 Manufacturing Cost of Spinning Ring Yarn ..............97
14.2.2 Manufacturing Cost for Fabric ...................................97
14.2.3 Share of Labour Cost and Power Cost in
Manufacturing Cost for Knitted Fabric...................... 98
14.2.4 Share of Labour Cost and Power Cost
in Manufacturing Cost for Finished Woven
Fabric.......................................................................... 98
14.3 Textile Scenario in India..........................................................99
14.4 Technological Level of Weaving Industry in India ............... 100
14.5 Cluster-Wise Status of Weaving Industry in India ................ 101
14.6 Future Trends of Global Textile Industry .............................. 102

Knitting

Chapter 15 Fundamentals of Knitting ................................................................ 107

15.1 Comparison of Knitting and Weaving................................... 107
15.2 Knitted Fabric Structure ........................................................ 107
15.2.1 Course....................................................................... 107
15.2.2 Wales ........................................................................ 108
15.2.3 Stitch Density ........................................................... 108
15.2.4 Stitch Length ............................................................ 109
15.2.5 Machine Gauge ........................................................ 109
15.3 Types of Knitting ................................................................... 109
15.3.1 Weft Knitting............................................................ 110
15.3.2 Warp Knitting .......................................................... 110
15.3.3 Comparison of Weft and Warp Knitting .................. 110
Contents xi

Chapter 16 Knitting Needles .............................................................................. 113

16.1 Bearded Needle ..................................................................... 113
16.1.1 Construction of Bearded Needle .............................. 113
16.1.2 Knitting Action of Bearded Needle ......................... 113
16.1.3 Merits and Demerits of Bearded Needle .................. 113
16.2 Latch Needles ........................................................................ 114
16.2.1 Construction of Latch Needles ................................. 114
16.2.2 Knitting Action of Latch Needle .............................. 115
16.2.3 Merits and Demerits of Latch Needle ...................... 116
16.3 Compound Needles ............................................................... 117
16.3.1 Construction and Action of Compound Needles ........117
16.3.2 Merits of Compound Needles .................................. 118

Chapter 17 Principles of Weft Knitting .............................................................. 119

17.1 Knitting Elements of Weft Knitting ...................................... 119
17.1.1 Needle....................................................................... 119
17.1.2 Sinker ....................................................................... 119
17.1.3 Cylinder or Needle Bed ............................................ 120
17.1.4 Feeder ....................................................................... 120
17.1.5 Cam .......................................................................... 120
17.2 Knitting Cycle of Single Jersey Weft Knitting Machine ..........121
17.3 Plain Circular Weft Knitting Machines ................................ 123
17.4 Rib Knitting........................................................................... 124
17.5 Interlock Knitting .................................................................. 127
17.6 Purl Knitting.......................................................................... 128

Chapter 18 Basic Structures of Weft Knitting .................................................... 131

18.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 131
18.2 Knitting Notation................................................................... 131
18.3 Plain Structure ....................................................................... 131
18.4 Rib Structure ......................................................................... 132
18.5 Interlock Structure ................................................................. 132
18.6 Purl Structure ........................................................................ 134

Chapter 19 Types of Knitting Stitches ................................................................ 135

19.1 Knit Stitch.............................................................................. 135
19.2 Float Stitch............................................................................. 135
19.3 Tuck Stitch ............................................................................. 135

Chapter 20 Patterning and Needle Selection ...................................................... 139

20.1 Horizontal Strips ................................................................... 139
20.2 Intarsia ................................................................................... 139
xii Contents

20.3 Plating .................................................................................... 140

20.4 Multitrack Cams .................................................................... 141
20.5 Pattern Wheel ........................................................................ 141
20.6 Needle Selection by Punched Tape ....................................... 141
20.7 Electronic Needle Selection .................................................. 145

Chapter 21 Knitted Fabric Geometry ................................................................. 147

21.1 Stitch Length ......................................................................... 147
21.2 Dimensions of Knitted Fabrics in the Relaxed State............. 147
21.3 Relaxed States ....................................................................... 148
21.4 Tightness Factor..................................................................... 149
21.5 Loop Shape ............................................................................ 149
21.6 Positive Feeders ..................................................................... 149

Chapter 22 Flat Knitting ..................................................................................... 153

22.1 Flat Knitting Machines.......................................................... 153
22.2 Knitting Action of Flat Knitting Machine ............................ 153

Chapter 23 Basics of Warp Knitting ................................................................... 155

23.1 Overlap .................................................................................. 155
23.2 Underlap ................................................................................ 155
23.3 Closed Lap ............................................................................. 155
23.4 Open Lap ............................................................................... 156
23.5 Needle Bar ............................................................................. 156
23.6 Guide Bar............................................................................... 156
23.7 Lapping Diagram and Chain Notation .................................. 157

Chapter 24 Warp Knitting Machines .................................................................. 159

24.1 Types of Warp Knitting Machines ........................................ 159
24.2 Tricot Warp Knitting Machines ............................................ 159
24.3 Raschel Warp Knitting Machines ......................................... 160
24.4 Crochet Warp Knitting Machines ......................................... 163

Chapter 25 Warp Knitted Structures .................................................................. 167

25.1 Locknit................................................................................... 167
25.2 Reverse Locknit ..................................................................... 167
25.3 Two-Bar Tricot ...................................................................... 167
25.4 Sharkskin ............................................................................... 168
25.5 Queenscord ............................................................................ 168
25.6 Satin ....................................................................................... 169
Contents xiii

Nonwoven

Chapter 26 Nonwoven Batt Preparation Methods............................................... 173

26.1 Parallel Laying ...................................................................... 173
26.2 Cross Laying.......................................................................... 174
26.3 Air Laying ............................................................................. 174
26.4 Wet Laying ............................................................................ 175
26.5 Spun Laying........................................................................... 176
26.6 Melt Blown ............................................................................ 176

Chapter 27 Nonwoven Bonding Techniques ....................................................... 179

27.1 Needle Punching ................................................................... 179
27.2 Stitch Bonding ....................................................................... 180
27.3 Hydro-Entanglement (Spunlace Process) .............................. 180
27.4 Thermal Bonding .................................................................. 181
27.4.1 Through-Air Bonding .............................................. 182
27.4.2 Thermal Bonding with Pressure .............................. 182
27.4.3 Thermal Bonding with High Pressure ..................... 182
27.4.4 Thermal Bonding with Point Contact ...................... 183
27.5 Chemical Bonding ................................................................. 183
27.5.1 Saturation Bonding................................................... 183
27.5.2 Foam Bonding .......................................................... 183
27.5.3 Print Bonding ........................................................... 183
27.5.4 Spray Bonding .......................................................... 184

Index ...................................................................................................................... 185

Preface
Even though fabric manufacturing techniques are as old as human civilization, they
took different forms with different raw materials as civilization grew. In prehistoric
days, humans made clothing using leaves. As civilization grew, the raw materials,
as well as the techniques, changed. About 5,000 years ago, the material for clothing
changed from leaves to cotton and silk. The process of weaving by hand was devel-
oped. The weft yarn was inserted using sticks between the top and bottom layers of
warp yarn by hand. It was an art rather than a science. Human skill played a major
role in producing different quality fabrics.
In 1733, Kay made a revolution by inventing the fy shuttle. The art aspect
decreased, and the science aspect increased. In 1785, Cartwright transformed fab-
ric manufacturing into a science and technology by inventing the power loom. For
about two centuries, the basics of weaving were the same until shuttleless weaving
was invented in the last quarter of the 20th century. Similarly, even though knitting
was known fve centuries ago, only in the last 50 years has it emerged as a method of
fabric production. Other than weaving and knitting, the nonwoven method also has
emerged in a big way.
The earlier books written on weaving and weaving preparatory processes were
very elaborate on the details of the mechanism of weaving machines. The advent of
electronics and developments in materials changed the very nature and principles of
mechanism. Hence, in today’s weaving machines, the mechanisms are totally differ-
ent in nature. Therefore, the earlier books became irrelevant. A necessity has arisen
for a new book on fabric manufacture that is concise and at the same time explains
the basic principles precisely. This book, Fabric Manufacturing Technology, is an
attempt to meet this necessity.
All three major methods of fabric manufacture, namely, weaving, knitting and
nonwoven have been dealt with in this book. Since conventional power looms and
pirn-changing automatic looms are giving way to shuttleless looms, no attempt is
made to describe them in detail. The shuttleless loom, with the necessary diagrams,
is described in detail in the weaving section. The principles of weft insertion, the
shedding mechanism, beat-up mechanisms for projectile, rapier, and air-jet looms
are dealt with in the weaving section. Auxiliary motions like let-off and selvedge
motion are also discussed. The basic concepts and principles of weft and warp knitting
are discussed in the knitting section. The methods of batt preparation and bonding
techniques are briefy dealt with in the nonwoven section.
The authors, with two decades of teaching and a decade of industrial experience,
started writing the book with the thought that this book should be useful to the students
of textile technology and fashion technology in undergraduate and polytechnic colleges.
It will also serve as a reference book for understanding the fabric manufacturing
process for professionals who are working in the garment industry.

Dr. K. Thangamani

xv
Authors
Dr. K. Thangamani completed his B. Tech degree in 1981 at PSG College of
Technology, Coimbatore, India and started his career as a trainee engineer at Textool
Company Ltd, Coimbatore. Beginning in 1981, he worked for four years at the National
Textile Corporation Ltd., Bangalore, frst as a management trainee and then as an
assistant technical manager. In 1985, he joined Tamarai Mills Ltd Coimbatore as an
assistant spinning master. From 1988–1990, he was with PSG Polytechnic in research
projects. He completed his M. Tech from Bharathiar University in 1993. Between
1990 and 1997, he joined PSG College of Technology as a project offcer with the
United Nations Development Programme and Government of India—assisting the
National Jute Development Project and conducting more than ffty training programs
and ten seminars/conferences throughout south India for promotion of diversifed jute
products. The jute shopping bags were introduced at that time. He was with NIFT
TEA Knitwear Fashion Institute, Tirupur as an assistant director for a brief period.
In 1998, he joined Kumaraguru College of Technology, Coimbatore as a faculty
member in the Department of Textile Technology and retired as professor of textile
technology in 2020. His areas of interest are knitting technology, nonwoven, com-
posites, and fabric manufacture. He obtained his PhD in textile technology in 2007
from Bharathiar University and is a recognized supervisor for PhD scholars at Anna
University, Chennai. Under his supervision, fve scholars have obtained their PhDs from
Anna University, Chennai and one scholar from Bharathiar University, Coimbatore.
He was executive committee member of the Institution of Engineers (India),
Tamil Nadu State Center for eight years from 2002–2010. He was organizing sec-
retary for the International Conference on “Advancements in Specialty Textiles
and Their Applications in Material Engineering and Medical Sciences” organized
jointly with Technical University of Liberec, Czech Republic at Kumaraguru
College of Technology, Coimbatore in 2014. He was the joint organizing secretary
for the International Conference on “Waste Water Management” organized by the
Departments of Textile Technology, Bio Technology and Civil Engineering with
Tel Aviv University, Israel and Technical University of Liberec, Czech Republic, at
Kumaraguru College of Technology, Coimbatore in 2017.
He is one of the editors for Waste Water Management, which contains selected
articles from the International Conference on “Waste Water Management” con-
ducted in 2017 at the Kumaraguru College of Technology. He published more than
25 research articles in International journals. He is a reviewer for three International
research journals and reviewed more than 75 manuscripts.

Dr. S. Sundaresan has completed his B. Tech, M. Tech and PhD in textile technol-
ogy and MBA in business administration. He has worked in textile industry as a
supervisor for 10 years. He has more than 15 years of teaching experience, and at
present, is working as associate professor in the Department of Textile Technology,
Kumaraguru College of Technology, Coimbatore. He has published more than
20 papers in leading journals. He has co-authored Home Furnishing (Woodhead
Publishing, India) and has undertaken consultancy works in the industry.
xvii
 1 Introduction

1.1 CLOTHING
Clothing is one of the three basic needs of human beings, the other two needs being
food and shelter. The production of clothing was carried out in one form or another
from the early days of civilization. In olden days, the materials used for clothing
production were mainly natural fbres, such as cotton, wool and silk. While cot-
ton is cultivated from the cotton plant, wool is taken from sheep and silk from the
silkworm. The cotton and wool fbres themselves cannot be used directly to form
fabrics. These have to be converted into an intermediate product, namely yarn, and
the yarn is converted into fabrics. The process of converting the yarn into fabric
is called weaving, and the equipment used for weaving is called a loom. In earlier
days, other than weaving, fabric was also made from yarn by hand knitting using
two pins.
Even though clothing is the main application for textile fabrics, nowadays, the
uses of textile fabrics are found in every feld. Specially manufactured textile fabrics
are extensively used in hygiene products in the medical feld, environmental protec-
tion, transportation, geotextiles, conveyor belts and safety and protective fabrics,
among others.

1.2 RAW MATERIALS

Even though natural fbres were available abundantly, synthetic raw materials were
developed to augment the properties of natural raw materials for fabric production
from the middle of 20th century. Of the synthetic raw materials polyester, nylon
and rayon are used extensively for fabric production. The raw materials for textile
applications should be in the form of fbres. The fbres will have very large length to
width/thickness ratio; only then can they be used for textile application. The textile
fbres should have strength, elongation, fexibility, abrasion resistance and moisture
absorption for better performance in fabrics.

The fbres used for textile applications are:

Natural fbres: Cotton, linen, jute, hemp, ramie, wool and silk
Synthetic fbres: Polyester, nylon, rayon, spandex, olefn, aramid, acrylic, carbon
and glass

1.3 SPINNING
The fbre length of cotton varies from 12mm to 38mm, and the fbre length of wool
varies from 50mm to 100mm. The synthetic fbres can be manufactured in required

DOI: 10.1201/9780367853686-1 1
2 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

lengths or as flaments form. The process of converting the fbres into yarn is called
spinning. Silk is available naturally in flament form, and it does not require spin-
ning. There are two types of spinning mainly used for producing cotton yarn: (1) ring
spinning and (2) open-end spinning.

1.3.1 RING SPINNING

Spinning is a process in which the fbre strands are aligned parallel and twisted. The
twisting of the strand of fbres increases the friction forces between the fbres and
gives strength to the strand to make it a yarn. Twisting the strand is done by a ring
and traveller system and this is called ring spinning. Figure 1.1 shows a ring spinning
system.

1.3.2 OPEN-END SPINNING

In open-end spinning, the fbres are fed into the opening roller in the form of a sliver.
The opening roller opens the fbres and feeds the fbres in the form of a strand to the
rotor which is rotating at very high speed. The rotating rotor gives twist to the strand
and the yarn is taken out. Because a rotor is used to give the twist, this is also called
rotor spinning. Rotor spinning is suitable to produce course yarns from short fbres.
Figure 1.2 shows a rotor spinning system.
The fbre arrangement in a stable fbre yarn is shown in Figure 1.3, and a photo-
graph of yarn is shown in Figure 1.4

1.4 YARN NUMBERING SYSTEM

Yarn is made from short fbres and the uniformity of the yarn depends on the uni-
form placement of fbres in its axis. This is not achieved fully. Its diameter varies in
its cross section. Moreover measuring the yarn diameter is diffcult due to its struc-
ture. Therefore, a linear density measurement is used to number the yarn
There are two methods by which yarn is numbered

1. Indirect system
This is the traditional system that originated from England. In this system
length per unit weight is specifed. The number of hanks (840 yards)
present in 1 pound of yarn is def ned as the yarn number or yarn count.
Suppose in a particular yarn if 10 hanks (8,400 yards) weighs 1 pound,
then the yarn count of that yarn will be 10s Ne. (“Ne” refers to English
count.) In the indirect system, the higher the yarn number or count, the
fner will be the yarn. For example, 40s Ne yarn will be fner than 20s Ne
yarn.

2. Direct system
In the direct system, the weight per unit length is specifed. The weight in
grams per 1000 metres of yarn is defned as the yarn count and this count
is called tex. For example if 1000 metres of yarn weighs 40 grams, then
Introduction 3

FIGURE 1.1 Ring spinning system.

FIGURE 1.2 Rotor spinning system.

4 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 1.3 Fibre arrangement in yarn.

FIGURE 1.4 Photograph of yarn.

the yarn count is 40tex. In the direct system, the higher the yarn count
number, the courser will be the yarn. For numbering flaments and fbres,
another term is used: denier. Denier is defned as the weight in grams of
9000 metres of flament yarn.
 2 Fabric Formation
Methods

Fabrics are made by assembling yarn or fbres or a combination of both. They are
assembled in such a way that due to their inter fbre frictional force, they produce a
material that has strength, elongation, fexibility, abrasion resistance and other prop-
erties suitable for clothing and other end uses. There are mainly three methods by
which fabrics can be produced for major applications. Figure 2.1 shows the fabric
formation methods. Each method has its own merits and demerits, and each has its
own end uses.
The three main fabric formation methods are

1. Weaving,
2. Knitting and
3. Nonwoven.

2.1 WEAVING
Weaving is a process in which two sets of yarns are interlaced to form a fabric. The
lengthwise set of yarn is called warp, and the widthwise yarn is called weft. To
make fabric, the lengthwise yarn and the widthwise yarn have to be interlaced in
such a way that the warp yarns pass under and over the weft yarns in a systematic
order. Similarly, the weft passes under and over the warp yarns in a systematic order.
Figure 2.2 show the passage of warp and weft yarn in woven fabric. Figure 2.3 shows
a woven fabric structure.
During weaving, the warp yarns are split into two layers which is called a shed.
The weft yarn is inserted into the shed and pushed to the point where the warp
becomes the cloth. In earlier days, the method employed for the insertion of weft was
by means of a stick with a hooked end. The stick was inserted frst in one direction
and then in the other direction.
In the middle of 18th century, a fy shuttle with a weft package was invented
to insert the weft inside the warp shed. The shuttle was thrown through the warp
shed from one side and then from the other side. This eliminated the weft inser-
tion by sticks and made a revolution in fabric making. Initially, propelling the
shuttle from one side to the other was done manually using a wooden frame
called a handloom. After the invention of steam power, the shuttle was propelled
mechanically using steam power. This weaving frame was called a power loom.
Since the middle of 20th century, attempts have been made to replace the shuttle
for weft insertion, and as a result, nowadays shuttleless looms share bulk of fabric
production.

DOI: 10.1201/9780367853686-2 5
6 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 2.1 Fabric formation methods.

FIGURE 2.2 Passage of warp and weft yarn in woven fabric.

FIGURE 2.3 A woven fabric structure.

Fabric Formation Methods 7

2.2 KNITTING
Fabric is formed in knitting by the interlooping of loops of yarns such that one loop is
passed through another loop. Due to the loop structure, knitted fabric does not have
dimensional stability, but at the same time, it has more stretch and recovery proper-
ties. This is most useful in producing inner garments and formftting garments. The
knitted fabrics have contributed a share of about 30% of the total textile fabrics
production. Knitted fabrics are bulkier and softer compared to woven fabric, and
they are fnding application in outer garments in a large way. Even a single yarn is
suffcient to form a knitted fabric in knitting. In earlier days, knitting was done using
hand pins, then frame knitting was developed. Nowadays, sophisticated knitting
machines have been developed with higher production rates for producing a variety
of knitted garments to cater to the needs of modern society. Figure 2.4 shows the
loops of knitted fabric. Figure 2.5 shows a photograph of a knitted fabric structure.

FIGURE 2.4 Loops of knitted fabric.

FIGURE 2.5 Knitted fabric structure.

8 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

2.3 NONWOVEN
Nonwoven fabrics are formed directly from the fbres by arranging the fbres in a
sheet form and binding the fbres together either mechanically or otherwise. In this
process, the necessity of producing the yarn is eliminated. For the production of
nonwoven fabrics, synthetic fbres are largely used, and the use of natural fbres are
limited. Nonwoven fabrics are not suitable for clothing purposes, but they have a
variety of other applications. Technical textiles produced by nonwoven method are
fnding applications in hygiene products, masks, carpets, foor coverings. automo-
biles, flters and so on. Figure 2.6 shows the random fbre arrangement in nonwoven
fabrics. Figure 2.7 shows a nonwoven fabric.

FIGURE 2.6 Schematic of the fbre arrangement in nonwoven structure.

FIGURE 2.7 Nonwoven fabric.

Weaving
 3 Yarn Preparation
for Weaving
The yarn manufactured in the spinning machine contains thick and thin places
and objectionable faults. But for satisfactory weaving, the yarn should be free
from thick and thin places and objectionable faults. Moreover, the packages from
a spinning machine are small in the form of cops which usually weigh about 80g
to 100g. To transport the yarn from spinning mills to weaving mills, the smaller
packages have to be converted to larger packages. Moreover, the cops have to be
emptied for reuse in the spinning section. All these parameters require a process
called winding.

3.1 WINDING
Winding is the frst process in yarn preparation for weaving. Winding is basically
transforming the yarn from small package to another larger package and clearing
the yarn from its defects. The warp yarn has to withstand many load cycles during
the weaving process, and any defect in the yarn may cause a breakage and causes
fabric fault or loom stoppage. Hence, it becomes absolutely necessary to clear the
yarn from its defects as much as possible. By the winding process, the yarn faults are
removed to the maximum extent.

3.1.1 OBJECTIVES OF WINDING

The main objectives of winding are

1. converting the spinning cops into larger packages weighing about 1kg to 1.5kg.
2. removing the thick and thin places, slubs and sloughs present in the yarn.
3. removing the objectionable faults.
4. giving a wax coating when the yarn is used for knitting.

3.1.2 WINDING PROCESS

The winding process gives an opportunity to clear the yarn from its defects. This is
a simple process in which the yarn from the spinning cop is rewound onto a new,
larger package. During rewinding, the yarn is cut at the faulty places and rejoined
either by knotting or splicing. Figure 3.1 shows the working principle of winding
schematically.

DOI: 10.1201/9780367853686-4 11
12 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 3.1 Schematic diagram of winding.

3.1.3 WINDING MACHINE

The winding machine consists essentially of the following sections:

1. The winding drum

2. Yarn clearers
Yarn Preparation for Weaving 13

3. Supply system
4. Stop motion
5. Tensioner

The yarn from the supply package passes through the tension device, yarn clear-
ing unit, stop motion and onto the rotary traverse winding drum. When the winding
drum is driven by the motor the take-up package rotates by friction drawing the yarn
from the supply package. Whenever a yarn fault, such as thick places, snarls etc.,
is detected by the clearing unit, the yarn is cut at that place, and the yarn is again
rejoined. Thin places also will be removed, because the yarn will break at that place
due to tension, and rejoined again. Hence, the majority of the yarn faults will be
removed by the winding process.

3.1.3.1 The Winding Drum

The winding drum is a cylindrical grooved metallic or bakelite drum that rotates
the take up package by frictional contact. All the high-speed winders adopt the
negative friction drive as it is mechanically less complex. The groove in the drum
gives traverse movement to the yarn, which lays the yarn throughout the width
of the package. This groove arrangement eliminates the necessity for a separate
traverse mechanism. The angle of the groove in relation to the drum axis deter-
mines the angle of wind on the yarn package. The normal range of angle of wind
is from 30° to 55°. As the angle of wind increases the density of the package will
degrease. The conicity of the package will vary from 5°57′ to 9°15′ depending on
the requirement.
The drums are normally made with 1.0, 1.5, 2.0 and 2.5 scroll. For a 2.5 scroll,
the drum makes 2.5 revolutions for one complete traverse, and this corresponds to
the minimum angle of wind and maximum density.

3.1.3.2 Yarn Clearers

The process of removing the thin, thick places and objectionable faults is called yarn
clearing.
There are two types of yarn clearers:

1. Mechanical yarn clearer

2. Electronic yarn clearer

The mechanical yarn clearer, called slub catchers, consists of two plates separated
by a gap as shown in Figure 3.2. This gap can be adjusted according to the require-
ments by moving the adjustable plate. The yarn passes through the gap between the
plates. Whenever a yarn fault having thickness more than the size of the gap enters
the gap, it cannot pass through the gap, and hence, the yarn is broken at that place
and a knot is put.
The electronic yarn clearer consists of a capacitor having two plates as shown
in Figure 3.3. The yarn is passed through the plates. The capacitance of the plates
varies whenever the yarn thickness varies. The variation in the capacitance is
measured and fed into the controlling unit, and whenever the variation exceeds
14 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 3.2 Mechanical yarn clearer.

FIGURE 3.3 Electronic yarn clearer.

the predetermined limit, the control unit actuates a cutter, and the cutter cuts the
yarn.
The faulty section of the yarn is removed either manually or by air suction; then,
the yarn ends are joined by a knot.

3.1.3.3 Supply System

The supply section consists of a bobbin holder and a yarn guide. In automatic
winding machines, the bobbin holder will accommodate six or more number of
bobbins.

3.1.3.4 Stop Motion

Stop motion is used to stop the winding whenever yarn is broken. This may be
mechanical or electronically controlled.
Yarn Preparation for Weaving 15

3.1.3.5 Tensioners
A tensioner is provided to give tension to the yarn. There are two types of tensioners:
One type is a disc type, and the other is a friction type. In the disc-type tensioner,
the yarn passes between two discs. The tension is adjusted by means of adding addi-
tional weights on the top disc. In the friction-type tensioner, the tension is adjusted
by changing the angle of contact between the yarn and the friction imparting element

3.1.4 YARN FAULTS

Yarn faults are classifed into 16 categories according to the length and thickness of
the fault. The Uster classmate system is used to classify the yarn faults. The Uster
classmate system accounts and classifes the imperfections into 16 groups according
to the cross-sectional area and fault length. The four classifcations, A, B, C and D,
correspond to four fault lengths, namely 0.1cm, 1.0cm, 2.0cm and 4.0cm. A1 to A4
indicates the percentage increase in cross-sectional area from 80% to 400% corre-
sponding to the increase in diameter from 59 % to 153% and similarly for B1 to B4,
C1 to C4 and D1 to D4. A1 is the shortest in length and smallest in diameter, and D4
is the longest in length and largest in diameter

3.2 WARPING
Warping is the second process in yarn preparation for weaving. Warping is the pro-
cess of transferring many yarns from a creel of single end packages into a parallel
sheet of yarn wound on a beam called a warper’s beam.

3.2.1 NECESSITY FOR WARPING

To weave a cloth of say 140cm width with 30 ends per cm, a total of 4200 warp yarn
is required in the beam during weaving. It is not possible to arrange 4200 supply
packages or cones in the creel in order to wound the yarn on the weaver’s beam.
Hence, the total number of yarns are divided into an equal number of smaller sizes. In
this case, seven beams are required, each having 600 yarns. Then yarns in the seven
beams are put together to get the required 4200 yarn to weave the fabric. This process
is known as warping.

3.2.2 WARPING MACHINE

A warping machine consists of a creel system to keep the supply packages, tension-
ers to impart the necessary tension to the yarn, stop motion to stop the machine
whenever yarn is broken and an expanding zigzag comb that can be used to adjust
the width of the yarn sheet to the required level. Figure 3.4 shows the schematic
diagram of a warping machine. Figure 3.4a shows warping machine creel. Figure
3.4b shows yarn passage in warping machine creel. Figure 3.4c shows the warping
machine.
16 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 3.4 Working principle of warping.

FIGURE 3.4(A) Warping machine creel.

Yarn Preparation for Weaving 17

FIGURE 3.4(B) Yarn passage in warping machine creel.

FIGURE 3.4(C) Warping machine.

18 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

3.3 SIZING
During weaving, due to shed formation, the warp yarn is subjected to stresses and
abrasion against adjacent yarn and metal surfaces. Applying a coating of a polymeric
flm–forming agent on the warp yarn enables the yarn to withstand the stresses to
which it is subjected during weaving. This is called slashing or sizing. The following
benefts are obtained due to sizing.

3.3.1 BENEFITS OF SIZING

1. The strength of the yarn is increased.
2. Yarn hairiness that would create a problem during weaving is reduced.
3. Abrasion resistance of the yarn is increased.
4. The liberation of fuff and fy during weaving is reduced.
5. Sizing keeps the slack and broken flaments together in low twist yarns.

3.3.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF SIZE FILM

1. The size flm should be fexible so that it will not affect the fexibility of the
warp yarn.
2. It should not be brittle.
3. The size coating should not be a permanent one. Its purpose will be over
once weaving is completed. Hence, size materials should be able to be
removed during the desizing process.
4. The size flm must coat the yarn surface without excessive penetration into
the yarn, because complete desizing will not be possible if the size material
is penetrated deeply into the yarn.

3.3.3 SIZING TERMS

The following terms are used in sizing:

Size concentration:
The mass of oven dry solid size material in size paste expressed in percent-
age is called a size concentration.
Size take-up or add-on:
The mass of size paste taken up per unit weight of oven-dry unsized yarn
expressed in a percentage is called size take-up.
Size percentage:
The mass of oven-dry size per unit weight of oven-dry unsized yarn.

3.3.4 OPTIMUM LEVEL OF SIZE ADD-ON

The size add-on percentage should be optimal to give minimum warp breakage dur-
ing weaving. Excessive size makes the yarn stiff and less extensible. An inadequate
size will result in insuffcient strength and smoothness.
Yarn Preparation for Weaving 19

3.3.5 SIZING MACHINE

The major parts of sizing machine are the creel, size box, drying unit and beaming.
The schematic diagram of a sizing machine is shown in Figure 3.5

3.3.5.1 Creel
Creel is designed in such a way that the necessary number of warp beams are
arranged in two rows, one over the other, required to make up the total number of
warp yarns in sized beam. Figure 3.5a shows sizing machine creel to accommodate
warp beams.

FIGURE 3.5 Working principle of a sizing machine.

FIGURE 3.5(A) Sizing machine creel.

20 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

3.3.5.2 Size Box

Size box is the most important section of sizing machine. During sizing the sheet of
yarn is passed under impregnating rolls in the size box containing size mix in hot
condition. The amount of size pick-up depends on the sizing condition like size-mix
concentration, speed, type of yarn and so on. After impregnating the yarn is passed
through squeezing rollers that will squeeze the excess size in the yarn.

3.3.5.3 Drying Unit

The drying unit consists of number of cylinders arranged in two rows one over the
other and heated with steam. The yarn impregnated with size is passed over the
heated surfaces of the cylinders, which results in drying up of the yarn. Figure 3.5(b)
shows drying cylinder of sizing machine.

3.3.5.4 Beaming
The dried sheet of yarn is passed through a pair of lease rods, which will separate
the sticky yarns into individual yarn. Then the yarn is wound on the weaver’s beam.
This is called as beaming. Figure 3.5c shows the beaming unit of sizing machine.

3.3.6 PREPARATION OF SIZE MIX OR PASTE

Aqueous sizes are solutions of one or more adhesives, a lubricant and one or more
additives. Generally, aqueous sizes are prepared by cooking size ingredients in size
cookers with necessary water and temperature.

FIGURE 3.5(B) Drying cylinder of sizing machine.

Yarn Preparation for Weaving 21

FIGURE 3.5(C) Beaming units of sizing machine.

The ingredients of size mix include the following:

1. Adhesives: Adhesives are usually natural starches such as sago, corn, potato,
wheat, modifed starches and synthetic sizes, such as polyvinyl alcohol
(PVA) and acrylic copolymers.
2. Lubricants The most common lubricants are tallow, spermaceti or paraffn
wax Lubricants will be added normally 5% to 10% weight of adhesives. The
purpose of a lubricant is to reduce fbre-to-yarn friction during weaving.
The reduction of yarn-to-yarn friction facilitates the beat-up of the weft.
3. Additives: Additives are defoamers, emulsifers, deliquescent or antiseptics.
 4 Weaving—Basic
Mechanisms
Weaving is a process in which the lengthwise yarns, called warp, and width-wise
yarns, called weft, are interlaced. The interlacement of warp and wept yarns results
in a material called fabric having tensile strength, fexibility and other essential
properties. Each thread or yarn in a warp is called an end, and each thread in the
weft is called a pick. The American term for weft is flling.
The following six basic mechanisms are essential for continuous weaving:

1. Shedding
2. Weft insertion
3. Beat-up
4. Warp let-off
5. Fabric take-up
6. Stop motions

Shedding, picking/weft insertion and beat-up are called main or primary motions,
and warp let-off and fabric take-up are called secondary motions. There are three
other motions, namely warp protector, warp stop and weft stop motions, necessary
for good weaving. These motions are called auxiliary motions. Figure 4.1 shows the
schematics of weaving.

4.1 SHEDDING
Shedding is the process of separating the sheet of warp into two layers one at the top
and another at bottom making a V-shape opening as shown in Figure 4.2. This open-
ing is called a shed. Figure 4.2 shows the geometry of warp shed.
The shed height H is given by

H = B tan A,

where B is the distance between the heald eye and the fell of the cloth and A is the
angle between warp shed and fabric plane. It is advantageous to have a small H in
order to reduce the stress on the warp. The magnitude of H is determined by the weft
insertion device. Each warp yarn drawn through the eye of a thin metallic bar called
a heald is guided by that heald. Healds that guide the warp yarns with the same pat-
tern are attached to the same heald frame. When a heald frame moves up or down,
all the yarns attached to that heald frame moves up or down together along with that
heald frame. Changing the order of lifting the heald frame will result in a different
weaving pattern.

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24 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 4.1 Schematics of weaving.

FIGURE 4.2 Warp shed geometry.

4.2 WEFT INSERTION

Weft insertion is the second important motion after shedding in the weaving process.
Weft insertion is the process of inserting the weft yarn in between the top and bottom
layers of warp shed. This can be achieved by means of a fy shuttle in shuttle weaving
and by means of a projectile, rapier and a jet of air or water in shuttleless weaving.
Figure 4.3 shows the different weft insertion methods in weaving machines.

4.3 BEAT-UP
Beat-up is the process of pushing the newly inserted weft yarn into the fell of the
cloth by means of reed. Reed is a rectangular closed comb of fat metal strips placed
Weaving—Basic Mechanisms 25

FIGURE 4.3 Different weft insertion methods.

closely with small spacing. This. spacing corresponds to the spacing between the
warp yarns. The spaces between two metal strips are called dents. The fell of the
cloth is the meeting point of the warp yarn and fabric. Figure 4.4 shows the beat-up
process in a loom
Beating up of weft yarn requires a considerable amount of energy. At the fnal
stage of beat-up, the bending of warp and weft yarn takes place due to crimp inter-
change. To overcome the frictional reactions, the pushing of the weft yarn to the fell
of the cloth is done in a harsh manner that gives the name beat-up. During beat-up as
the weft yarn is being pushed to the fell of the cloth warp tension increases and the
fabric tension decreases.

4.4 WARP LET-OFF

A warp let-off mechanism releases the warp yarn from the sized warp beam at uni-
form tension as the weaving proceeds. The let-off mechanism controls tension in the
warp yarn by controlling the rate of fow of warp yarn. The warp beam diminishes
26 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 4.4 Beat-up.

in diameter as the weaving continues, necessitating a gradual increase in the angular

movement of the beam in order to maintain a constant fow of warp.
An increase in warp tension decreases warp crimp and increases weft crimp.
Crimp is defned as the ratio between extra length of yarn present to length of fabric
where extra length of yarn is the length of yarn present in the sample minus the
sample length. The crimp ratio of warp and weft crimp determines the fabric quality.
Crimp affects the weight, fexibility and thickness of fabric. Hence, maintaining a
uniform warp tension throughout weaving is very important to maintain fabric qual-
ity and shrinkage level.
Let-off mechanisms are classifed into positive and negative let-off mechanisms.
In the negative let-off mechanism, the tension in the warp yarn is used to release
the warp yarn from the warp beam. When the tension in the warp yarn exceeds
the frictional forces in the let-off mechanism, the beam rotates, and warp yarn is
released. Negative let-off mechanism are used in nonautomatic looms. Heavier fab-
rics with high picks per cm are diffcult to weave with a negative let-off mechanism.
Figure 4.5 illustrates the principle of a negative let-off mechanism. The frictional
force can be increased or decreased by moving the dead-weight away or toward the
fulcrum point.
In a positive let-off mechanism, the release of warp yarn is controlled by con-
trolling the rotation of the warp beam positively by a separate mechanism. The
mechanism may be either mechanical or electronic. In a positive mechanical let-
off motion, the tension variation in the warp is sensed by a lever, and this is fed
in to the let-off mechanism through a ratchet wheel, which, in turn, will rotate
the beam accordingly. A few examples of positive mechanical let-off motions
Weaving—Basic Mechanisms 27

FIGURE 4.5 Negative let-off mechanism.

are the Bartlett let-off motion, the Ruti let-off motion and the Sulzer Ruti let-
off motion. In electronic let-off, a servomotor is used to rotate the beam to the
required extent.

4.5 FABRIC TAKE-UP

Fabric take-up is an important function in a loom because it controls the quality of
the fabric in terms of picks per unit length. Uniform fabric take-up will result in
uniform pick density. There are two types of take-up mechanisms: (1) mechanical
and (2) electronic.

4.5.1 MECHANICAL TAKE-UP

The rotation of the fabric roller is determined by the change and standard wheels in
the fabric take-up gear. The required amount of pick density is achieved by changing
the change and standard wheels in the fabric take-up gear in a conventional shuttle
loom. In automatic shuttle looms the standard and change wheels are dispensed with
instead levers are used to change pick density. The schematic diagram of a mechani-
cal take-up mechanism used in an automatic shuttle loom is given in Figure 4.6.
A double-through take-up cam 2 is mounted on the picking shaft 1, and as the cam
rotates, it oscillates the follower bracket 4. This motion is transmitted to the actuating
lever 6 loosely mounted on the ratchet wheel stud. The left end of the connecting rod 5
rests on the slot of the actuating lever. The up and down adjustment of the connecting
rod in the slot determines the pick density. An upward adjustment results in more
angular movement of the ratchet pawl and decreases the pick density. A downward
28 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 4.6 Lakshmi Ruti C mechanical take-up motion.

adjustment results in increased pick density. No change wheels are required to alter
the pick density.

4.5.2 ELECTRONIC TAKE-UP

The rotation of the fabric roller is done by a servomotor. The weft density can be
altered by changing the frequency of the servomotor. The schematic diagram of an
electronic take-up mechanism used in an air-jet loom is given in Figure 4.7. The
fabric is drawn over a spreading roll then under the fabric roll before it is wound on a
cloth roll. A press roller is used to prevent the fabric from slipping back.

4.6 STOP MOTIONS

Warp and weft yarns are liable to break during weaving operation. During weav-
ing, the warp and weft yarn is subjected to tension, and whenever the tension in the
yarn exceeds the strength of the yarn, the yarn breaks. Yarn faults, such as weak
places, snarls, slubs and so on, present in the yarn also leads to yarn breaks. Hence,
it becomes necessary to stop the loom as soon as either the warp or weft yarn breaks.
This stopping mechanism may be mechanical or electrical.
The mechanisms used to stop the loom whenever a weft breaks or weft exhausts
are called weft stop motions. Similarly, mechanisms used to stop the loom whenever
a warp yarn breaks are called warp stop motions.
Weaving—Basic Mechanisms 29

FIGURE 4.7 Electronic fabric take-up.

 5 Shedding

Shedding is an important motion in weaving operation. Without shedding weaving

cannot be done. All designs are created only by a shedding motion. The proper-
ties of the fnal fabrics, to a larger extent, depend on the shedding. There are three
types of shedding systems available for the formation of warp shed in weaving
machines:

1. Tappet or cam shedding

2. Dobby shedding
3. Jacquard shedding

The cam and dobby shedding mechanisms control the heald frames and each heald
frame controls a group of warp threads. The maximum no of heald frames possible
in a cam shedding is eight. Hence, only weave patterns having a repeat of less than
eight warp threads are possible to weave in cam shedding. This limitation is due
to the design of the cam. Up to 24 heald frames can be accommodated in a dobby
shedding. Therefore, weave patterns having a repeat of up to 24 warp threads can
be woven in dobby shedding. Warp threads are controlled individually in jacquard
shedding. The limitation for the number of warp threads in a repeat in jacquard shed-
ding is the capacity of the jacquard, which is usually 400,800 or 1600hooks.

5.1 TAPPET OR CAM SHEDDING

Cam mechanisms are simple and easy to operate. A majority of weave pattern com-
monly used can be produced using cam shedding. The disadvantage of cam shedding
is that whenever the weave pattern is changed, it becomes necessary to rearrange the
cams, which is a time-consuming process.
A cam is a disk that transforms the rotational motion into the reciprocating
motion of the follower. The transfer is done by means of the cam’s edge, in the ease
of a negative cam, and by means of a groove cut in the side surface of the cam, in the
case of a positive cam. Figure 5.1 illustrates negative and positive cams.

5.1.1 NEGATIVE CAM SHEDDING

The negative cam mechanism acts only in one direction. It either raises or lowers
the heald frames. A reversing mechanism is necessary to return the heald frames.
A spring reversing motion is used in most cases. Figure 5.2 illustrates the action of
negative cam shedding. As cam 1 rotates, it presses follower 2 downwards. This will
make traddle 3 to pull heald frames 5 downwards against the action of spring 6. As
the cam rotates further, the edge of the cam moves up paving the way for the spring
to lift the heald frames and the traddle.

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32 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 5.1 Negative and positive cams.

FIGURE 5.2 Negative cam shedding.

Shedding 33

5.1.2 POSITIVE CAM SHEDDING

The heald frames are raised and lowered by cams in the positive cam shedding.
There are two types of positive cams. In the frst, a roller follows a groove cut in the
face of the cam. An ‘L’-shaped lever is attached to the roller, and when the roller
moves up and down as the cam rotates the other end of the lever moves back and
forth in a horizontal direction. This motion is carried to the heald frames through
various levers.
In the second type of positive cam shedding a pair of matched cams are used for
each heald frame. The two rollers, which are in contact with cam faces, oscillate the
lever to which they are attached. This oscillation is converted into an up-and-down
movement of heald frames through levers. Figure 5.3 shows a positive cam system
with two negative cams.

5.2 DOBBY SHEDDING

Whenever the number of heald frames exceeds 8 a dobby mechanism is necessary for
shedding. A dobby consists of two parts. The frst part is a lifting mechanism to lift
the heald frames, and the second part is a selection mechanism to select the healds to
be lifted. There are two types of dobbies: (1) negative dobbies and (2) positive dobbies.

5.2.1 NEGATIVE DOBBY

In a negative dobby, the heald frames are lifted by the dobby and lowered by spring
motion. Figure 5.4 shows a schematic of a double lift negative dobby. Two knives, 3
and 4, with a pair of hooks, 5 and 6, are used to lift the heald frames 9 through baulk
1 and jack 8 while the heald frames are lowered by springs 10. Whenever peg 14 in
the design cylinder 13 comes vertical under selection lever, the peg lifts selection

FIGURE 5.3 Positive cam system with two negative matching cams.
34 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 5.4 Schematic of a double-lift negative dobby.

lever 12, and the other end of the selection lever is lowered. This makes the lifting
rod 11 come down slightly, which makes the lower hook also come down in the way
of the lower knife. When the lower knife moves forward, this will pull the lower
hook forward, and as a result, the baulk and jack are made to make an angular move-
ment. This angular movement lifts the heald frames through strings. The pegs are
pegged in the lag, and all the lags are joined to make a chain. Each lag corresponds
to two picks.
In modern machines, as an alternative to lag-and-peg chains, punched paper or
plastic pattern cards are used. A punched hole in the paper corresponds to a peg in
the lag and this causes the corresponding heald frame to lift.

5.2.2 POSITIVE DOBBY

The heald frames are lifted and lowered both by the dobby mechanism. The need
for the springs is eliminated. As a result, positive dobbies are capable of running at
higher speeds. Rotary dobbies are good examples for positive dobbies. Figure 5.5
shows the working of rotary dobby. As cam 2 rotates along with cam shaft 1, it pro-
duces a rocking movement in rocking arm 4. As the rocking arm makes an angular
movement, the other end makes a traverse movement. This is used to lift and lower
the heald frames through a linking mechanism.

5.3 JACQUARD SHEDDING

The frst jacquard machine was invented by Joseph Marie Jacquard (1752–1834).
Jacquard shedding offers individual control of warp threads, and as a result, heald
shafts are not required. They are simple in principle and construction, with unlimited
patterning possibilities. Jacquard machines contain many parts, which are diffcult
Shedding 35

FIGURE 5.5 Rotary dobby.

to maintain. Figure 5.6 shows the working principle of single-lift single-cylinder

jacquard machine.
A jacquard machine consists of two parts: a selection mechanism and a lifting
mechanism. The selection mechanism consists of needles 5, 6; spring box 4; pat-
tern cards 8; and cylinder 7. The lifting mechanism consists of hooks 2, 3; knife 1;
grate 9; and springs 11. The fabric design is punched in pattern cards, and each card
represents one pick in the weave. There is one needle and one hook for every warp
thread in the repeat. Pattern card 6 is presented to cylinder 7 in such a way that each
card fts one side of the pattern cylinder. For every pick, the cylinder rotates and
presses against the needles. The coil springs in spring box 4 also press the needles
toward the cylinder. Suppose that a hole is there in the punched card against needle
5 and the needle will go inside the hole positioning hook 2 against knife 1. When the
knife makes an upward movement, hook 1 will be lifted, making the warp thread
attached to the hook to form the upper shed. If there is no hole in the card, as for the
case of needle 6, the needle will be moved horizontally, making hook 3 defect away
from the knife. The knife will not lift hook 3, making the warp thread attached with
hook 3 form the bottom shed. After each pick, the cylinder is moved away from the
needles, rotated and presented against the needles for the next pick.
36 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 5.6 Single-lift single-cylinder jacquard machine.

Shedding 37

The capacity of jacquard machine is indicated by the number of hooks, and each
hook will control one warp thread. For example a 600-hook jacquard will control
600 warp threads. Single-lift jacquard machines are slow in operation. Therefore,
modern weaving machines employ double-lift jacquard machines, which can run at
higher speeds. A double-lift jacquard has two sets of knives that move up and down
opposite to each other in a two-pick cycle. Electronically controlled double-lift jac-
quards are used in shuttleless weaving machines.
 6 Shuttle Weaving

A shuttle loom uses a shuttle to carry the weft yarn. The shuttle inserts the weft yarn
in the shed during its traverse back and forth across the loom width. On both sides
of the loom, picking mechanisms are ftted, which will propel the shuttle to the other
end. The shuttle can be made out of wood or plastic. Figure 6.1 shows a shuttle used
in conventional looms. A pirn is a small piece of tube made out of plastic or wood on
which the weft yarn is wound. The size of the shuttle will vary according to the loom
and normally it will be able to hold various pirns of different sizes. The size of a pirn
will vary from 15cm to 25cm according to the requirement.

6.1 CONVENTIONAL LOOMS

In conventional looms as the weaving proceeds, the weft yarn is unwound from the
pirn and inserted in the warp shed. Since the weft yarn package has a limited quan-
tity of yarn, it will run out after a limited time. Usually after every 5 to 6 minutes, the
loom has to be stopped, and the pirn has to be changed manually. Figure 6.2 shows
the schematic of a shuttle loom. Splitting the warp yarn into the top and bottom lay-
ers is called shedding. Propelling the shuttle into the warp shed with a speed is called
picking. On each side of the loom, there is a picking stick which will hit the shuttle
to fy to the other side of the loom. The shuttle will fy at a speed of approximately
15m/sec. On reaching the other side the shuttle will be stopped by shuttle checking
system.
There are different mechanisms for shuttle picking. Figure 6.3 shows a cone-under-pick
mechanism used in conventional looms. A cam is fxed in the cam shaft, which is
continuously rotating. The cam hits the cone of the picking shaft, which turns and
pulls the lug strap. The picking stick attached with the lug strap is also pulled, and
it hits the shuttle through the picker, making the shuttle to fy to the other side of
the loom. If it is assumed that the speed of the shuttle is 15m/sec and for a loom
having a width of 150cm, the shuttle will take 0.1 sec to reach the other side.
The shuttle travels on the race board while the bottom layer of the warp yarn is
between the shuttle and the race board. The reed guides the shuttle, and the race
board supports the shuttle.
The reed and the race board are assembled on the two oscillating arms, which
is called a sley. The sley oscillates back and forth by means of a crank mechanism
attached with the main shaft of the loom as shown in Figure 6.4. During its forward
movement, the sley pushes the inserted weft yarn to the fell of the cloth. This is
called beat-up. The meeting point of the warp yarn and the newly formed cloth is
called the fell of the cloth.

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40 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 6.1 Shuttle.

FIGURE 6.2 Schematic of a shuttle loom.

6.2 TIMING DIAGRAM OF SHUTTLE LOOM

All the basic motions namely shedding, picking and beat-up are synchronized in a
loom for its proper working. Taking the revolution of the crank-shaft as 360° and the
beat-up position as 0° the start and end of all the motions are indicated in a circle.
This is called a timing diagram of the loom. The timing diagram of a shuttle loom
is demonstrated in the Figure 6.5. The timing diagram may be different for different
looms. The beat-up position that is the furthermost position of the sley represents 0°.
Picking starts 80° from the beat—up and lasts for 30°. The shed is fully open from
30° to 150°. Shuttle checking takes place from 260° to 290°.
Shuttle Weaving 41

FIGURE 6.3 Schematic of a cone-under-picking mechanism.

FIGURE 6.4 Schematic of sley and beat-up mechanism.

6.3 AUTOMATIC LOOMS

In a conventional loom, as soon as the weft yarn in the pirn exhausts, the loom has
to be stopped, the exhausted pirn should be replaced with a full pirn manually and
the loom needs to be started again. This will reduce the effciency of the loom and
involves manpower. A starting mark of one or two picks will be left in the fabric.
To make the loom continuously run without stoppage for weft replacement, pirn-
changing mechanisms have been developed. Pirn-change mechanisms replace the
exhausted pirn with a full pirn while the loom is running. The looms ftted with
pirn-change mechanisms are called auto looms. Figure 6.6 shows the working of
a pirn-change mechanism.
42 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 6.5 Timing diagram of shuttle looms.

FIGURE 6.6 Working of pirn-change mechanism.

Shuttle Weaving 43

Following the indication from the weft feeler for the exhaustion of weft, transfer
latch 6 is lifted so that it positions itself against approaching bunter 7. As sley 8
moves forward, the bunter hits the transfer latch, which results in hammer 5 hitting
the full pirn kept in battery 1 downwards, ejecting the empty pirn from the shuttle.
The full pirn will position itself in the shuttle, and weaving continues without stop-
page. All these things will happen in fraction of a second during the furthermost
position of the sley.
 7 Shuttleless Weaving

7.1 LIMITATIONS OF SHUTTLE WEAVING

Even though shuttle weaving is the most common and simple method of production
of fabrics, for many centuries, it has its own limitations. The limitations of the shuttle
weaving are:

1. Shuttle weaving requires frequent replenishment of weft packages due to its

smaller size, which increases the workload of the weaver.
2. Because the shuttle has to be propelled back and forth, it requires a heavy
mechanism, resulting in the consumption of spare parts.
3. A separate pirn winding process is necessary to prepare the weft packages.
4. A few layers of weft yarn are always left in the pirn after every full pirn
used in the weaving. This needs to be cleaned before the pirn is used again
for winding, resulting in wastage of weft yarn to a certain extent.
5. The speed of the loom cannot be increased beyond a certain limit say
250 rpm due to the heavy moving parts of the loom and mass of the shuttle.

All the limitations listed above are mainly due to the method of weft insertion by
the shuttle system.

7.2 PRINCIPLES OF SHUTTLELESS WEFT INSERTION

To overcome the limitations of shuttle weaving, new weft insertion systems have
been developed. These are called shuttleless weaving. Mainly four shuttleless weft
insertion principles are commonly used:

1. Projectile weft insertion

2. Rapier weft insertion
3. Air-jet weft insertion
4. Water-jet weft insertion

7.3 WEFT ACCUMULATORS

Even though the weft packages are dispensed with in a shuttleless system, it becomes
necessary to measure the weft yarn required for each pick and kept ready for inser-
tion. For this purpose, weft accumulators or feeders are used in shuttleless weav-
ing. The main function of the weft accumulators is to unwind the yarn from the
larger yarn package and supply to the weaving machine smoothly at constant and
proper tension. The weft insertion velocities for various insertion systems are given
in Figure 7.1

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46 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 7.1 Weft insertion velocity for various insertion systems.

There are two types of weft accumulators:

1. Drum storage accumulator

2. Loop storage accumulator

7.3.1 DRUM STORAGE ACCUMULATOR

The weft yarn from the supply package is drawn at a constant rate and wound on a
highly polished metal cylindrical body. During weft insertion, the coils are free to
be pulled off. A tensioner is provided between the drum and the supply package.
A stopper is provided between the weft insertion element and the drum to prevent
extra supply of weft yarn over than necessary for one pick. Figure 7.2 shows the
schematic of drum storage–type weft accumulator. Figure 7.2a shows a drum storage
accumulator.
When yarn guide 7 rotates around storage drum 4, yarn is taken from supply
package 1 through tensioner 3 and wound on the storage drum. As the yarn is with-
drawn during picking, the tension in the yarn is controlled by the braking device.
Different types of braking devices, such as bristle, metal lamella, fex brake and
endless beryllium copper tensioning strips, are used.
Advantages of weft accumulator are

1. a decrease in the average tension during weft insertion.

2. fewer weft breakages.
3. equalization of unwinding yarn tension due to the diminishing diameter of
weft supply package.
Shuttleless Weaving 47

FIGURE 7.2 Schematic of weft accumulator (drum storage type).

FIGURE 7.2(A) Drum storage accumulator.

4. the equalization of uneven unwinding characteristic of weft package of dif-

ferent types.

7.3.2 LOOP STORAGE ACCUMULATOR

In a loop storage accumulator, a measuring roller draws the weft from the supply
package at a constant rate, and this yarn is stored in the form of a loop in a tube with
48 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

the help of suction. Figure 7.3 shows a loop storage type accumulator. This type of
accumulator is not used anymore.

7.4 SELVEDGES
The warp-way strips that form the edges of the fabric are called selvedges. Selvedges
provide strength to fabric for the subsequent handling. It binds the extreme outer
ends of warp yarn with the weft to prevent the cloth fraying. A frm, smooth and
perfect selvedge is necessary for further processing of fabric and for future end use
in some cases. The thickness of the selvedge should be the same thickness as the
fabric as for as possible. If the selvedges are too thick, they lead to damage during
calendaring. There are four main types of selvedges:

1. Conventional or shuttle selvedge

2. Tucked-in selvedge
3. Leno selvedge
4. Fused selvedge

7.4.1 CONVENTIONAL OR SHUTTLE SELVEDGE

In shuttle loom, the shuttle carries the same weft yarn during its return movement
without cutting the weft at the edges. Therefore the weft binds the warp yarn at the
edges with the body of the fabric. The shuttle selvedges are strong and smooth and
look clean and uniform. It is the best selvedge of all other selvedges. Figure 7.4
shows a shuttle selvedge. A few extra warp threads are necessary to produce strong
selvedges. The width of the selvedge may vary from 10mm to 15mm.

FIGURE 7.3 Weft accumulator (loop storage type).

Shuttleless Weaving 49

FIGURE 7.4 Conventional selvedge.

FIGURE 7.5 Tucked-in selvedge.

7.4.2 TUCKED-IN SELVEDGE

In the shuttleless looms, both ends of the weft yarn are cut, and therefore, they do
not bind the warp threads at the. edges along with the body of the fabric. While cut-
ting the weft at both ends, a length of about 10mm to 15mm is left as fringe. This
projecting weft tail is turned and woven back into the body of the fabric by a special
mechanism in the form of a hairpin during the next picking. This tucking in of the
weft tail at both edges of the fabric leads to the formation of selvedges. This selvedge
is called a tucked-in selvedge. In tucked-in selvedge, the density of the weft yarn at
the selvedge area is double. Next to conventional selvedge, tucked-in selvedges are
good performers. The disadvantage of tucked-in selvedge is its initial cost for the
tuck-in mechanism. Almost all types of shuttleless weaving machines use tucked-in
mechanisms. Figure 7.5 shows a tucked in selvedge.

7.4.3 LENO SELVEDGE

Leno selvedges are formed by leno design at the edges of the fabric. Fabrics with
leno selvedge has fringe edges which are less attractive. However, leno selvedges are
most suitable for all shuttleless weaving machines. In half-cross leno selvedge, two
50 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 7.6 Leno selvedge.

FIGURE 7.7 Formation of full-cross leno selvedge.

leno threads run in opposite directions around the standard end, thus binding each
pick on both sides of the standard end as shown in Figure 7.6.
A full-cross leno selvedge is made by twisting two leno threads continuously
together and inserting the weft between them. A full leno selvedge is formed by a
rotating disc, which has two fanged bobbins at the rear of the healds. The sequence
of selvedge formations is shown in Figure 7.7

7.4.4 FUSED SELVEDGE

The outer ends of the warp are fused with the weft at the selvedges by means of
heaters. This is called a fused selvedge. Fused selvedges can be formed only when
weaving thermoplastic flaments yarn such as polyester, polyamide and polyolefn.
 8 Projectile Weaving

Projectile weaving machines uses a projectile equipped with a gripper to insert the
wept in the warp shed instead of a regular shuttle. The size of the projectile is much
smaller, 90mm long, 14mm wide and 6mm thickness. The weight of the projectile
is only 40g while the weight of the shuttle is 400g. A newly developed torsion rod
picking mechanism is used for picking. Picking always takes place from one side of
the machine only. Several projectiles are used, and all of them are returned to the
picking side by a conveyor. The projectile is guided in the warp shed by rake-shaped
guides. The projectiles are made out of steel or composite. Figure 8.1 illustrates a
schematic of a projectile and a gripper, and Figure 8.1a shows a projectile and a
gripper.

FIGURE 8.1 Schematic of a projectile and a gripper.

FIGURE 8.1(A) Projectile and gripper.

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52 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

8.1 PRINCIPLE OF PROJECTILE WEFT INSERTION

There are seven separate operations in the sequence of the projectile weft insertion
cycle. Figure 8.2 illustrates all the operations of the projectile weft insertion cycle.

Position A: Projectile 7 moves into the picking position.

Position B: Projectile feeder 5 opens after the weft yarn is gripped by the
gripper.
Position C: Picking arm 6 hits the projectile, and the projectile has reached the
other side of the machine after inserting the weft in the warp shed.
Position D: The projectile was stopped by projectile brake 9, while weft ten-
sioner 4 stretches the weft, and at the same time, projectile feeder 5 moves
close to the cutter.
Position E: Projectile feeder 5 grips the weft yarn.
Position F: The projectile releases the weft yarn; cutters 8 at both sides move
forward and cut the weft near the selvedges. The projectile is released and
expelled by the projectile brakes. The expelled projectile is carried by the
conveyor to the picking side.
Position G: The reed has beaten up the weft yarn. The projectile feeder moves
backwards to the feeding position while the weft tensioner takes up the
slacken weft caused by the backwards movement of the feeder. Now the
system is ready for the next picking cycle.

8.2 WARP LET-OFF MECHANISM

In older versions of projectile weaving machines, warp let-off is controlled
mechanically. Figure 8.3a shows a mechanical warp let-off motion. A worm and
worm wheel are used to drive the beam. The worm is getting motion from the
main shaft through a ratchet arrangement. The ratchet is connected to the whip
roll through links. Tension in the warp is monitored and transmitted to the ratchet.
Ratchet will rotate more when tension is more and rotate less when tension in warp
is less. But in later versions warp let-off is controlled electronically. A back-rest
roller serves as an automatic control device. The position of the back-rest roller
is sensed by a sensor and transmitted to the control unit. Whenever the back-rest
roller moves away from its reference position due to tension variation in the warp,
the control unit will speed up or slow down the warp let-off motor. From the motor
the motion is transmitted to the warp beam via a worm and gear wheels. Figure
8.3 illustrates an electronically controlled warp let-off motion. Figure 8.3b shows
an electronic warp let-off motion.

8.3 SHEDDING MECHANISMS

Projectile weaving machines are equipped with either positive cam or rotary dobby
systems.
The rotary dobby can be controlled either mechanically or electronically. A shed-
levelling system is used to level the heald shafts while the machine is stopped for
Projectile Weaving 53

FIGURE 8.2 Projectile weft insertion cycle.

54 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 8.3 Schematic of electronic warp let-off motion.

FIGURE 8.3(A) Mechanical warp let-off motion.

FIGURE 8.3(B) Electronic warp let-off motion.

Projectile Weaving 55

mending broken warp threads. Figure 8.4 shows a positive cam shedding mecha-
nism. Figure 8.4a shows a positive cam.
When positive cam 1 rotates, it oscillates roller lever 6 horizontally. This horizon-
tal motion is transmitted to the heald shafts through the links as a vertical up and
down movement. By adjusting the height of the connecting arm with the roller lever,
the shed opening can be adjusted.

8.4 TORSION-ROD PICKING MECHANISM

The unique feature of a projectile weaving machine is its torsion-rod picking mecha-
nism. The energy required for picking is built up and stored in a specially made tor-
sion rod and suddenly the torsion rod is released during picking, making the picking
arm to hit the projectile. The projectile is accelerated, and it travels to the other end
of the machine through the rake-shaped projectile guides. Brakes in the receiving
unit stop the projectile, and it is ejected to the conveyor belt, which carries the pro-
jectile to the picking side. Figure 8.5 illustrates the torsion-rod picking mechanism.
When cam 7 rotates, it brings roller lever 5 and knee joint 4 into line, thereby twist-
ing torsion rod 8 as shown in Figure 8.5a before picking. Further movement of the
cam makes roller lever 5 and knee joint 4 move beyond the straight-line dead point,
causing the knee joint to yield as shown in Figure 8.5b after picking. This enables
the twisted torsion rod to release. Picking lever 9 makes a sudden angular movement
hitting projectile 2 via picking shoe 1. The projectile gets accelerated and travels to
the other side at a high velocity. The movement of the torsion rod is cushioned by oil
brake 6. Figure 8.5c shows the picture of cam, roller lever and oil brake.

FIGURE 8.4 Positive cam shedding mechanism.

56 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 8.4(A) Positive cam.

FIGURE 8.5(A),(B) Torsion-rod picking mechanism.

Projectile Weaving 57

FIGURE 8.5(C) Picture of cam, roller lever and oil brake.

8.5 BEAT-UP
The beat-up mechanism in a projectile weaving machine is different from the
conventional crank and connecting rod system. The sley is positively rocked
about its centre by means of matched cams. The sley arm is very short compared
to the sley arm of the shuttle looms, and its mass also is much less, about 16kg
for a 220cm loom. The sley carries staggered projectile guides throughout the
loom width to guide the projectile. As a result, the projectile travels without
toughing either the warp thread or the race board during its movement. During
beat-up, the projectile guides come below the warp threads. Figure 8.6 shows the
matched-cam beat-up mechanism of projectile weaving machine and Figure 8.7
shows projectile loom sley.
Saddle 1, carrying two antifriction bowls, is attached to sley 3. When matched
cam 4 rotates, it rocks the saddle positively, which, in turn, makes the sley to oscil-
late. Reed 5, attached with the sley, moves forwards and backwards, thereby beat-
ing the newly inserted weft into the fell of the cloth. During the forward movement
of the sley, projectile guide 6 comes under the warp yarn. Because of the matched
cam system, the sley dwell at the back centre can be adjusted so that during the
58 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 8.6 Matched-cam beat-up mechanism of projectile weaving machine.

FIGURE 8.7 Projectile loom sley.

entire travelling period of the projectile the sley is in dwell position. The dwell
periods vary according to the width of the loom. The sley dwell for 360cm and
above machines is from 110° to 340°. For 190cm to 220cm machines, it is from
150° to 340°.

8.6 SALIENT FEATURES OF PROJECTILE WEAVING MACHINES

The projectile weaving machines are very popular and convenient to use. The salient
features of projectile weaving machines follow:

1. The picking and projectile receiving units are separated from the moving
sley, making the picking mechanism less weight and less complicated.
Projectile Weaving 59

FIGURE 8.8 Projectile guide.

2. Since for movement of the projectile separate guides are provided, warp
damage is avoided due to the frictional force between projectile and warp
yarn. Figure 8.8 shows a projectile guide.
3. Picking always takes place on one side only.
4. Every weft is cut off on both sides.
5. Tucked-in selvedge mechanisms are provided at both ends. Therefore, sel-
vedges look like a conventional selvedge.
6. More than one fabric can be woven at the same time.
7. The clamping force of the gripper ranges from 600g to 2500g according to
its type.
8. The weft insertion rate of projectile weaving machines varies from 500mpm
(metres per minute) to 1500mpm according to its width and type.
9. A small warp shed leads to less warp breakage.
 9 Rapier Weaving

Rapier weaving machines use a rigid or fexible element called rapier to insert the
weft yarn in the warp shed. The rapier head picks up the weft yarn from one side
and carries it to the other side of the weaving machine. The rapier returns empty
to pick the weft yarn for the next pick, which completes one cycle. The rapiers per-
form reciprocating motions. Rapier weaving machines are reliable and fexible. A
wide range of fabrics can be woven, from lightweight to heavyweight. Rapier weav-
ing machines can weave cotton, wool, silk and synthetic fbres, such as polyester,
amongst others.

9.1 TYPES OF RAPIER WEAVING MACHINES

Rapier weaving machines are of two types. Rapier weaving machines that use only
one rapier head are called single rapier machines. Rapier weaving machines that
use two rapier heads are called double rapier machines. Double rapier machines are
further classifed as double rigid rapiers and double fexible rapiers.

9.1.1 SINGLE RAPIER MACHINES

A single rigid rapier is used in these machines for weft insertion. The rigid rapier is
made of metal or composite with a round cross section. The rapier enters the warp
shed from one side of the machine and, on reaching the other side, picks up the tip of
the weft yarn and inserts the weft yarn in the warp shed while retracting. Figure 9.1
illustrates the weft insertion cycle of single rapier machines.
In Figure 9.1 at position A, rapier 1 is ready to enter the warp shed. At position
B, the rapier head has entered the shed and reached the other end of the machine,
and it catches the tip of weft yarn 3. At position C, the rapier head has retracted
to the original position, laying the weft yarn inside the shed and is ready for the
next cycle.
Single rapier carries the yarn in one way only, and half the movement is wasted.
It is slow and occupies more space. The rapier requires high mass and rigidity.
The maximum weft insertion rate of a single rapier weaving machine is 400mpm.
For these reasons, single rapiers are not preferred. However, single rapier weaving
machines can be used to weave weft yarns that are diffcult to control.

9.1.2 DOUBLE RIGID RAPIER MACHINES

In double rigid rapier machines, two rapier heads are used, one on each side of the
machine. Both rapiers start from both sides at the same time, meet at the midpoint
and retreat backwards. The rapier, called a giver, takes the weft yarn from the

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62 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 9.1 Weft insertion cycle of single rapier machines.

accumulator, carries up to the centre and transfers to the other rapier called the
taker. The taker rapier retracts and brings the weft yarn to the other side. Because
both rapiers extend outside the loom during withdrawal, the space requirement for
double rigid rapier machines is high. Figure 9.2a illustrates a double rigid rapier
machine. In the fgure, mark A shows the width of the loom required for a rigid
rapier.

9.1.3 DOUBLE FLEXIBLE RAPIER MACHINES

Since the double rigid rapiers occupy more space the rapier rigid rods are replaced
by fexible metal or plastic tapes or bands which can be wound on a drum. These
machines are called fexible rapiers machines. This saves space compared to rigid
rapiers. Figure 9.2b shows a double fexible rapier machine. In the fgure, mark B
shows the width of the loom required for fexible rapier, which is less than that
required for rigid rapiers.

9.2 METHODS OF DOUBLE RAPIER WEFT INSERTION

There are two types of weft insertion in double rapier machines: tip transfer (Dewas)
and loop transfer (Gabler) systems.
Rapier Weaving 63

FIGURE 9.2 Double rapier weaving machines.

9.2.1 TIP TRANSFER OR DEWAS SYSTEM

In the Dewas system of weft insertion, the giver rapier grips the tip of the weft yarn,
carries it to the centre of the machine and transfers it to the taker, which takes the
weft to the other side of the machine during its retraction. Figure 9.3 illustrates the
tip transfer or Dewas system of rapier weft insertion.
In Figure 9.3 at position A, giver rapier head 2 grips the tip of weft yarn 4 and
starts moving to the centre of the machine. At the same time, taker rapier 1 also
starts moving towards the centre. At position B, both the rapiers, the giver and the
taker, meet at the midpoint, and the giver transfers the tip of the weft yarn to the
taker and the taker grips the tip. At position C, both rapiers retreated backwards to
their original positions. But the taker brings the weft yarn to its side of the machine,
thereby completing the weft insertion. The giver inserts the weft up to the midpoint,
and the taker inserts the weft in the remaining portion of the warp. By travelling
back and forth up to the midpoint of the machine, both rapiers complete one weft
insertion cycle. In modern rapier weaving machines, the tip transfer of weft insertion
is mostly used due to its simplicity and speed.
64 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 9.3 Tip transfer or Dewas system of rapier weft insertion.

9.2.2 LOOP TRANSFER OR GABLER SYSTEM

In the Gabler system, the giver rapier does not grip the weft; instead, it extends the
weft yarn in the form of “U”-shape (loop) to the centre of the machine. The tip of
the weft yarn is still held by the stopper. At the midpoint, the giver transfers the loop
to the taker, and at the same time, the stopper releases the tip of the yarn. When the
taker retracts, the loop of yarn straightens itself, and no further yarn is released by
the accumulator. This makes straightening of the loop without slag. Figure 9.4 shows
the Gabler system of weft insertion.

9.3 RAPIER HEADS

In modern rapier weaving machines, rapier heads are called grippers. Figure 9.5
shows the left-hand and right-hand rapier heads of a dornier loom.
In Figure 9.5, lever 1 is pivoted at point 2 in both the right-hand and left-hand
rapier heads. The lever carries yarn clamp 3 at one end, and at the other end, it car-
ries protrusion 4. Between the pivot and protrusion, a hardened plate 7 is secured.
Under lever 1, a set of leaf springs 5 is fastened, and it applies a clamping force to the
Rapier Weaving 65

FIGURE 9.4 Loop transfer or Gabler system of rapier weft insertion.

yarn clamps. Both the rapier heads are fastened to tape 8. The yarn clamp plates are
made of different materials according to the requirement.
During operation, the weft yarn is presented to the left-hand rapier clamp, and
the yarn is seized. When the weft yarn is held by the clamp, it is cut off by a cutter
between the selvedge and the yarn clamp. Then weft is inserted in the warp shed.

9.4 RAPIER DRIVES

The to-and-fro movement of the rapier heads is derived from the main shaft either
by a linkage mechanism or by a cam. Different makers have different designs for
rigid rapier drives and fexible rapier drives. Figure 9.6 shows a fexible rapier drive
system. The continuous rotary motion of main shaft 2 is converted into an oscillat-
ing motion of quadrant 4 by cam assembly 1 and connecting arm 3. The oscillating
motion of the quadrant is transferred to rapier drive wheel 6 by pinion 5. When the
quadrant oscillates, it makes rapier tape 7 move forwards and backwards. The gear-
ing of the rapier tape with the drive wheel is achieved by engaging the perforations
of the tape with the sprockets of the driving wheel. The rapier movement can be
adjusted by adjusting the distance between fulcrum 10 and rapier adjustment point 9.
66 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 9.5 Left-hand and right-hand rapier heads.

FIGURE 9.6 Flexible rapier drive.

Rapier Weaving 67

The principle of operation of the dornier rigid rapier drive is shown in Figure 9.7.
By means of a pair of cams, rocking shaft 1 is rocked in its centre. This rocking is
transmitted to rocking arm 4 via arm 2 and slide 3. Quadrant 5 is fastened to rocking
arm 4. The quadrant is engaged with pinion 6, which, in turn, is engaged with bevel
gear 10. The bevel gear transmits its movement to rapier drive spur wheel 7, which,
in turn, moves rapier rod 8 forwards and backs. The relative position of the slide and
the rocking arm will adjust the stroke of the rapiers.

9.5 RAPIER MOTION

The rapier heads in the rapier weaving machines are accelerated twice and deceler-
ated twice for every pick cycle. Starting from rest at 0° (beat-up), the rapier reaches a
speed of about 15m/sec at 90° and slows down to stop immediately at transfer point
at 180°. In modern machines, the maximum rapier velocity is as high as 60m/sec.
The rapiers have to be accelerated up to a quarter of the reed space and decelerated

FIGURE 9.7 Rigid rapier drive.

68 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

up to the middle. Figure 9.8 shows the rapier motion with respect to machine angle
of rotation for normal rapier weaving machines.
In Figure 9.8, both left- and right-hand rapiers start at 0° (beat-up position) At
point 2, the weft yarn is presented to the left-hand rapier. At point 3, the left-hand
rapier seizes the weft yarn. At point 4, the weft yarn between the rapier head
and the selvedge is cut by the cutter. At point 5, which is about 90° of machine
rotation, the left-hand rapier reaches maximum velocity. At point 6, which is at
180° of machine rotation, the weft is transferred. At point 7, the right-hand rapier
reaches maximum velocity. At point 8, weft yarn is released by the right-hand
rapier, and the rapier movement stops. This makes one complete weft insertion
cycle of rapiers.

9.6 SALIENT FEATURES OF RAPIER WEAVING MACHINES

1. Double fexible rapier machines are the standard machines, and they can be
used to weave a wide range of fabrics with natural and synthetic fbre yarn.
2. In rapier weaving machines, the sley rocks on a shaft and complementary
cams, with different sley dwells are used depending on the width of the loom.

FIGURE 9.8 Rigid motion with respect to machine position.

Rapier Weaving 69

3. Lightweight all-purpose grippers with few moving parts can be used for a
wide range of yarns from 5tex to 1000tex.
4. Electronically controlled colour selectors can be used for selecting eight
colours in weft.
5. Tuck-in, leno or fused selvedges can be formed on rapier machines depend-
ing on the requirement. The selvedge waste of weft yarn at both sides will
be from 7cm to 14cm.
6. Rapier machines can be ftted with intermediate tucking units. This allows
weaving several fabrics simultaneously.
7. Positive cam or positive dobby are mostly used for shedding.
8. Fabric take-up is controlled by a servomotor.
9. The weft insertion rate is up to 1100m/minute, and the width of the machine
can be 220cm. The machine runs at 220ppm.
 10 Air-Jet Weaving

Air-jet weaving is a shuttleless weaving technique in which compressed air is used

for weft insertion as a medium. Compressed air is blown through a nozzle along with
weft yarn. Due to the frictional force between air and the yarn, compressed air jet
carries the weft along with it to the other side of the machine through the shed. It has
an extremely high weft insertion rate. Out of all shuttleless weft insertion techniques,
air-jet weft insertion is the simplest. Relative to shuttle, projectile and rapier, the mass of
insertion medium is very small in air-jet weaving.

10.1 PRINCIPLE OF AIR-JET WEAVING

The important components in air-jet weaving are tandem / auxiliary and main nozzles,
stopper or weft brake systems, yarn feeders and air guides, such as a confusor or pro-
fle reed. Figure 10.1 shows the schematic of air-jet weft insertion.
Weft from supply package 1 is drawn by measuring drum 2. The amount of weft
yarn for each pick is measured. When compressed air 7 is blown through tandem nozzle
5 and main nozzle 6, stopper 4 opens and releases the weft yarn. Airstream 8 carries
the weft to the other side of the machine. Only a predetermined length of yarn for a pick
will be released by the stopper so that extra weft yarn will not be protruding outside
the selvedge. This completes one cycle of pick insertion. The tandem nozzle/auxiliary
nozzle airstream pulls the yarn from the measuring drum, and the main nozzle air-
stream gives the necessary initial acceleration to the weft yarn. The relay nozzles aug-
ment the main nozzle in carrying the weft across the warp shed. Figure 10.1a shows a
main nozzle of an advanced air-jet weaving machine ftted in the sley, and Figure 10.1b
shows an auxiliary nozzle of an advanced air-jet weaving machine ftted in the frame.

10.2 AIR-JET WEFT INSERTION CONFIGURATIONS

Mainly three weft insertion confgurations are used in air-jet weaving machines:

1. Single nozzle with confusor guides and suction

2. Multiple nozzles with guides
3. Multiple nozzles with profle reed

10.2.1 SINGLE NOZZLE WITH CONFUSOR GUIDES AND SUCTION

In this system, a single nozzle is used to insert the weft. The air speed falls
rapidly beyond a short distance from the nozzle due to the expansion of the air-
stream in a parabolic form. The acceleration of the yarn also falls more rapidly.
To overcome this effect, a multi-ring constrictor known as a confusor is mounted
on the sley over the entire width of the machine. The confusor forms an orifce

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72 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 10.1 Schematic of air-jet weft insertion.

FIGURE 10.1(A) Main nozzle of an advanced air-jet weaving machine ftted in the sley.

and guides the airstream without loss of velocity. The confusor goes below the
warp during beat-up. To augment the air velocity at the off end of the machine,
suction is provided. Figure 10.2 shows a single nozzle and confusor guide system.
Because the confusor lamellae have to be placed closely and have to get in and
out of the warp shed for every pick, they place a large amount of stress on warp
Air-Jet Weaving 73

FIGURE 10.1(B) Auxiliary nozzle of an advanced air-jet weaving machine ftted in the frame.

FIGURE 10.2 Single nozzle and confusor guide system.

74 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

yarns. Because the air velocity drops after a distance, loom width is a limitation
in this system.

10.2.2 MULTIPLE NOZZLES WITH GUIDES

The disadvantage of the single nozzle system is the drop in velocity after a certain
distance. In a multiple nozzle system, this has been overcome by providing auxiliary
nozzles across the loom at certain intervals. Air will be injected through them in
groups sequentially in the direction of the yarn movement. Suction is dispensed with
in this system. Figure 10.3 shows multiple nozzles with a guide system.

10.2.3 MULTIPLE NOZZLES WITH A PROFILE REED

In this system, the air guides are built in the reed itself as an integral part, and this
type of reed is called a profle reed. The profle reed system eliminates the entrance
and exit of the confusor air guides in and out of the shed for every pick. The aux-
iliary nozzles, also called relay nozzles, are fxed across the machine on the sley.
Figure 10.4 shows multiple nozzles with a profle reed system. Figure 10.4a shows a
profle reed and relay nozzles.

10.3 TIMING DIAGRAM

The typical sequence of different operations of an air-jet weaving machine with
multi-nozzles and profle reed is given in Figure 10.5. The main nozzle is on at
point 1, around 45°, and frst relay nozzle group is opened at point 2 around 60°.

FIGURE 10.3 Multiple nozzles with a guide system.

Air-Jet Weaving 75

FIGURE 10.4 Multiple nozzles with a profle reed system.

FIGURE 10.4(A) Profle reed and relay nozzles.

76 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 10.5 Timing diagram of air-jet weft insertion with multi-nozzles.

Thereafter, the yarn is released at point 3, around 80°, and weft insertion starts. At
point 4, around 120°, the main nozzle is stopped. At point 5, around 230°, the yarn
clamp closes, and further release of weft is stopped. The last group of relay nozzles
are closed at point 6, around 260°. Thereafter, beat-up takes place. This completes
one cycle of operation.

10.4 CONTROL OF AIR BLOW IN MAIN AND RELAY NOZZLES

Air-jet weaving machines are high-speed weaving machines, and precise air blow
control is very essential for effcient performance. All the relay nozzles are grouped
into fve or six groups. The number of groups depends on the machine’s width.
Figure 10.6 shows the timing of air blow in main and relay nozzles.
Air-Jet Weaving 77

FIGURE 10.6 Air blow timing in main and relay nozzles.

78 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

First, the main nozzle blow air and the weft are carried forward up to relay nozzle
group 1. Then relay nozzle group 1 starts blowing at the tip of the weft yarn. This
carries the weft to the next stage, and this continues up to the end. Every time, air is
blown only at the tip so that the yarn is pulled throughout the insertion. This prevents
buckling of yarn as well as low consumption of air.

10.5 YARN PERFORMANCE IN AIR-JET INSERTION

Since the force required to move the yarn is exclusively provided by the frictional
force between the yarn and air, yarn properties such as the structure, twist, yarn
diameter and fbre surface play an important role in air-jet weft insertion. Spun and
coarse yarns have higher frictional coeffcients. Therefore, they perform better than
fne and smooth yarns. Spun yarns having a high twist, large denier, long stable and
high fbril cohesion perform better in air-jet weaving. For weaving continuous fla-
ment yarns in an air jet, more air is required than for spun yarns due to their smooth
surface. Larger diameter yarns require more air pressure due to their increased mass.
Higher linear density increases insertion time.
Twist plays an important role in air-jet yarn insertion. Increased twist brings the
fbres closer and makes the yarn more compact. This makes the yarn smoother and
reduces the diameter of the yarn, which, in turn, reduces the friction between yarn
and air jet, resulting in a longer insertion time. Plied yarns have a longer insertion
time than single-ply yarns due to the fact that plied yarn results in a smoother
yarn surface. Textured yarns increase the frictional force between the yarn and
the air jet than straight flament yarn. Therefore, textured yarns take less time for
insertion.

10.6 AIR-JET WEAVING MACHINES

10.6.1 SHEDDING MECHANISM

Air-jet weaving machines are equipped with negative cam shedding mechanisms
for high-speed operations. Figure 10.7 shows a negative cam shedding mechanism.
When non-positive cam 1 operates, it pulls heald frames 4 into a low position via
cable traction 3. Once the cam operation is over, spring 5 pulls the heald frames to a
high shed position. Figure 10.8 shows a negative cam tappet.

10.6.2 YARN FEEDERS

In air-jet weaving machines, specially designed drum storage feeders are used.
Figure 10.9 shows a yarn feeder. The rotating yarn guide draws the weft yarn from
the package and winds on the measuring drum. The electronically controlled stopper
pin releases the weft yarn at the time of weft insertion. In order to minimize weft
waste, it is necessary to release an exact length of weft for each pick. This is done
by the stopper pin.
Air-Jet Weaving 79

FIGURE 10.7 Negative cam shedding mechanism.

FIGURE 10.8 Negative cam tappet.

80 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

10.6.3 SLEY MOVEMENT

The sley is driven by a crank mechanism in an air-jet weaving machine with a small
arm. Figure 10.10 shows a sley movement in an air-jet weaving machine. Crank 1
oscillates sley arm 2, which, in turn, rocks sley tube 3. The rocking of the sley tube
makes beat-up. Figure 10.11 shows a sley arm.

10.6.4 SELVEDGE
Leno selvedge is mainly used in air-jet weaving machines. Tucked-in selvedge is
rarely used. Fused selvedge also can be formed. Mainly high-quality selvedge is
formed by using full and half leno selvedge devices. Figure 10.12 shows a full-cross
leno device. This device binds the weft on both sides with two leno yarns. The two

FIGURE 10.9 Yarn feeder.

FIGURE 10.10 Sley movement.

Air-Jet Weaving 81

FIGURE 10.11 Sley arm.

FIGURE 10.12 Full leno device.

spool holders with special leno yarns are rotated by a gear drive. The leno yarns
unwound from the spools move up and down to produce a full-cross leno weave
around the weft.

10.6.5 AIR REQUIREMENT

Compressed air is used in air-jet weaving. For this purpose, separate air compressors
are to be installed, and pipelines have to be arranged. The quality of air is important.
The air must be free from oil and moisture. Otherwise, the nozzles will be clogged.
82 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 10.13 Compressed air plant.

Hence, oil flters and air driers have to be installed in the airline. Humidity in the air
causes corrosion in the air pipes and may even cause corrosion in the machine itself.
Maintaining these units involves additional cost. Figure 10.13 shows a compressed
air plant system.
 11 Water-Jet Weaving

Water-jet weaving machines use highly pressurized water as a medium for weft
insertion. Due to the viscosity of water and its surface tension, a water jet is more
cohesive and does not break up easily. It has a longer propulsive zone. Because there
is no lateral force in a water jet, the weft yarn does not contort. Only a single main
nozzle is used in water-jet weaving machines. Water pressure and the diameter of
the jet determine the width of the weaving machine. The amount of water per pick is
usually less than 2cc. A pump is used to generate the required pressure for the water
jet. Figure 11.1 shows the schematic of a water-jet weft insertion. For weft feeding, a
measuring drum is used to supply the weft, which supplies exact length of weft for
each pick.
Weft yarn is drawn from package 1 by the measuring drum and pressure roller 3
and fed into nozzle 5. Water from sump 9 is pressurized by pump 8 and ejected as
a water jet through nozzle 5. The water jet carries the weft through the shed to the
other end of the machine by tractive force. The weft tends to fall as it moves from
the nozzle to the other end. Hence, its travel path is arranged in an arc form. This is
achieved by adjusting the nozzle holder at an angle.
The weft is cut at the selvedge by heaters and a fused selvedge is formed. The
heater temperature is around 500 °C.
All yarns cannot be used in water-jet weaving machines. The yarn must be hydro-
phobic in nature and insensitive to water. Thermoplastic yarns, such as nylon, polyes-
ter, polypropylene and glass, are successfully woven in water-jet weaving machines.
Heaters are used to dry the cloth. The wastewater after weft insertion is collected
through pipelines.

FIGURE 11.1 Schematic of water-jet weft insertion.

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84 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

Water-jet looms are the least fexible. The fabric woven must be hydrophobic,
and only medium-weight fabrics can be woven successfully, even though lightweight
fabric can be woven with great diffculty. Yarn wastage is more in water-jet looms.
Nevertheless, water-jet looms are best suited to produce 100% flament fabrics on a
mass scale. Water-jet looms use less energy and are the least noisy.
 12 Multiphase Weaving

The main weaving motions of a classical weaving machine, namely shed forma-
tion, weft insertion and beat-up, take place along the full width of the machine.
These weaving machines are called single-phase weaving machines. All single-
phase weaving machines or looms form one shed at a time, one weft insertion at a
time and one beat-up at one time. In a multiphase weaving machine, several weft
insertions take place simultaneously, and several shed formations take place at a
time.
There are two principles of multiphase weaving machines:

1. Weft direction shed wave principle

2. Warp direction shed wave principle

12.1 WEFT DIRECTION SHED WAVE PRINCIPLE

In weft direction shed wave principle machines, a number of sheds are formed
across the entire width of the machine for the insertion of weft. These sheds look
like a wave from one side to the other. The weft carrier slides into each shed. As
the weft carriers enter one section of the warp, a shed is formed, and as it leaves
to the next section, another shed is formed in the next section. This will occur
along the full width of the machine. As a result, at any time several shuttles will
insert different weft yarn. Figure 12.1 shows weft direction shed wave principle.
Due to the insertion of weft by many shuttles at a time, the weft insertion rate is
very high.
The weft yarn is beaten up by a rotating reed. Figure 12.2 shows a beating up by
a rotary reed.
Individual reed blades 1 are assembled in rotating shaft 2. When the reed blade
rotates, weft yarn 5 is caught by groove 3 and pushed towards the fell of the cloth.
As the reed blade rotates further, the weft yarn slips out of the groove, but the reed
blade pushes the weft to the fell of the cloth.

FIGURE 12.1 Warp direction shed wave principle.

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86 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 12.2 Beating-up by rotary reed.

12.2 WARP DIRECTION SHED WAVE PRINCIPLE

In these machines, several sheds are opened in the warp direction, one behind the
other across the full width of the machine simultaneously. Weft yarns are inserted
into each of these sheds simultaneously. Either rapier or air jet can be used for weft
insertion. Figure 12.3 shows the warp direction shed wave principle
A weaving rotor is used for shed formation. Figure 12.4 shows a weaving rotor.
The warp ends pass over weaving rotor 4. The sheds are formed consecutively by
shed-forming elements 1 on the circumference of the weaving rotor. The motion of
the rotor causes the shed forming elements to open the sheds one after the other.
Weft is inserted into the warp sheds across the full width of the machine either by
rapier or by air jet. The beat-up combs placed between the shed-forming elements
push the weft yarn to the fell of the cloth and beat up the weft.
Due to the simultaneous weft insertions by several weft carriers, the weft inser-
tion rates of multiphase weaving machines are very high, between 3000mpm and
5000mpm. Heavy fabrics cannot be woven in multiphase weaving machines due to
the nature of beat-up in these machines.
Multiphase Weaving 87

FIGURE 12.3 Warp direction shed wave principle.

FIGURE 12.4 Weaving rotor.

12.3 CIRCULAR WEAVING MACHINES

The circular weaving machine has a circular warp and continuously circulating
shuttles run around the periphery of the machine in the wave or ripple shed. Circular
weaving permits the use of several shuttles at the same time, and hence, productivity
is high. Due to lack of fexibility, only two articles, namely sacks and tubes, can be
woven in circular weaving machines.
On a circular weaving machine, each shuttle runs in its own shed. The warp is
divided into segments, which forms sheds with small heald frames or wires. Heald
frames are controlled by cams, and only plain and twill weaves are possible. The
shuttles can be driven by either mechanical or electrical means. The weft is not
beaten up just like that of single-phase weaving machines. The needle gears follow
the shuttle and push the weft to the fell of the cloth.
 13 Techno-Economics of
Shuttleless Looms
There are mainly four types of shuttleless loom used for mass production: projectile,
rapier, air-jet and water-jet looms. They differ in principle of operation and, hence,
their operational cost. The manufacturing cost may be different for different looms
for producing the same fabric. The techno-economics of all the types of shuttleless
looms are discussed herewith.

13.1 TECHNO-ECONOMICS OF PROJECTILE LOOMS

The projectile looms have many moving parts, and their manufacturing cost is very
high compared to other types of looms. The projectile picking system involves many
sub-mechanisms. They are the costliest looms. The cost of a 340cm-width new pro-
jectile loom (P7300 HP) is approximately Rs. 15 million. It is highly uneconomical
to produce grey sheeting in these machines when other technology machines are
available at a cheaper rate with the same speed. Mainly the air-jet looms have made
inroads in their territory. As per the industry sources, now a days, new projectiles
looms are no longer economical for producing grey sheeting. No new machines are
installed for producing ordinary regular fabrics. They are used to produce only spe-
cialty fabric such as technical textiles and denims.
But the techno-economics of second-hand projectile looms are entirely different.
Second-hand machines are available at Rs. 1 million in the international market
with residual life of 20 years. Many weaving factories in EU countries, Italy, Brazil
and Argentina are closing their operations, and the projectile looms running in these
countries are being exported to India in large numbers. The reason for a large share
of imported shuttleless looms being second-hand projectile looms is the fact that the
cost is almost three times less compared to new air-jet looms, but at the same time,
the quality of fabric produced in these machines is equivalent to the quality of fab-
ric produced in new air-jet looms. The preferred models of second-hand projectile
shuttleless looms are Sulzer make P7100, P7150 and TW11.

13.2 TECHNO-ECONOMICS OF AIR-JET LOOMS

The air-jet looms have the least moving parts compared to other types of looms.
The maintenance expenses for air-jet looms are less. As per the industry source,
the cost of a 190cm Japanese brand-new air-jet loom running at 1000rpm is
approximately Rs. 3.8 million. The cost of 280cm- and 340cm-weaving-width air-
jet looms is Rs. 4.4 million and Rs. 5.8 million, respectively. The 280cm loom runs
at 800rpm, and the 340cm loom runs at 600rpm. The industry has the fexibility
in choosing the air-jet looms according to their requirements and investment plan.

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90 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

Hence, air-jet looms are preferred by the industry for new investment. The disad-
vantage of air-jet looms is their power cost. However, the overall fabric manufac-
turing cost is less. The preferred model of air-jet loom is Tsudakoma ZAX9100.
The demand for air-jet machines is higher than for projectile machines in the
Indian industry.

13.3 TECHNO-ECONOMICS OF RAPIER LOOMS

Rapier weaving machines are preferred for designed fabrics due to their fexibility in
coloured weft selection. They are generally not preferred for producing grey sheeting
due to their higher weft yarn wastage. In Bhiwandi, one of the largest textile clusters
in India, of 25,000 shuttleless looms, 90% of the shuttleless looms are Chinese rapi-
ers. This is because of the cheaper price compared to the highly prized shuttleless
looms from EU or Japan. Erode, another textile cluster in India that is famous for
producing checked fabrics, of the 3200 shuttleless looms installed, most of them are
rapier machines.

13.4 TECHNO-ECONOMICS OF WATER-JET LOOMS

In water-jet looms, only synthetic yarns can be used for weaving, and good quality
water is required. In India, Surat meets these two criteria. Out of a total of 22,600
shuttleless looms running in Surat, about 20,000 looms are water-jet looms. Nearly
30 million metres of raw synthetic fabric and 25 million metres of processed fabric
are produced in Surat daily.

13.5 PROJECT COST OF LOOMS AND MANUFACTURING

COST OF FABRICS
The production of cotton and viscose rayon grey fabric is carried out in large quan-
tities using new imported air-jet looms and second-hand imported projectile looms
in South India. The use of rapier looms is restricted to producing only designed
fabrics and water-jet looms are used only to produce synthetic fabrics. Therefore,
the competition is only between new air-jet looms and second-hand imported pro-
jectile looms. To evaluate the performance of these looms in terms of manufac-
turing cost and investment required, face-to-face interviews with entrepreneurs
were carried out in the Coimbatore region, where more than 5000 air-jet looms
and 5000 second-hand projectile looms are running. The details of the interviews
follow.

13.5.1 PROJECT COST AND MANUFACTURING COST OF FABRIC FOR NEW

AIR-JET LOOMS
A new factory commissioned recently in the Palladam area of the Coimbatore region
of South India, with 64 new air-jet looms of Japanese make, was chosen for calcu-
lating the project cost for installing new air-jet looms and the manufacturing cost.
Based on the face-to-face interview with the entrepreneur, the capital investment
Techno-Economics of Shuttleless Looms 91

required to install 64 new air-jet looms of Japanese make is given in Table 13.1, and
the running expenses per month are given in Table 13.2.
The fabric produced in the air jet looms is viscose rayon grey sheeting. The
warp and weft count of yarn used is 30s Ne. Ends per inch is 68, and picks per
inch is 60. The width of fabric is 63 inches. Because the raw material cost and
selling price of fabric vary frequently according to market fluctuations, the
conversion cost offered by the fabric merchants per metre of fabric is taken for
calculating the total production and the profit calculation. The details are given
in Table 13.3.
Total investment (excluding land cost) for installing 64 new Japanese make air-jet
loom is Rs. 22,70,04,190, and the manufacturing cost per metre of fabric is Rs. 5.32.
The simple payback period is 8 years 9 months.

TABLE 13.1
Capital Investment for New Air-Jet Looms (64 Nos.)
S No Details Required Cost per Unit in Rupees Total Cost in Rupees

1 Building 2045 sq. m 9782/sq. m 2,00.04,190

2 Shuttleless looms (air-jet new) 64 30,00,000/loom 19,20,00,000
190cm width
3 Power line cables 40,00,000
4 Air compressor 50,00,000
5 Pipeline 15,00,000
6 Air drier, air tank, etc. 20,00,000
7 Warehouse machines 25,00,000
Total investment (excluding land cost) Rs.22,70,04,190

TABLE 13.2
Running Expenses for New Air-Jet Looms (64) per Month
S. No Details Units Cost in Rs Total cost

1 Fitter 3 50,000 per month 1,50,000

2 Gaiter 6 19,000 1,14,000
3 Shift ftter 4 25,000 1,00,000
4 Weavers @ 4 loom per weaver 960 man days 540/man day 5,18,400
5 Spares and oil 64 looms 2000/loom/month 1,28,000
6 Manager 1 60,000/month 60,000
7 supervisor 2 30,000/month 60,000
8 Shift-in-charge 2 15,000/month 30,000
9 Electricity charges Per month 22,40,000
10 Total running expenses 34,00,400
11 Interest charges per month @9 % per annum for the total investment of Rs 17,02,531
22,70,04,190 (Land cost not included)
12 Total expenses per month including interest 51,02,931
92 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

TABLE 13.3
Total Production and Profit Calculation (new air-jet looms)
S. No Details Units

1 Width of loom 190cm

2 Speed of looms 1000rpm
3 Number of looms 64
4 No of fabrics per loom 1
5 Production/day/loom @90 % effciency 500m
6 Production per month (30 days) for 64 looms (500 × 64 × 30) 9,60,000m
7 Conversion cost offed per metre of fabric Rs 7.54
8 Total income/month Rs.72,38,400
(9,60,000m × Rs 7.54)
9 Net proft per month (Total income − Total expenses) 21,35,469
10 Simple payback period (Total investment divided by proft per year) 8 years 9 months
11 Manufacturing cost per metre of fabric Rs 5.32/m
(Total expenses divided by Fabric produced per month)

13.5.2 PROJECT COST AND MANUFACTURING COST OF FABRIC FOR

SECOND-HAND PROJECTILE LOOMS
A factory commissioned recently in the Tirupur area of the Coimbatore region of South
India, with 20 second-hand imported projectile looms, was chosen for calculation of
project cost for installing imported second-hand projectile looms and manufacturing
cost calculation. Based on the face-to-face interview with the entrepreneur the capital
investment required to install 20 second-hand imported projectile looms is given in
Table 13.4. and the running expenses per month are given in Table 13.5.
The fabric produced in the second-hand projectile looms is viscose rayon grey
sheeting. The warp and weft count of yarn used is 30s Ne. Ends per inch is 68,
and picks per inch is 60. The width of fabric is 63 inches. Since the raw material
cost and selling price of fabric varies frequently according to market fuctuations, a

TABLE 13.4
Capital Investment for Second-Hand Projectile Looms (20 Nos.)
S No Details Required Cost per Unit Total Cost
in Rs in Rs

1 Building 930 sq. m 7520/sq. m 69,93,600

2 Second-hand projectile looms (390cm width) 20 10,00,000 2,00,00,000
3 Repair and installation expenditure for looms 20 1,00,000 20,00,000
4 Power line cables 5,00,000
5 Warehouse machines 2,00,000
6 Generator 1 7,00,000 7,00,000
Total investment (Excluding land) 3,03,93,600
Techno-Economics of Shuttleless Looms 93

conversion cost offered by the fabric merchants per metre of fabric is used for cal-
culation purposes. The total production and proft calculation is given in Table 13.6.
Total investment (excluding land cost) for installing 20 second-hand Sulzer pro-
jectile looms (TW 11) is Rs. 3,03,93,600, and the manufacturing cost per metre of
fabric is Rs 5.75. The simple payback period is 12 years.
Even though the investment is high, due to lower manufacturing cost per meter of
fabric in a new air-jet loom, than second-hand projectile looms, there is a tendency
in the industry to go for new air-jet looms.

TABLE 13.5
Running Expenses for Second-Hand Projectile Looms per Month
S. No Details Units Cost in Rs Total cost

1 Fitter 1 40,000 per month 40,000

2 Fitter helper 2 20,000 40,000
3 Sweeper 1 10,000 10,000
4 Weavers @ 4 loom per weaver 300 man days 500/man day 1,50,000
5. Driver 1 17000 17,000
5 Spares and oil 20 looms 4000/loom/month 80,000
6 Manager 1 19,000/month 19,000
7 Folding man 3 15000/month 45000
8 Electricity charges Per month 2,00,000
9 Total expenditure 6,01,000
10 Interest charges per month @ 9% per annum for the total investment of Rs 2,27,952
3,03,93,600 (land cost not included)
11 Total expenses per month including interest 8,28,952

TABLE 13.6
Total Production and Profit Calculation (projectile looms)
S. No Details Units

1 Make Sulzer projectile TW 11

2 Loom width 390cm
3 Speed 200rpm
4 No of fabrics per loom 2
5 No of looms 20
6 Production/day/loom @ 90% effciency (2 × 120m) 240m
7 Production per month (30days) for 20 looms (240m × 20 × 30) 1,44,000m
8 Conversion cost offed per metre of fabric Rs 7.20
9 Total income/month Rs.10,36,800
(1,44,000m × Rs 7.20)
10 Net proft per month (Total income − Total expenses) 2,07,848
11 Simple payback period (Total investment divided by proft per year) 12 years 2 months
12 Manufacturing cost per metre of fabric Rs 5.75/m
(Total expenses per month divided by fabric produced per month)
 14 Global Weaving Industry

14.1 GLOBAL PRODUCTION OF TEXTILES

The global textile industry was estimated at around US$920 billion in 2018, and it
is projected to reach approximately US$1230 billion by 2024, representing a steady
compound annual growth rate of nearly 5% during the forecast period. On the basis
of raw material, cotton dominated the textile market, with a value of US$378.6 bil-
lion in 2019 owing to its properties, such as high absorbency and strength. In terms
of volume, polyester accounted for a share of 28.0% in 2019 and is expected to regis-
ter a signifcant growth rate over the forecast period owing to its properties, such as
excellent shrink resistance and high strength. Fashion and clothing emerged as the
largest application segment, with a value of US$712.3 billion in 2019 owing to the
rapid rise in consumer spending on apparel and clothing.
China is currently the world’s largest textile producer and exporter of both raw
textiles and garments, accounting for over half of the global textile output every year.
Low cost and vast labour availability, reduced commercial barriers and strong mate-
rial supply are few of the competitive advantages the country offers for the textile
manufacturing industry. Regarding material supply, China produced about 79 billion
metres of cloth in 2017 alone and 5.99 million metric tons of cotton in 2017/2018.
India is another one of the world’s largest textile-producing countries and largest
textile exporter. It holds an export value of more than US$30 billion a year. India is
responsible for more than 6.9% of the world’s total textile production, and its tex-
tile industry is valued at approximately US$150 billion. India is the second-largest
textile producer in the world in terms of production volume. The Indian textiles
industry, currently estimated at around US$150 billion, is expected to reach US$250
billion by 2019. According to the latest report from IBEF, India’s textiles industry
contributed 7% of the industry output (in value terms) of India in 2018–2019. It
contributed two per cent to the gross domestic product (GDP) of India and employs
more than 45 million people in 2018–2019. The sector contributed 15% to the export
earnings of India in 2018–2019.
The United States is the leading producer and exporter of raw cotton, while also
being the top importer of raw textiles and garments. The US ranked on the third
place in the list of world’s largest textile producing countries. According to the recent
report from the US National Council of Textile Organizations (NCTO), the total
value of US man-made fbre and flament, textile, and apparel shipments totalled an
estimated US$76.8 billion in 2018; this is an uptick from the US$73 billion in output
in 2017. Due to its productivity, fexibility and innovation, the US continues to be one
of the largest textile producers in the world.
Over the recent years, many other developing countries are also gaining immense
growth in their textile industries as their investment into the textile or garment industry
increases. Countries such as Pakistan, Indonesia, Thailand and Sri Lanka, as well as

DOI: 10.1201/9780367853686-15 95
96 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

TABLE 14.1
Total Textile Output (top 10 countries)
Rank Textile Output in Global Share (%) 2019 Textile Export Value (US$ billion) 2018

Country Textile Output in Country Export Value

the Global Share

1 China 52.2% China 118.5

2 India 6.9% EU 74.0
3 United States 5.3% India 18.1
4 Pakistan 3.6% US 13.8
5 Brazil 2.4% Turkey 11.9
6 Indonesia 2.4% South Korea 9.8
7 Turkey 1.9% Taiwan 9.2
8 South Korea 1.8% Vietnam 8.3
9 Thailand 1.1% Pakistan 8.0
10 Mexico 0.9% Hong Kong 7.4

Source: WTO—World Trade Organisation.

a number of South American countries, have also seen considerable growth in their
textile output in recent years. As China moves towards a service-based economy and
labour prices continue to rise, it is expected that more and more international buyers and
investors will shift their business focus to these fast-evolving markets in the near future.
The total textile production of the top 10 countries in terms of percentage in
global share and export value is given in Table 14.1.
China, ranked frst in textile production in the world, contributes 52.2% of global
textile output. China produced about 79 billion metres of cloth in 2017. India is the
second-largest textile producer in the world in terms of production volume, with
a 6.9% global share. The US ranked third in the list of the world’s largest textile-
producing countries, with a 5.3% global share. Pakistan, with 3.6% global share,
stands fourth; Brazil, with 2.4%, stands ffth; and Indonesia, with 2.4%, stands sixth
in global contribution of textiles.

14.2 FABRIC AND MANUFACTURING COST

AT GLOBAL LEVEL
The manufacturing cost of textiles depends on many factors, such as raw material
cost, labour cost, cost of investment, power cost, land and building cost and machin-
ery cost. These things vary from country to country. For example in developing
countries such as India and Pakistan, the cost of labour is cheaper than in other
countries. Similarly, India is a cotton-producing country, and the raw material cost
is lower. Due to the global economy, any country can import textile goods from
anywhere in the world. Hence, the cheapest-producing country will have the advan-
tage of more demand. It becomes necessary to understand the cost of production
Global Weaving Industry 97

TABLE 14.2
Manufacturing Cost and Total Woven Fabric Cost (ring yarn)—2008
Country Brazil China Egypt India Italy Korea Turkey US
Cost Element

Total manufacturing 0.236 0.214 0.186 0.265 0.579 0.263 0.308 0.346
cost (USD per meter
of fabric)
Index (Italy: 100) (41) (37) (32) (46) (100) (45) (53) (60)
Total fabric cost (US 0.858 0.848 0.842 0.827 1.386 0.877 0.866 0.959
D per meter of fabric)
Index (Italy: 100) (62) (61) (61) (60) (100) (63) (62) (69)

Source: Compendium of International Textile Statistics—2009–10.

of fabrics in major textile-producing countries. The manufacturing costs and total

fabric costs including raw material cost per metre of fabric in US dollars for major
fabric-producing countries is given in Table 14.2.
The index for manufacturing cost and total cost by taking Italy as 100 is calcu-
lated for every country. The manufacturing cost index is lowest for Egypt, with 32,
and the second lowest being China, with 37. The index for total fabric cost is lowest
for India, with 60, and the second lowest being Egypt and China, with 61.
The International Textile Manufacturers Federation has published International
Production Cost Comparison (IPCC) for 2018. The IPCC is designed to trace the
implications of the growing capital intensity in the primary textile industry. The
IPCC describes manufacturing and total costs of yarn/fabric broken down into vari-
ous cost elements at different stages of the textile value chain. The report covers
Pakistan, Bangladesh, Brazil, China, Egypt, India, Indonesia, Italy, Korea, Turkey,
the US and Vietnam. The report enlists the relative importance of the cost elements
and their respective infuence on the total costs.

14.2.1 MANUFACTURING COST OF SPINNING RING YARN

The report shows that in spinning ring yarn (30s Ne) countries with high manufac-
turing cost also have a higher share of labour cost. Table 14.3 shows manufacturing
cost in USD/kg of yarn for 30s Ne and share of labour cost and power cost in manu-
facturing cost in percentage

14.2.2 MANUFACTURING COST FOR FABRIC

The share of labour cost is higher in manufacturing cost for fabric for Italy, Korea
and the US, but the power cost for these countries shows less share than the average
power cost. Table 14.4 shows the share of power cost to manufacturing cost for fabric
(2018) for different countries.
98 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

TABLE 14.3
Manufacturing Cost in USD/kg of Yarn for 30s Ne and Share of Labour Cost
and Power Cost (2018)
S No Country Manufacturing Cost Share of Labour Cost in Share of Power Cost in
in USD/kg of yarn for Manufacturing Cost in Manufacturing Cost in
30s Ne Percentages Percentage

1 Italy $ 2.35 33 21
2 Korea $ 1.60 27 21
3 US $ 1.54 31 10

TABLE 14.4
Share of Power Cost to Manufacturing Cost for Fabric (2018)
S. No Country Share of Power Cost to
Manufacturing Cost for Fabric

1 Italy 17%
2 Korea 17%
3 US 9%
4 Indonesia 30%–40%
5 India 30%–40%
6 Brazil 30%–40 %
7 Pakistan 30%–40 %
8 China 30%–40%
9 Average 26%

The share of power cost to total manufacturing cost for Indonesia, India, Brazil,
Pakistan and China is between 30% and 40%. The average power cost is 26% in the
manufacturing cost of fabric.

14.2.3 SHARE OF LABOUR COST AND POWER COST

IN MANUFACTURING COST FOR KNITTED FABRIC

The share of labour cost and power cost are equal in manufacturing cost for knitted ring
yarn fabric for China, Brazil and Egypt, with 20%, 14% and 6%, respectively. Table 14.5
shows the share of labour cost and power cost in manufacturing cost in knitted fabrics.
The labour cost is more by many times than power cost in US, Italy, and Korea
while it is many times less than the power cost in India, Bangladesh and Pakistan.

14.2.4 SHARE OF LABOUR COST AND POWER COST IN

MANUFACTURING COST FOR FINISHED WOVEN FABRIC
The share of labour cost and power cost in manufacturing cost for fnished woven
fabric is given in Table 14.6.
Global Weaving Industry 99

TABLE 14.5
Share of Labour Cost and Power Cost in Manufacturing Cost in Knitted
Fabric
S No Country Share of Labour Cost in Share of Power Cost in Labour Cost to
Manufacturing Cost Manufacturing Cost Power Cost
Ratio

1 China 20% 20% –

2 Brazil, 14% 14% –
3 Egypt 6% 6%
4 US – – 14 times more
expensive
5 Italy – – 8 times more
expensive
6 Korea – – 4 times more
expensive
7 India – – 3 times less
expensive
8 Bangladesh – – 3.5 times less
expensive
9 Pakistan – – 4 times less
expensive

TABLE 14.6
Share of Labour Cost and Power Cost in Manufacturing Cost for Finishing
Fabric
Country Labour Cost Power Cost

Average percentage to manufacturing cost 13% 14%

Bangladesh 1 cent/m (USD) –
Italy 15 cents/m (USD) –
Egypt, Vietnam – 3 cents/m (USD)
Brazil, Italy – 7 cents/m (USD)

On average, the shares of labour and power to total manufacturing costs for fnish-
ing are 13% and 14%, respectively. Strong geographical discrepancies nevertheless
exist, especially with respect to labour costs with a spread of 14 cent/m. This refects
the difference in labour costs between Bangladesh (1 cent/m [USD]) and Italy (15
cents/m [USD]). The spread in power cost is measured at 4 cents/m, which corre-
sponds to the difference between the cost of power in Egypt or Vietnam (3 cents/m
[USD]) and in Brazil or Italy (7 cents/m [USD]).

14.3 TEXTILE SCENARIO IN INDIA

The manufacturing cost per metre of fabric in India is US$0.265. Even though the
manufacturing cost is higher in India than in many countries like Brazil, China, Egypt
100 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

and Korea, due to the lower raw material cost, the total fabric cost per metre is lowest
in India at US$0.827. India plays an important role in textile production by being the
cheapest producer of textile fabrics with larger quantity at a global level. Therefore
analyzing the techno-economics of shuttleless looms in the Indian context is important.
As per the report of the working group on Textile & Jute Industry for the XII
Five Year Plan (2012–2017) of Government of India, there were approximately 5.18
lakh power loom units with 22.92 lakh power looms as on 31.03.2011 in India. The
technology level of this sector varies from obsolete plain looms to high tech shuttle-
less looms. There are approximately 1,05,000 shuttleless looms in this sector. It is
estimated that more than 75% of the shuttle looms are obsolete and outdated, with
a vintage of more than 15 years. The requirement of auto/shuttleless looms for the
XII Five Year Plan (2012–2017) for projected cloth production has also been calcu-
lated. An incremental 2,34,563 auto/shuttleless looms will be required to produce an
additional projected cloth production of 31.39 billion square metres of fabric. If it is
assumed that half of the incremental production of fabric would be by auto looms
and half would be by shuttleless looms, then the requirement of shuttleless looms
would be 1,17,282 during XII Five Year Plan (2012–2017).

14.4 TECHNOLOGICAL LEVEL OF WEAVING INDUSTRY

IN INDIA
Indian weaving industry is modernizing itself at a rapid pace with the installation
of shuttleless looms for mass production. The indigenous shuttleless loom produc-
tion is very low with inferior quality. Due to this fact, a majority of the shuttleless
looms installed in India are imported. The details of shuttleless looms imported
from other countries to India for a period of 5 years from 2007 to 2012 is given in
Table 14.7.
Out of 36,570 shuttleless looms imported, the share of rapier looms was highest at
16,186, followed by air-jet looms at 8068. Preference for rapier looms is comparatively
very high compared to air-jet, projectile and water-jet looms during this period. But it
has been observed that the majority of the shuttleless looms imported are second-hand

TABLE 14.7
Import of Shuttleless Looms to India
Year No. of Shuttleless Looms Imported Year-Wise Total

Loom Type 2007–2008 2008–2009 2009–2010 2010–2011 2011–2012

Air jet 1452 660 1592 2827 1537 8068

Rapier 2520 1686 4251 3873 3856 16186
Water jet 536 246 1474 1497 1577 5330
Projectile 734 407 2060 2161 1624 6986
Total 5242 2999 9377 10358 8594 36570

Source: Textile Machinery Manufacture Association.

Global Weaving Industry 101

TABLE 14.8
Import of Second-Hand Shuttleless Looms
Year No. of Second-Hand Shuttleless Loom Imported Year-Wise Total

Loom Type 2007–2008 2008–2009 2009–2010 2010–2011 2011–2012

Air jet 339 153 900 1062 1311 3765

Rapier 1801 548 2644 3719 3637 12,349
Water jet 536 246 1474 1497 447 4200
Projectile 734 407 2060 2161 1624 6986
Total 3410 1354 7078 8439 7019 27,300

Source: Textile Machinery Manufacture Association.

due to the fact that the cost of new shuttleless looms of EU and Japan make are very
high. This is beyond the reach of Indian entrepreneurs who are operating at relatively
small scale. Table 14.8 shows the details of imported second-hand shuttleless looms
Out of 36,570 shuttleless looms imported, 27,300 were second-hand machines.
The reason for this is that the second-hand looms, having a residual life of 10 to 20
years, are working smoothly, with 80% to 90% effciency, and are of great help for
modernizing the power loom industry. The difference between the prices of new and
second-hand shuttleless looms are more than three times, especially in the case of
air-jet and projectile looms.

14.5 CLUSTER-WISE STATUS OF WEAVING INDUSTRY IN INDIA

India is a vast country with different regions with different resources. Therefore, the
development of textile industry also is concentrated in certain regions. Similarly, the
modernization of the weaving industry and the machinery requirement also is differ-
ent in different regions. The status of the weaving industry in the important regions
is given in Table 14.9.

TABLE 14.9
Cluster-Wise Power Looms and Shuttleless Looms Installed (up to 2012)
Name of Cluster Bhiwandi Ichalkaranji Erode Surat Bhilwara Malegaon

Type of Loom

Power looms 6, 00,000 No data 89,000 6,00,000 13,000 6,00,000

Total shuttleless looms 25,000 7500 3200 22,600 11,700 –
Rapier 22500 – 3200 2000 115
Projectile – 6375 – 600 3980
Air jet – – – – 7490
Water jet – – – 20,000 115
102 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

In the Bhiwandi cluster, there are more than 6 lakh power looms, of which about
25,000 are shuttleless looms, and most of them are rapier looms. In the Ichalkaranji
cluster, out of 7500 shuttleless looms, 85% are second-hand imported projectile
looms, 13% are brand new imported and only 2% are of Indian make. A majority
of the units in the cluster are doing job work. For job work, second-hand machines
are good. It would not be economical to install new machines for carrying out job
work.
In the Erode cluster, there are about 89,000 power looms, of which only 3200 are
shuttleless looms. Most of the shuttleless looms are second-hand rapier looms pur-
chased mainly from Italy, Germany and Turkey at an average cost of Rs. 6.5 to 9.5
lakhs. Water-jet shuttleless looms are not at all used in this region due to a scarcity
of water.
The Surat cluster has 6 lakh power looms, and only 22,600 are shuttleless looms.
Out of a total of 22,600 shuttleless looms, about 20,000 looms are water jet, 2000
are rapier and there are only about 600 projectile looms. Since the major product of
the cluster is synthetic textiles, hence, the cluster has a natural inclination towards
water-jet machines.
In Bhilwara, there are about 13,000 power looms in the cluster and 11,700 are
shuttleless looms. Out of these, 7490 are air-jet looms, 3980 are projectile looms
and 230 are rapier and water-jet looms. The industry believes that the future of
textile machinery is with air-jet looms as they have higher speeds (rpms), and the
current job rate on air-jet looms is almost double that of projectile machines. The
speed of projectile machines is also less than that of air-jet looms. The perfor-
mance of second-hand looms is comparable with that of the brand-new looms, but
the cost of the looms is a major factor behind the popularity of second-hand looms
in the cluster.
Malegaon is a major textile-producing centre which produces fabric of a relatively
lower quality, with more than 3 lakh power looms producing about 10 million meters
of cloth annually. No shuttleless looms are installed so far.

14.6 FUTURE TRENDS OF GLOBAL TEXTILE INDUSTRY

One of the major global textile industry trends that has been witnessed is the rising
demand for nonwoven fabrics, mainly driven by the downstream industries, such
as the personal care, packaging, automotive and constructions sectors. Nonwoven
fabrics are raw materials for producing hygiene and personal care products, such as
baby diapers, sanitary napkins and adult incontinence. In the construction industry,
nonwoven fabrics are used in road building in the form of geotextiles to increase the
durability of roads; the automobile industry also manufactures a large number of
exterior and interior parts using nonwoven fabrics. With the rising demand caused
by the extensive applications in the downstream industries, the nonwoven segment
is expected to witness a faster growth rate among the global textile industry over the
next few years.
The rising application of smart textile products, owing to the miniaturization of
electronic components and the use of conductive materials, is expected to drive prod-
uct demand. Technological innovation in terms of the development of new upholstery
Global Weaving Industry 103

products derived from coated fabrics and spider silk is expected to open new market
opportunities in the near future.

REFERENCES
1. Mordor Intelligence (Grand View Research)
2. World Trade Organization.
3. Study Report on Impact of Imported Second Hand Shuttle-less Looms Under TUFS,
Ministry of Textiles, Government of India
4. Textile Machinery Manufacture Association
5. Compendium of International Textile Statistics—2009–10
6. Fibre2Fashion News Desk—India
Knitting
 15 Fundamentals of Knitting

Knitting is a method of fabric formation and is second only to weaving as a method

of manufacturing textile fabrics, and in this method, yarns are interlooped to make
fabrics.
The term knitting describes the technique of making textile structures by forming
a continuous length of yarn into columns of vertically and horizontally intermeshed
loops. Interlooping consists of forming yarn into loops, and these loops are held
together by the yarn passing from one loop to the next loop. Knitting requires a
relatively fne, smooth, strong yarn with good elastic recovery properties. The knit-
ted structure gives good elastic properties to fabrics. Nowadays, Lycra is used to
increase the elastic properties of knitted garments
The potentials of knitting technology are varied. The unique loop structure of
knitting provides opportunities for using a minimum number of yarns.to make a
fabric. By varying the size of loops, fabrics with different textures can be produced.
Under tension, the shape of the loop will get distorted. Knitted fabrics can be engi-
neered for extensibility and tailorability. Different types of yarns can be used to
produce fabrics with different properties on each side.

15.1 COMPARISON OF KNITTING AND WEAVING

In knitting, fabric is produced by interlooping one set of yarns, whereas in weaving,
fabric is produced by interlacing two sets of yarns. Even with a single yarn knit-
ted fabric can be made. To make a woven fabric two sets of yarns are compulsory.
Knitting fabrics are more stretchable than woven fabrics. Knitted fabrics are dimen-
sionally unstable whereas woven fabrics are dimensionally stable. For knitting, yarns
having medium strength are suffcient, whereas for weaving, yarns having good
strength are necessary, especially for warp.

15.2 KNITTED FABRIC STRUCTURE

Knitted fabrics are built by loops formed by needles progressively row after row by
intermeshing the loops. Knitted loops are arranged in rows and columns roughly
equivalent to weft and warp of woven structures. Figure 15.1 shows a knitted fabric
structure.

15.2.1 COURSE
The horizontal row of loops is called the course, and a course is formed by the
adjacent needles during the same knitting cycle from the same yarn. For example
in Figure 15.1, the continuous horizontal loops produced by yarn 1 together form
course 1. Similarly, the horizontal loops produced by yarn 2 form course 2 and so

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108 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 15.1 Knitted structure.

on. The length of yarn in one course is called course length. The course corresponds
to weft in a woven fabric. The closer the courses, the denser the fabric and the higher
the weight of the fabric per unit square area. Therefore, the number of courses per
unit length will be a measure of the fabric texture or quality. Because the courses per
unit length will change to a certain extent when the fabric is subjected to tension, it
is not an accurate measurement of quality.

15.2.2 WALES
The vertical columns of loops are called wales, and a wale is the column of loops
formed by the same needle in successive knitting cycles. For example in Figure 15.1,
needle 1 forms wale 1, needle 2 forms wale 2 and so on. Each needle corresponds to
one wale, and therefore, number of needles in a machine determines the number of
wales in a fabric. The closer the needles are placed in a machine, the closer the wales
will be and vice versa. The wales correspond to warp in a woven fabric.

15.2.3 STITCH DENSITY

Stitch density refers to the total number of loops in a unit area of the fabric, and it is
expressed as the number of loops per square centimetre or square inch. Stitch density
gives a measurement of fabric quality. Stitch density is obtained by multiplying the
number of courses and number of wales per unit length:

Stitch density per square cm = Number of courses per cm × Number of wales

per cm.
Fundamentals of Knitting 109

15.2.4 STITCH LENGTH

Stitch length, or loop length, is the length of yarn in one loop. The loop length in a
knitted fabric will not change even if the fabric is subjected to distortion. It will be
the same as when it is set in the machine. This is the only parameter which does not
change in the knitted fabric during the subsequent processing. By adjusting the loop
length, the weight per square area of the fabric can be changed and thereby the texture
of the fabric. Hence, loop length is an important parameter in knitting. Figure 15.2
shows the stitch length of a loop.

15.2.5 MACHINE GAUGE

The number of needles per unit length in a knitting machine is called the gauge of
the machine. This is a machine construction phenomenon, and it has to be decided
during machine manufacturing itself. Machine gauge determines the wales per unit
length. If the gauge of the machine is higher, that means more needles per unit
length, and hence, the wales per unit length also will be higher. Fine yarns can be
knitted in higher gauge machines to produce fner fabrics. Normally, in a 24-gauge
machine (24 needles per inch), 30s to 40s yarn (English count) can be knitted. In a
20-gauge machine, 20s Ne yarn can be knitted conveniently.

15.3 TYPES OF KNITTING

There are two types of knitting:

1. Weft knitting
2. Warp knitting

Weft knitting is further classifed into circular knitting and fat knitting. Again there
are three types of circular knitting, namely plain, rib and interlock. Tricot, raschel,
crochet and Milanese are the further classifcation of warp knitting. Figure 15.3
shows the detailed classifcations of knitting.

FIGURE 15.2 Stitch length.

110 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

15.3.1 WEFT KNITTING

Weft knitting is the process in which the loops are formed progressively in the width-
wise direction of the fabric. This is similar to inserting weft in a woven fabric and,
hence, its name as weft knitting. In weft knitting, the needles form the loops sequen-
tially in the same yarn one after another. Figure 15.4 shows the knitting progression
in weft knitting.

15.3.2 WARP KNITTING

Warp knitting is the process in which the loops are formed progressively in the
lengthwise direction of the fabric. This is similar to the movement of warp yarn
in weaving and, hence, its name warp knitting. In warp knitting, all the needles
form the loops at the same time. Figure 15.5 shows the knitting progression in warp
knitting.

15.3.3 COMPARISON OF WEFT AND WARP KNITTING

1. In weft knitting, yarn feeding and loop formation occur at each needle in
succession, whereas in warp knitting, yarn feeding and loop formation
occur simultaneously in all the needles in a knitting cycle.
2. Weft knitted fabrics are mostly produced as tubular fabrics having a con-
stant diameter. Warp knitted fabrics are knitted at constant width.
3. Weft knitting is more versatile and cost-effective, whereas warp knitting is
limited to certain applications and more expensive.
4. Staple fbre-spun yarns and textured continuous flament yarns can be knit-
ted in weft knitting machines, but knitting them in warp knitting machines
is diffcult.

FIGURE 15.3 Classifcations of knitting.

Fundamentals of Knitting 111

FIGURE 15.4 Knitting progression in weft knitting.

FIGURE 15.5 Knitting progression in warp knitting.

5. Even with a small quantity of yarn, weft knitted fabrics can be produced,
but warp knitting requires a beam of yarn.
6. The yarn does not require sizing for weft knitting, whereas for warp knit-
ting, the yarn has to be sized. However, waxing of the yarn is sometimes
preferred for weft knitting.
7. Compared to weft knitted fabrics, warp knitted fabrics have more dimen-
sional stability.
8. Both fne and coarse fabrics can be produced in weft knitting, whereas in
warp knitting, generally fne fabrics only are produced.
 16 Knitting Needles

Knitting needles are the important elements in loop formation in machine knitting.
There are mainly three types of needles used in knitting:

1. Bearded needle
2. Latch needle
3. Compound needle

16.1 BEARDED NEEDLE

16.1.1 CONSTRUCTION OF BEARDED NEEDLE

The bearded needle is the frst type of needle produced for machine knitting, and it is
the simplest and cheapest needle. It is made from a single piece of metal strip. There
are fve main parts of a bearded needle and are shown in Figure 16.1
Stem 1 is the long, thin metal strip whose head 2 is bent downwards to form a
hook or beard 3. The beard is used to pull the yarn into the loops. In the stem, a
groove or eye 4 is cut to accommodate the tip of the beard during loop formation.
The bottom of the stem is bent to form butt or shank 5, which will be placed in the
groove of the cam during knitting operation.

16.1.2 KNITTING ACTION OF BEARDED NEEDLE

The knitting action of a bearded needle is illustrated in Figure 16.2. The needle has
to be moved up and down for one knitting cycle. There are fve important stages in
a knitting cycle.
The needle is at rest position at A, with the previously formed loop 1 held by stem
5 in its hook portion. At B, the needle is raised, loop 1 is cleared from the hook and
new yarn 2 is ready for presentation to the hook. At C, new yarn is fed to the hook,
and presser 3 moves forward to close the hook. The needle starts moving downwards
at D, and the new yarn is formed into a loop. The hook with the new loop starts mov-
ing through the old loop while the presser moves away from the hook. The needle
moves further downwards at G, pulling new loop 4 through the old loop and at
the same time the old loop is cast off or knocked over from the hook. After this, the
needle is raised again for the next cycle of operation.

16.1.3 MERITS AND DEMERITS OF BEARDED NEEDLE

Bearded needles are the cheapest and simplest in construction. Very thin and fne
bearded needles can be manufactured. Hence, fne fabrics can be produced using
bearded needles. Because bearded needles require a presser for loop formation, it is

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114 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 16.1 Main parts of bearded needle.

diffcult to operate them individually. Due to this factor, bearded needles are used
mainly in warp knitting.

16.2 LATCH NEEDLES

16.2.1 CONSTRUCTION OF LATCH NEEDLES

A latch needle is a self-acting knitting needle. It is more intricate and expensive to
manufacture. It has six main parts as illustrated in Figure 16.3.
The latch needle is made out of a thin metal strip whose one end is bend to
form hook 1. Just below the hook portion, a slot is cut in the stem to accommo-
date latch 2. The latch is riveted in stem 4 by rivet 3, enabling the latch to have
movement. Just above the other end of the stem, butt 5 has been attached. Below
the butt, the stem extends as tail 6. The tip of the latch can be moved up so that
it closes the hook.
Knitting Needles 115

FIGURE 16.2 Knitting cycle of a bearded needle.

16.2.2 KNITTING ACTION OF LATCH NEEDLE

The knitting action or knitting cycle of a latch needle is illustrated in Figure 16.4.
The needle requires an up-and-down motion to complete one knitting cycle. There
are fve positions of the needles during one knitting cycle:

A. Rest position: Needle 1 is at the bottom position, and loop 2, formed in the
previous knitting cycle, is held in the hook.
116 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 16.3 Latch needle.

B. Raising position: The needle is raised, and during this process, the old loop
opens latch 3.
C. Feeding position: The needle is further raised, and new yarn 4 is fed to the
needle hook. By this time, the old loop comes out of the hook completely.
D. Loop forming: The needle starts descending, and new loop 5 is formed by
the yarn fed. The latch is closed by the old loop.
E. Knocking over: The needle descends farther, and the hook of the needle
slips through the old loop, drawing the new loop into it. At the same time,
the old loop slides off the hook, becoming part of the fabric. This is called
knocking over the old loop. Now the needle is ready for raising for the next
cycle of operation.

16.2.3 MERITS AND DEMERITS OF LATCH NEEDLE

The main advantage of latch needle is its self-acting nature, and it does not require
any external element for its loop-forming action. The individual movement and con-
trol of the needle enable the stitch selection when knitting designed fabrics. The
main disadvantage is its thickness due to the latch attachment. Hence, the production
of fne fabrics is diffcult. The latch needle is sturdy and used to produce courser
fabrics without problem. It is mainly used in weft knitting.
Knitting Needles 117

FIGURE 16.4 Knitting cycle of latch needle.

16.3 COMPOUND NEEDLES

16.3.1 CONSTRUCTION AND ACTION OF COMPOUND NEEDLES

Compound needles consist of two parts: open hook 1 and sliding closing element 2,
as illustrated in Figure 16.5. The sliding element slides externally along a groove cut
in the fat hook of the needle. The hook and the sliding element rise and fall together
118 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 16.5 Compound needle.

during the knitting operation. But during raising, the hook raises faster to open the
hook. Once the yarn is fed into the hook, the hook again descends faster and closes
the hook. Then both the hook and the sliding element descend farther to make the
loop formation. Compound needles are mainly used in warp knitting because it is
easier to control the movement of sliding elements as one unit in a warp knit.

16.3.2 MERITS OF COMPOUND NEEDLES

Compound needles can be tapered to slimmer diameters of hooks, producing a larger
area inside the hook that is suitable to accommodate thicker yarn. Hence, compound
needles are used in fne, as well as course, gauge V-bed fat-knitting machines. Its
slim construction and short hook make it suitable for warp knitting at high speeds.
 17 Principles of
Weft Knitting
Weft knitting is the most diverse and widespread knitting technique that produces
approximately 30% of the total apparel fabric production of the world. Weft knitted
fabrics, ranging from inner garments to outer garments suitable for summer and
winter, are mainly produced in circular weft knitting machines.

17.1 KNITTING ELEMENTS OF WEFT KNITTING

There are fve important elements in a circular weft knitting machine:

1. Needle
2. Sinker
3. Cylinder or needle bed
4. Feeder
5. Cam

17.1.1 NEEDLE
The important function of loop formation and interlooping with adjacent loops are done
by the needles in a knitting machine. The needles are the single most important element
in the knitting machine without which no knitting can be done. The construction and
workings of various knitting needles have been described in detail in Chapter 16.

17.1.2 SINKER
The sinker is the second important knitting element in a knitting machine. It is a thin
metal plate cut to requirements as shown in Figure 17.1. It contains four important
parts: nose, catch, butt and belly. Individual sinkers are kept between two needles,
and separate cams give them forward and backward motion during knitting. They
perform one or more of the following two important functions:

1. Holding down
2. Knocking over

The important function of the sinkers in modern single jersey knitting machines is
to hold down the old loops in the needle stem when the needle raises. Holding-down
sinkers are not necessary when two sets of needles are used as in the case of rib and
interlock machines. In tricot warp knitting machines, sinkers help with knocking
over of old loops.

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120 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 17.1 Sinker.

FIGURE 17.2 Cylinder.

17.1.3 CYLINDER OR NEEDLE BED

A cylinder, or needle bed, is the main body of the knitting machine around whose
surface the needles are placed. It is a metal cylinder, and on its surface, slots are
cut to accommodate the needles as shown in Figure 17.2. The number of slots per
unit length and its width depend on the gauge of the machine. The diameter of the
cylinder determines the width of the fabric. The needles are placed in the slots
or as it is called tricks of the cylinder. During knitting, the cylinder rotates along
with the needles. One revolution of the cylinder corresponds to one course of
knitting. In fat-knitting machines, instead of a cylinder, a fat rectangular metal
bar is used.

17.1.4 FEEDER
Yarn feeders or guides are used in the knitting machine to place the yarn in front
of the needle hooks so that during their movement, they catch the yarn by their
hooks and form loops. The distance between the feeders and the needles are so
important that too close a distance will break the needles often and too open will
cause the needle hooks to miss the yarn. Therefore, it is very important to set
the feeders frmly in the machine. Each feeder will guide one yarn, and hence,
the number of feeders will determine the numbers yarns fed in the machine. To
increase production, the number of feeders has to be increased in a machine.
Figure 17.3 shows a feeder.

17.1.5 CAM
Cams are important mechanical elements which convert one type of motion into
another type.
Principles of Weft Knitting 121

FIGURE 17.3 Yarn feeder.

For moving the needle up and down cams are employed in knitting machines. The
needle cam system consists of six cam segments:

1. Clearing cam
2. Stitch cam
3. Upthrow cam
4. Guard cam-1
5. Return cam
6. Guard cam-2

A knitting cam system employed in a single jersey knitting machine is illustrated in

Figure 17.4. Knitting cams are attached either individually or in a unit form to a cam
plate. For each feeder, a set of cams has to be arranged. The needle butts are placed
in the groove of the cam. The needle enters from left to right in the cam as shown
in Figure 17.4. Clearing cam 1 raises the needles to the required height so that the
hooks are cleared from the old loops. Stitch cam 2 gives a downward movement to
the needles so that loop formation takes place. Upthrow cam 3 brings the needle
back to the rest position. Return cam 5 and guard cams 4 and 6 prevent the needle
from falling out of the cam track.
The stitch length of the loop can be adjusted by adjusting the stitch cam. The
stitch cam can be adjusted up and down in such a way that the downward move-
ment of the needle can be adjusted. The more downward movement, longer the stitch
length. The shorter the downward movement, shorter the loop length.
The sinker cam gives forward and backward movement to the sinkers. The sinker
cam consists of three segments, namely race cam, withdrawing cam and sinker-
return cam, as shown in Figure 17.5.
The sinker return cam can be adjusted according to the requirements.

17.2 KNITTING CYCLE OF SINGLE JERSEY WEFT KNITTING

MACHINE
There are four important stages in the knitting cycle of single jersey weft knitting
machines which are popularly known as plain knitting machines. These are illus-
trated in Figure 17.6.
122 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 17.4 Knitting cam.

FIGURE 17.5 Sinker cam.

A: Rest position: Sinker 1 is in the forward position, holding down the old loop,
while needle 2 raises from the rest position.
B: Clearing: The needle has been raised to the maximum height, clearing old
loop 3 from latch 4.
C: Yarn feeding: The sinker is partially withdrawn, and feeder 5 presents new
yarn 6 to the descending needle, and the old loop slides on the needle stem
ready to close the latch.
D: Knocking over: The needle descends to its bottom, drawing the yarn
through the old loop to form new loop 7. At the same time, the old loop is
knocked over from the hook and forms part of the fabric.
Principles of Weft Knitting 123

FIGURE 17.6 Knitting cycle of a single jersey circular weft knitting machine.

17.3 PLAIN CIRCULAR WEFT KNITTING MACHINES

Single jersey or plain knitted fabrics are produced in circular weft knitting machines.
Because these fabrics have only one layer of loops in the cross section, they are
called single jersey. Single jersey machines use latch needles. In these machines, the
cylinder with needles revolves around stationary cams. The yarn is supplied from
cones through the yarn feeder. The fabric in a tubular form is drawn from inside of
the cylinder by tension and wound on fabric rollers. The winding mechanism also
revolves with the cylinder. The essential parts of a circular plain knitting machine
are illustrated in Figure 17.7.
Cylinder 2 is placed on cylinder bed 4 and is driven by pinion 8. Needles 1 is
placed around the cylinder. Cams 3 are fxed on the cylinder bed around the cylinder,
and they are stationary. Sinker bed 10 is fxed at the top of the cylinder, but it does
not touch cylinder. Sinkers 5 are placed in the slot cut in the sinker bed. Feeders 6
124 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 17.7 Schematic of a circular plain knitting machine.

are fxed around the sinker bed one for each cam unit. The yarn is drawn from supply
package 7 and fed to the needles through the feeder.
When the cylinder revolves with the needles, due to action of the cam, the needles
make up and down movements, and due to their knitting action, fabric is formed. The
formed fabric is drawn by the fabric take-up roller 11 by tension and wound in the form
of a roll. Figure 17.7a shows the knitting section of a circular plain knitting machine.

17.4 RIB KNITTING

Rib knitting is a technique of producing two layers of loops in the knitted fabric
using two sets of needles. These fabrics are often called double jersey knitted fabrics
due to the presence of two layers of loops. In the circular weft knitting machine,
instead of sinkers, another set of needles are used, which are called dial needles.
The dial needles are placed in the slots cut radialy in a circular dial perpendicular
to cylinder needles. The fabrics produced from these machines have a vertical cord
appearance on both sides of the fabrics, hence the name rib. The two sets of needles
are placed alternatively or gated between each other, and this is called rib gating. The
placement of the cylinder and the dial needles is shown in Figure 17.8.
The knitting action of a circular rib knitting machine consists of three stages and
is shown in Figure 17.9.

A: Clearing: The cylinder and dial needles move forward to clear the cylinder
needle and dial needle loops formed in the previous knitting cycle.
Principles of Weft Knitting 125

FIGURE 17.7(A) Circular plain knitting machine.

B: Feeding: The cylinder needles and dial needles withdraw backwards, mak-
ing the old loops close the latches. But at the same time, new yarn is fed to
the cylinder and dial needles.
C: Knocking over: The needles are completely withdrawn enabling the old
loops to cast off from the needle heads. At the same time, the cylinder
needle head and dial needle head pull the yarn through the old loops, mak-
ing new loops.

To give movement to the cylinder and the dial needles, separate cams for the cylin-
der and the dial needles are provided. There are two types of timings for the cams.
In synchronized timing, the cylinder and the dial needles pull the yarn at the same
126 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 17.8 Rib gating.

FIGURE 17.9 Knitting action of rib knitting machine.

Principles of Weft Knitting 127

FIGURE 17.10 Synchronized timing cylinder and dial cams.

time to form loops. In delayed timing, the cylinder and the dial needles pull the yarn
one after one another for loop formation. Figure 17.10 shows synchronized timing
cylinder and dial cams.

17.5 INTERLOCK KNITTING

Interlock is a double jersey fabric having a technical face on both sides. It is a
heavier and thicker fabric, having a relaxation of 30% in its width. To knit interlock
fabrics, two sets of cylinder needles and two sets of dial needles are required. One
set of cylinder needles will be longer, and the other set will be shorter. Similarly,
one set of dial needles will be longer, and the other set will be shorter. The needles
will be placed exactly opposite each other. The cylinder long needles will be placed
opposite the dial short needles, and the cylinder short needles will be placed oppo-
site the dial long needles. This is called interlock gating. Figure 17.11 shows inter-
lock gating. Because of this gating, when the long cylinder needles knit, the short
dial needles cannot knit, and when the short cylinder needles knit, the long dial
needles cannot knit.
The cylinder and the dial cams are designed in such a way that the long needles
will knit in one cam track and the short needles will knit in another cam track. Thus,
for both the cylinders and the dials, two cam tracks each have been provided. Figure
17.12 shows an interlock cam system. Figure 17.13 shows an interlock cylinder cam.
The long needles of cylinder and dial knit at the frst feeder yarn, and the short
needles of cylinder and dial knit at the second feeder yarn. In Figure 17.12, when
128 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 17.11 Interlock gating.

cylinder long needle 9 knits due to the action of cylinder cam 1 in feeder 1, the dial
long needle 10 also knits after a delay due to the action of dial cam 6. When cylinder
short needle 11 knits due to the action of cylinder cam 4 at feeder 2, the dial short
needle 12 will also knit after a delay due to the action of dial cam 7. Interlock thus
requires eight cams to produce one complete course.

17.6 PURL KNITTING

Purl structures have wales which contain both face and reverse loops. The simplest
purl is 1×1 purl. Purl structures can be produced using double-ended latch needles
Principles of Weft Knitting 129

FIGURE 17.12 Interlock cylinder and dial cam system.

which have hooks at both ends. Two needle beds are required for purl knitting. The
tricks of the two needle beds will be placed exactly opposite to each other in the
same plane so that the double-ended needle can slide in both the tricks. Slides are
used to move the double-ended needle from one bed to another. Figure 17.14 shows
a purl knitting using sliders.
Knitting outwards from one needle bed the needle will produce a face loop with
the newly fed yarn whilst the same needle knitting outwards with its other end hook
from the other bed will produce a reverse loop. As the needle moves from one bed to
the other bed, the old loop slides off the latch of the hook that produced it, and after
sliding off, the old loop moves along the needle stem towards the other hook. But it
130 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 17.13 Interlock cylinder cam.

FIGURE 17.14 Purl knitting using double ended latch needles.

cannot enter the other hook because it will pivot the latch to close. At the same time,
a new yarn will be put in the hook, and when the needle moves backwards, the new
yarn will make a new loop and so on.
 18 Basic Structures of
Weft Knitting

18.1 INTRODUCTION
There are four basic structures in weft knitting:

1. Plain
2. Rib
3. Interlock
4. Purl

To produce each structure different machines with different needle arrangements

are required. Each primary structure may exist alone or in a modifed way. Apart
from the basic structures, many knitted structures are derived from these structures
according to different requirements. Each structure has its own unique fabric proper-
ties and its own applications and end uses.

18.2 KNITTING NOTATION

Knitting notation is the simplest way of representing knitting structures. There
are two types of notations. One is using point paper, and the other is using square
paper. Point paper is used to create a running thread path notation for weft knit-
ting structures, which is also recognized for warp knitting lapping diagrams. In
point paper, each point represents a needle, and after drawing the thread path,
it also represents the stitch. Each horizontal row of points represents adjacent
needles during the same knitting cycle. Each vertical column of points represents
the same needle.
In the square paper method, each square represents a needle or a stitch. An X
symbol in a square represents a face stitch and O symbol in a square represents a
reverse stitch. Figure 18.1 shows the point paper and square paper representations of
face loop stitch and reverse loop stitch.

18.3 PLAIN STRUCTURE

The plain structure is the base structure, and its technical face is smooth, with the
legs of the needle loops having the appearance of columns of V in the wales. On the
technical backside, the heads of the needle loops will appear as semi-circles. Figure
18.2 shows a plain knit structure with notation. Plain knits can be unroved from the
course knitted last. Plain knit structure is the simplest and most economical weft knit
structure and has maximum cover factor.

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132 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 18.1 Face loop and reverse loop notation.

FIGURE 18.2 Plain knit structure.

18.4 RIB STRUCTURE

The simplest rib is 1×1 rib and it is knitted with two sets of latch needles. Rib is a
double jersey fabric because it has two layers of loops. One layer of loops is formed
by cylinder needles, and another layer of loops is formed by dial needles. It is a
reversible fabric. Both sides have needle loop legs running vertically and give a rib
appearance, hence the name rib knits. Rib fabrics have twice the thickness of plain
knits and half the width. Rib is a balanced fabric, and it will not curl when cut.
Figure 18.3 shows a rib structure with notation.
Rib structures are elastic and warm better than plain structures. Rib knits are best
suitable for tops of socks, cuffs of sleeves and borders of garments.

18.5 INTERLOCK STRUCTURE

Interlock has the technical face of plain single jersey fabric on both sides, and due to
this, both surfaces of interlock are smooth. Interlock cannot be stretched because the
Basic Structures of Weft Knitting 133

FIGURE 18.3 Rib structure.

FIGURE 18.4 Interlock knit structure.

FIGURE 18.5 Purl knit structure.

134 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

wales on both sides are opposite to each other and locked, hence the name interlock.
It is a balanced structure and lies fat without curl. Interlock is a thicker and heavier
fabric. Figure 18.4 shows an interlock knit structure.

18.6 PURL STRUCTURE

Purl structure has a face loop stitch and a reverse loop stitch in the same wale. The
simplest purl is 1×1 purl and consists of an alternate course of face and reverse loops.
It has more lengthwise elasticity, and it is thicker than plain knit fabrics. Figure 18.5
shows a purl knit structure.
 19 Types of Knitting Stitches

There are three types of stitches a knitting needle can produce during the knitting
cycle depending on its movement:

1. Knit stitch
2. Float stitch
3. Tuck stitch

These stitches are used to create designs in fabrics.

19.1 KNIT STITCH

A knitted loop stitch is produced when a needle receives new yarn, makes a new loop
and knocks over the old loop formed from the previous knitting cycle. This stitch is
formed when the needle is raised to the height required for the latch to come out of
the old loop and catch the new yarn so that it can make a new loop during its down-
ward movement. The new loop is drawn through the old loop by the needle before
casting off the old loop. This normal knitted stitch is called a knit stitch. This is the
stitch which forms the bulk of knitted fabric.

19.2 FLOAT STITCH

When the needle is not raised to the required height for the needle to catch new
yarn, the needle will not make new loop during its downwards movement. During
the casting off of the old loop, the old loop of this needle gets straightened between
the adjacent loops of both sides. This will look like a foat. This stitch is called
a foat stitch or a miss stitch. A foat stitch has the appearance of a U-shape on
the reverse side of the fabric. Knitted fabrics with foat stitches exhibit horizontal
lines. More foat stitches in a fabric will reduce widthwise elasticity and improve
fabric stability.
Figure 19.1 shows a foat stitch. Figure 19.2 shows the needle height for making a
foat stitch. A foat stitch is represented as an empty square or as a bypassed point. A
foat stitch is also called a miss stitch.

19.3 TUCK STITCH

A tuck stitch is one in which the old loop is not cast off from the hook but receives
the new loop. Thus, a tuck stitch will have two or more loops in the hook at the
same time. Figure 19.3 shows a tuck stitch. When the needle is not raised to the
required height for the latch to come out of the old loop, a tuck stitch is formed.
Figure 19.2 shows the needle height for making a tuck stitch. A tuck is represented

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136 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 19.1 Float stitch.

FIGURE 19.2 Needle height for knit, foat stitch and tuck stitches.
Types of Knitting Stitches 137

FIGURE 19.3 Tuck stitch.

as a dot in a square box or as a semi-circle over a point. The tuck stitch looks like an
inverted V-shape.
A tuck stitch is formed by lifting the needle only halfway towards the clearing
height. The old loop opens the latch but remains on the latch spoon and does not slide
off on the needle stem. It remains in the needle hook, where a new loop joins with
it before knocking over when the needle descends. Only a latch needle is capable of
producing knit, tuck and miss stitches.
20 Patterning and
Needle Selection
Patterns are produced in weft knitted structures either in the form of selected
coloured yarns or by choosing different types of stitches. The width of the pattern in
wales is determined by the number of needles selected, and the depth of pattern in
courses is determined by the number of feeders with selection facilities. Horizontal
strips, intarsia and plating are done by selecting yarns. Patterning by individual
stitch selection is based on the principle that by altering the raising height of the
latch needle, any one of the knit, miss and tuck stitches can be produced in the
corresponding wale. These stitches will have different appearance and effect in the
fabric.
There are many methods by which the needle height can be controlled:

1. Multitrack cams
2. Pattern wheel
3. Needle selection by punched tapes
4. Electronic needle selection

20.1 HORIZONTAL STRIPS

Horizontal striping is produced when coloured yarn is fed by selected feeder. The
width of the strip depends on the number of feeders with coloured yarn. For example
if feeders 1 to 4 are fed with, say, red colour and feeders 5 to 8 are fed with blue
colours and the rest of the feeders fed with white colour, then a fabric with red
colour stripe followed by blue colour stripe and then a white colour will be pro-
duced. Figure 20.1 shows a horizontal strip design. Alternatively, feeders may have
the facilities to feed different coloured yarns one at a time. In these machines, each
feeder will be provided with a number of yarn guides with different coloured yarns
and a selection mechanism to select the required colour yarn. Figure 20.2 shows a
four-colour selection facility for a feeder.

20.2 INTARSIA
Intarsia is a method of producing designs in pure colours in knitted fabrics. In intar-
sia, each block of needles is exclusively supplied with its own particular yarn to
knit separate coloured areas. These yarns will run above the course and do not foat
behind the needle loops.

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140 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 20.1 Horizontal strip design.

FIGURE 20.2 Four-colour selection facility.

20.3 PLATING
Plating is a technique in which two yarns of different characteristics like different
fbres, colour or count are fed into the same feeder to make designs. Usually, the
main yarn will continuously knit the ground fabric, but additional yarn will be fed
along with the main yarn in selected feeders to produce design effect. Figure 20.3
shows a plating technique.
Patterning and Needle Selection 141

FIGURE 20.3 Plating technique.

20.4 MULTITRACK CAMS

In single jersey multi-cam track machines, needles with different butt heights will
be employed. A four-track cam system will employ needles with four different butt
heights. Every feed position will have fxed but exchangeable knitting, tucking and
miss cams. A particular needle will be raised according to the cams positioned in
that particular track. The total number of cam tracks infuence the width of the repeat
in the wales. Each butt position is used only once in the repeat so that the pattern
width is equal to the number of butt positions. Figure 20.4 shows a four-track cam.

20.5 PATTERN WHEEL

A pattern wheel is a simple device on whose circumference tricks are cut. The gauge
of the tricks will be equal to the gauge of the cylinder. In each trick pattern bits can
be placed. The pattern wheel will be placed in each feeder at an angle to the cylin-
der, and they are free to rotate. When the needles move along with the cylinder, the
needle butts will slip into the tricks of the pattern wheel. The pattern wheel will also
rotate. As it rotates and since it is inclined, it will lift the needle butt according to the
pattern bit placed in that trick. If there is no bit in the trick, the butt will be lifted to
miss height as shown in Figure 20.5.
If there is a low bit, the butt will be lifted to tuck height. If there is a high bit,
the butt will be lifted to clearing height. Thus, by placing the required pattern bit,
the needle can be made to knit or tuck or miss. Figure 20.6 shows a pattern wheel
mounted in a single jersey machine.
In Figure 20.5, a high bit has been placed at pattern wheel trick at 4 therefore the
needle 1 has been lifted to clearing height so that a knit stitch is formed. A low bit
has been placed at trick 5 so that needle 2 is lifted to tuck height. No bit has been
placed at 6 so that the butt of needle 3 slips so that the needle does not raise to catch
a new yarn and a miss stitch happens.

20.6 NEEDLE SELECTION BY PUNCHED TAPE

In punched-tape needle selection, a jack is used to lift the needle. Figure 20.7 shows
a punched-tape needle selection system. Jack butt 2 is placed in the tricks of the
142 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 20.4 Multitrack cam.

Patterning and Needle Selection 143

FIGURE 20.5 Schematic of a pattern wheel.

FIGURE 20.6 Pattern wheel mounted on a single jersey machine.

144 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

cylinder below needle 7. The jack butt is engaged with cam 3. When punched tape
6 with a hole is pressed against the tip of jack 1, as shown in Figure 20.7a, the tip of
the jack will enter the hole; thereby, the jack will not have a lateral movement. As a
result, the bottom portion of jack 4 will not engage with jack cam 5. Hence, the jack
will not be lifted, the jack butt will not be moved out of the cam track, and the needle
will follow the action of the cam. If there is no hole in the punched tape, as shown in

FIGURE 20.7 Punched-tape selection system.

Patterning and Needle Selection 145

FIGURE 20.8 Electronic needle selection system.

Figure 20.7b, jack 1 will be moved laterally, the bottom portion of the jack will be
engaged with cam 5 and the jack will be lifted. This will make the jack butt move
outwards and disengage with cam 3. As a result the jack butt will not be lifted and
hence the needle will also not be lifted.

20.7 ELECTRONIC NEEDLE SELECTION

Electromagnetic needle selection is used in latest machines. The electronic impulse
that energizes an electromagnet is magnifed, and this is used to select a needle
through a mechanical means. These selection units are compact and can be ftted to a
cylinder as well as to a dial needle selection. Figure 20.8 shows an electronic needle
selection system.
21 Knitted Fabric Geometry

Weft knitted structures have the unique properties of formftting and elastic recovery.
Knitted loops have the ability to change shape when subjected to tension. This ability
of the loops to change shape becomes a problem for maintaining dimensions of the
knitted fabric during further processing, which causes size variation and shrinkage.
By investigation HATRA (Hosiery and Allied Trades Research Association) found
that the stitch length has an infuence on knitted fabric dimensions.

21.1 STITCH LENGTH

Doyle P.J. (1953) discussed the relationship between stitch length and fabric dimen-
sions. He showed that stitch density is primarily dependent on stitch length for a wide
range of dry relaxed plain weft knitted fabrics and is independent of count, yarn
structure and the system of knitting. This leads to the establishment of the following
three basic laws relating to the behaviour of weft knitted fabrics:

1. Stitch length is the fundamental unit of weft knitted structures.

2. Loop shape determines the dimensions of knitted fabrics.
3. The relationship between loop length and loop shape can be expressed in
the form of simple equations.

Munden D.L. (1959) derived the relationship between fabric properties and the yarn
and knitting variables. Munden said that the plain knit structure essentially consists
of the repeating unit of a single loop. The area of the fabric, its quality and its weight
are all related and depend on the confguration and dimensions of the single loop.
Munden showed that the knitted loop is a three-dimensional structure. In order to
produce a fat knitted structure, the yarn is bent both in the plane of the fabric and
in the plane right angles to the fabric. After knitting, the yarn, which was originally
straight and desires to return to the straight state, is prevented from doing so by the
equal and opposite reactions from the interlocking yarns. For any loop or row of
loops to straighten, the greatest bending is necessary in neighbouring loops or row
of loops in order to accommodate this change so that the whole structure tends to
go into a state of minimum energy or minimum total bending. This is basically the
mechanism of relaxation.

21.2 DIMENSIONS OF KNITTED FABRICS IN THE RELAXED

STATE
The yarn is often temporarily distorted by the throw of the needle during knitting.
Because the hosiery yarn is not perfectly elastic and the interlocking points are of

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148 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

TABLE 21.1
Dimensional Constants for Plain Knitted Worsted Fabrics
Dimensional Constants Dry Relaxed Wet Relaxed

ks 19.0 21,6
kc 5.0 5.3
kw 3.8 4.1
R 1.3 1.3

high friction, the knitting strains are dissipated gradually on standing as the fabric
tends towards its state of minimum energy.
The dimensions of the knitted fabrics in the relaxed state are determined by the
knitting loop taking up its confguration corresponding to minimum energy. Munden
suggested that this confguration is the geometrical property of the loop structure
and is independent of the physical properties of the yarn or the amount of yarn knit-
ted into the loop. Munden showed that fully relaxed plain knit fabrics constructed
from yarns of different properties have similar loop shapes. This uniformity of loop
shape is obtained only when the yarn has not been permanently deformed by the
knitting action. Monoflament thermoplastic yarns, such as nylon, are invariably
plastically deformed by the knitting action and in normal processing do not recover
to their natural state. Their loop confguration will not, in general, resemble that of
relaxed fabric.
Munden D.L. (1959) derived the following equations for thoroughly relaxed plain
knitted worsted fabrics with his experimental results. In a relaxed condition the
dimensions of plain knitted fabrics are given by the formulae:

1. Courses per inch (cpi) = kc/l,

2. Wales per inch (wpi) = kw/l,
3. Stitch density (S) = ks/l2, and
4. cpi/wpi = R,

where l is the loop length in inch; kc, kw, and ks are dimensional constants and R
is the loop shape factor. The k values for dry and wet relaxed plain knitted worsted
fabrics are given in Table 21.1.
Using these equations, it is possible to predetermine the dimensions of relaxed
knitted fabrics.

21.3 RELAXED STATES

Two formal relaxed states (Munden D.L. 1959) are recognized:

1. Dry relaxed state

2. Wet relaxed state
Knitted Fabric Geometry 149

A dry relaxed fabric is one which is relaxed and has no wet treatment. A fabric is said
to be in a dry relaxed state when all the stresses and strains introduced into the yarn
during knitting have been dissipated with the exception of strains introduced by the
yarn-to-yarn contacts required to maintain the shape of the loop. The usual proce-
dure to achieve a dry relaxed state is to lay the fabric fat in the standard atmosphere
and leave for the necessary time. A fabric is said to be wet relaxed when the fabric
has been allowed in water until equilibrium is reached. This static soak is usually
suffcient to fully relax the dry relaxed fabric. Fabrics knitted from hydrophilic yarns
may be brought to a strain-free state by relaxation in water. Cotton fabrics which
remain permanently distorted in the dry state recover completely from such strains
when relaxed in water. All fabric measurements taken at wet relaxed state only are
reliable.

21.4 TIGHTNESS FACTOR

Although the dimensions of relaxed knitted fabrics are dependent only on the
loop length and are independent of the yarn count, the mechanical properties,
fabric stiffness and pilling are dependent on the tightness of the construction.
Munden D.L. (1962) pointed out that the ratio of natural yarn diameter to the
loop length can be used to specify the tightness of the construction. Because the
yarn diameter is proportional to linear density (tex), the tightness of plain knitted
fabric is given by

fabric tightness = K = √T/l,

where T is yarn linear density in tex and
l is loop length in cm.

The fabric tightness is called the tightness factor, similar to the cover factor of woven
fabrics.
The value of the tightness factor for plain knitted worsted fabric lies between 13
and 15.

21.5 LOOP SHAPE

Nutting T.S. and Leaf G.A.V. (1964) showed that the loop shape of weft knitted fab-
rics is controlled by loop length, fbre properties and method of relaxation. The loop
shape is largely dependent on the ratio F/G, where F is yarn fexural rigidity and G
is torsional rigidity.

21.6 POSITIVE FEEDERS

Because the fabric dimensions depend on the loop length, it becomes necessary to
maintain a uniform loop length throughout the fabric in order to maintain the fabric
quality. The uniformity of loop length depends on the uniformity of feed yarn ten-
sion. In modern knitting machines, due to the large number of feeders, the supply
packages are kept separately, and the yarn is drawn through tubes to the feeders.
150 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 21.1 Schematic of a positive feeder.

FIGURE 21.2 Positive feeder.

Knitted Fabric Geometry 151

This causes uneven tension between feeders and uneven tension in the same feeder
for a long period. Hence, positive feeders have been developed to draw the yarn
from the supply packages positively and to feed at uniform tension in all the feeders.
Figure 21.1 shows the schematic of a positive feeder. Figure 21.1 shows a positive
feeder.
Continuous tape 2 encircles all feed wheel 3 and is driven by a single machine
pulley. When the machine is running, the tape driven by the pulley drives all the feed
wheels at a constant speed. Yarn 5, from the respective supply package, is drawn
through guide 1 and taken around the feed wheel. When the feed wheel rotates, yarn
is drawn at a uniform rate and fed into the feeder at a uniform tension. This uniform
tension of yarn in all the feeders ensures a uniform loop length throughout the fabric
during production.

REFERENCES
Doyle, P.J. (1953) “Fundamental aspects of the design of knitted fabrics” Journal of the
Textile Institute Vol. 44. Pp. 561–578.
Munden, D.L. (1959) “The geometry and dimensional property of plain knit fabrics” Journal
of the Textile Institute Vol. 50. Pp. T448–T471.
Munden, D.L. (1962) “Specifcation of construction of knitted fabrics” Journal of the Textile
Institute Vol. 53. P. 628.
Nutting, T.S. and Leaf, G.A.V. (1964) “A generalized geometry of weft knitted fabrics”
Journal of the Textile Institute Vol. 54. Pp. 45–53.
22 Flat Knitting

22.1 FLAT KNITTING MACHINES

Flat knitting is basically a weft knitting technique which uses fat needle beds. The
popular V-bed fat knitting machines have two rib gated needle beds set at 90°
between them giving an inverted V-shape appearance. The fat knitting machines
follow an English system of gauging designated as E, which is the number of needles
per inch. The fat knitting machine gauge ranges from E5 to E14. The knitting width
of a fat knitting machine ranges from 14cm to 50cm for strapping and 80cm to 120cm
for hand-operated garment machines. The width of automatic fat garment length
machines ranges from 66cm to 240cm. The count range of yarns used will vary with
the gauge of the machine. In a 12-gauge machine, 2/26s to 2/42s count may be used.
In fat knitting machines, the needle bed is stationary, and the cam moves in a car-
riage in a slide along the full width of the machine. The trick walls of the needle beds
are replaced with thin and polished knock-over bit edges. Latch-opening brushes are
attached to the cam plates of both beds. These brushes open the latches of the needles.
The yarn guide is attached to the carriage which slides along the full width of the
machine in a rail.
Half-cardigan, full-cardigan and racked rib structures can be produced in fat
knitting machines.

22.2 KNITTING ACTION OF FLAT KNITTING

MACHINE
The knitting action of fat knitting machine consists of four stages. Figure 22.1 shows
the four stages of the knitting action of fat knitting machines.

A. Rest position: At the rest position, the heads of the needles are level with
knock-over bits. The butts of the needles are in straight line until contacting
the raising cams.
B. Clearing: The needles are lifted to clearing height by the raising cams. The
brushes open the latches of the needles.
C. Yarn feeding: At yarn feeding, a new yarn is fed to the needles as the nee-
dles start descending. Both needles pull the yarn to form a new loop.
D. Knocking over: As the needles descend farther, the knock-over of the front
needle bed occurs after the knock-over of the back bed. A delayed timing
of the knock-over is employed between front and back beds.

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154 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 22.1 Knitting action of a fat knitting machine.

23 Basics of Warp Knitting

In warp knitting, yarn feeding and loop formation will be done in all the needles
simultaneously at every knitting cycle. Warp yarn passes from one needle loop in
one course to another needle loop in the next course in the lengthwise direction.

23.1 OVERLAP
The needle loops are called laps in warp knitting. In order to produce a needle loop
the yarn has to be swung upwards, shog it over the needle hook and swung down-
wards again. This movement of the yarn guide and the loop formed by it both are
called overlap. The overlap is a shog across one needle hook only. In Figure 23.1, the
movement abcd is an overlap.

23.2 UNDERLAP
The movement of yarn guide from one needle to another needle across the side is called
underlap. It supplies yarn from one overlap to the next overlap. The underlap shog
ranges from 0 to 3 needles spaces usually. Underlaps and overlaps are essential in warp
knitting to join the wales of loops together. In Figure 23.1, the movement de is underlap.

23.3 CLOSED LAP

A closed lap is formed when a subsequent underlap shogs in the opposite direction to
the preceding overlap. This will lap the same yarn around the front and back of the
needle. Figure 23.2a shows a closed lap. Closed laps are more compact and heavier.
They are more opaque and less extensible.

FIGURE 23.1 Overlap and underlap.

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156 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

23.4 OPEN LAP

An open lap is formed when a subsequent underlap is in the same direction as the
preceding overlap. An open lap will also be formed when an underlap is omitted.
Figure 23.2b shows an open lap.

23.5 NEEDLE BAR

In warp knitting, all the needles have to move up and down simultaneously to form
loops. For this purpose, all the needles are attached to a metallic bar, and this bar is
called a needle bar. Similarly, all the sinkers will be attached to a bar for easy move-
ment. The needle bar only will receive movements, and individual needles will not
be lifted. Figure 23.3 illustrates a needle bar.

23.6 GUIDE BAR

The warp yarn guides, which are thin, metal plates drilled with a hole at the bottom
for yarn passage, are held together by a metal lead at their upper end. The number of
guides will be equal to the number of needles and are spaced as that of the needles.
The leads are attached to a metal bar, which is called a guide bar. The guides will
be hanging down from the guide bar, and each guide will be midway between two
adjacent needles when at rest position. Each guide bar will receive warp yarns from

FIGURE 23.2 Closed lap and open lap.

FIGURE 23.3 Needle bar.

Basics of Warp Knitting 157

FIGURE 23.4 Guide bar.

FIGURE 23.5 Lapping diagram and chain notation.

a warp beam. The minimum number of guide bars is two for normal warp knitting.
Figure 23.4 illustrates a guide bar.

23.7 LAPPING DIAGRAM AND CHAIN NOTATION

The movement of the guide bars determines the overlaps and underlaps in warp knit-
ted structures. The diagram showing the movement of guide bars is called a lapping
diagram. The horizontal row of dots represents the needles, and each row of dots
in a vertical direction represent successive courses. It is assumed that the pattern
mechanism is on the right side. Because the guides always take a position between
the needles, the spaces between the needles will be marked in numerical numbers
starting from ‘0’. Because the underlaps always extend from the end of one overlap
to the start of the next overlap, it is suffcient to draw the overlap only in the lapping
diagram. In the chain notation, a dash (-) represents an overlap and a slash (/) repre-
sents an underlap. Figure 23.5 illustrates a lapping diagram and chain notation for a
two-course repeat of a warp knit structure.
24 Warp Knitting Machines

24.1 TYPES OF WARP KNITTING MACHINES

There are four types of warp knitting machines:

1. Tricot warp knitting machines

2. Raschel warp knitting machines
3. Crochet warp knitting machines
4. Milanese warp knitting machines

Out of the four, only tricot and raschel machines are major types. Crochet machines
use weft inlays apart from warp yarns. Milanese machines use two sets of threads in
two guide bars to make open lap atlas traverses in the opposite direction without a
return traverse up to the edges of the fabric. Due to their slow production, Milanese
machines are rarely used.

24.2 TRICOT WARP KNITTING MACHINES

Tricot warp knitting machines mainly use bearded needles. Majority of tricot
machines have only two guide bars, even though there are machines which have up
to four guide bars. The sinkers are joined together, and they do the function of hold-
ing down, knocking over and supporting the fabric loops. Tricot machines produce
mainly for lingerie and apparel with fne, closed knitted fabric. Tricot machines are
usually fne gauge, raging from E28 to E44. Coarse-gauge machines are also avail-
able to knit stable fbre yarns. Figure 24.1 illustrates the knitting elements and warp
beam arrangement in a tricot warp knitting machine.

The knitting cycle of tricot warp knitting machine is explained below.

There are seven stages in the knitting cycle of bearded needle tricot warp knit-
ting machine. Figure 24.2 illustrates the knitting cycle of a bearded needle
tricot warp knitting machine.

a. Rest position: The needle has risen from the knock-over position. The
presser has withdrawn, and the guides are at the front of the machine.
The sinker is in a forward position holding the overlaps.
b. Backward swing and overlap shog: The guides swing backwards and shog
for overlap across the needles by one needle space.
c. and d. Return swing and rise of needle: The guides swing to the front,
and at the same time, the needle rises to the full height, causing the newly
formed overlaps to slip off the beards into the needle stem.
e. Pressing: The needles descends, and as soon as the new overlap comes
inside the hook, the presser bar advances and closes the beard.

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160 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 24.1 Knitting elements of tricot warp knitting machine.

f. Landing: The sinkers move backwards, and the bellies land the old overlaps
onto the closed beards. The presser is withdrawn.
g. Knock-over and underlap shog: Continued descend of the needle makes the
old overlap to cast off from the beards. The sinker moves forward to hold
down the fabric loops and push them away from the needles. The guides
shog for the underlap. The needles rise to the rest position.

24.3 RASCHEL WARP KNITTING MACHINES

Raschel warp knitting machine uses latch needles and have multi-guide bars. Dresses
and household fabrics, trimmings, elastic tapes and curtains can be produced by
raschel knitting machines. The fne-gauge raschel machines knit lightweight fabrics
with a minimum elongation using 80dtex yarns, The gauge (needles per inches) of
raschel machines vary from E1 to E32.
 [Alt Te
machi

Warp Knitting Machines 161

FIGURE 24.2 Knitting cycle of bearded needle tricot warp knitting machine.

The latch needles are placed in a trick plate which extends to the full width of
the machine. The warp beams are arranged above the machine. The sinkers are thin
metal blades which move in horizontal plane above the trick plate. The fabric is
drawn downwards and wound on the fabric roll. The sinkers are not joined together,
and they perform the function of holding down the loops. Figure 24.3 illustrates the
knitting elements of a raschel machine.

The knitting cycle of raschel warp knitting machine is explained below.

There are six stages in the knitting cycle of a latch needle raschel warp knit-
ting machine. Figure 24.4 illustrates the knitting cycle of a latch needle raschel
machine.

a. Holding down: Sinkers 3 move forward to hold the fabrics down while nee-
dles 1 start rising. Guides 4 are at the front of the machine.
162 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 24.3 Knitting elements of a raschel warp knitting machine.

b. Clearing: The needles rise to their full height, and old overlaps slip down to
the needle stem after opening the latches.
c. Overlap: The guides swing to the back of the machine and shog for the
overlap. The sinkers start withdrawing.
d. Return swing: The guides swing forward while the warp threads wrap
around the needle hooks.
e. Latch closing: The needles descend, and the old overlaps close the latches.
The sinkers move forward.
f. Knocking over: As the needles descend farther, the needle heads pass
below the trick plate, drawing the new overlaps through the old overlaps at
the same time the old overlaps are cast off. The guides make the underlap
shog, and the sinker moves over the trick plate to hold the fabric.
Warp Knitting Machines 163

FIGURE 24.4 Knitting cycle of a raschel warp knitting machine.

24.4 CROCHET WARP KNITTING MACHINES

Crochet machines use separate weft inlays to join the warp knitted wales to each
other. A single horizontal needle bar with reciprocating action is used for forming
wales. Instead of sinkers, a hold-back bar is used to prevent the fabric from moving
out of the needles. Additional weft tubes are provided to supply weft inlay threads.
The inlay bars are ftted above the needle bar and are shogged by pattern chains.
Each needle is lapped by its own warp guide from below. The warp yarn may be
supplied from individual yarn packages or by beams. Crochet machines are used to
164 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 24.5 Knitting elements of a crochet knitting machine.

produce fancy and open-work structures and narrow elastic laces. Crochet machines
can use wide range of flament yarns from 20dtex to 1000dtex. Figure 24.5 illustrates
the knitting elements of a crochet machine.

The knitting cycle of crochet machines have four stages. These are explained
using the Figure 24.6.
a. Weft inlay: The needle is in the withdrawn position. The weft inlay tubes
are lowered, and weft is laid below the needle and above the warp thread.
b. Clearing the overlap: Weft inlay tubes rise slightly on completion of their
traverse, and the needles move forward to clear the old overlaps from its
latches.
c. Overlap wrap: The warp guides rise above the needles, make a shog and
lower themselves to complete the overlap.
d. Knock over: The needles move backwards and knock over the old overlaps
at the same time drawing the new loop through the old overlap.
Warp Knitting Machines 165

FIGURE 24.6 Knitting cycle of a crochet knitting machine.

 [

25 Warp Knitted Structures

The majority of warp knitted structures are produced from two-guide-bar f ne-
gauge tricot machines. Multi-guide-bar raschel machines are used to produce
laces, curtains and elastic fabrics successfully. Raschel machines can use up
to 56 guide bars. Some of the important tricot structures are discussed in the
following.

25.1 LOCKNIT
Of all warp knitted structures, locknit is the most produced structure and accounts
for about 70% of total production. Its longer front guide bar underlap gives the fabric
extensibility, cover, soft handle and good drape. Fine denier nylon flament yarn is
used to produce fner fabrics in fne-gauge tricot machines. Elasticated fabrics for lin-
gerie are produced from 40 denier nylon. Locknit fabrics can shrink up to 20%. The
elasticity of locknit makes it suitable for intimate apparels and lingerie. Figure 25.1
gives the lapping diagram of a locknit structure.

25.2 REVERSE LOCKNIT

The reverse locknit has a shorter front guide bar underlap. Due to this, reverse
locknit fabric has lesser extensibility and a shrinkage lesser than 10%. Its end
uses are lesser than locknit fabric. Figure 25.2 shows lapping diagram of reverse
locknit.

25.3 TWO-BAR TRICOT

Two-bar tricot fabric is the simplest warp knitted structure. The two guide bars cross
diagonally between each wale. Two-bar tricot has poor cover. Figure 25.1 shows the
lapping diagram of guide bars.

FIGURE 25.1 Lapping movement of a locknit.

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168 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 25.2 Lapping movement of reverse locknit.

FIGURE 25.3 Guide bar lapping movement of a two-bar tricot.

FIGURE 25.4 Sharkskin—technical back and chain notation.

25.4 SHARKSKIN
Sharkskin is produced by increasing the back guide bar movement to three or four
needle spaces so that a long underlap is produced. This makes this structure more
stable, rigid and heavier. Figure 25.4 shows the lapping movement and technical
back of sharkskin fabric.

25.5 QUEENSCORD
In queenscord, the front guide bar makes the shortest underlap forming pillar stitches.
The pillar stitches tie the longer back bar underlaps and allow lesser shrinkage of
only 1% to 5%. The pillar stitch yarn gives a cord effect, hence the name queenscord.
Figure 25.5 shows the technical back of queenscord fabric and chain notation.
Warp Knitted Structures 169

FIGURE 25.5 Queenscord—technical back and chain notation.

FIGURE 25.6 Satin fabric—lapping diagram and chain notation.

25.6 SATIN
Satins are produced with larger front guide bar underlaps. This gives greater elastic-
ity. Using flament yarn lustrous effect can be produced in satin fabrics. Figure 26.6
shows a lapping diagram of satin fabric.
Nonwoven
26 Nonwoven Batt
Preparation Methods
Nonwovens are fabrics produced by arranging the fbres in a batt form and bonding
them together. The American Society for Testing Materials defnes nonwoven as
“nonwoven is a textile structure produced by the bonding or interlocking of fbres
or both, accomplished by mechanical, chemical, thermal, or solvent means or com-
bination thereof. The term does not include paper or fabrics that are woven, knitted
or tufted.”
The main raw materials for nonwoven are polypropylene and polyester. Other
fbres, such as viscose rayon, acrylic, polyamides and other specialty fbres, are
used to a lesser extent. Nonwoven production involves two basic operations, namely
batt preparation and bonding. Batt preparation involves arranging a thin layer of
fbres in a web and then placing many layers of web one over the other in a form
suitable for bonding. There are three categories of fbre-laying techniques for batt
preparation:

1. Dry laid process: Parallel laying, cross laying and air laying belong to this
category. Roughly about 50% of nonwoven production is based on dry laid
processes.
2. Wet laid process: Water is used to lay the fbres.
3. Polymer laid process: Spun bonding and melt blown belong to this category.

Important batt preparation methods are discussed in the following sections.

26.1 PARALLEL LAYING

Cards are used to prepare the web. Card webs cannot be used directly for nonwoven
production due to their low mass per unit area. Several card webs are placed one over
the other to the required thickness to form a batt. The cards are placed at right angles
to the lattice. The card webs are turned 90° using a guide plate and placed one over
the other in the long lattice as shown in Figure 26.1. The number of cards depends on
the thickness of the batt and the web areal density.
In parallel laying, all the card webs are parallel to each other, and most of the
fbres lie parallel to the batt. Very few of them lie across the batt. Hence, parallel
laid nonwovens have more tensile strength in the length direction or machine direc-
tion, and they are weak in the cross direction. This has reduced the use of parallel
laid nonwovens to applications in which strength is necessary in one direction only.
Another disadvantage of the parallel laid nonwovens is their width restriction. The
width of the fabric cannot be more than the width of the cards.

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174 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 26.1 Parallel laying.

FIGURE 26.2 Cross laying.

26.2 CROSS LAYING

The cards are placed at right angles to the lattice. The card web is traversed back
and forth across the lattice width while the lattice is moving forward. As a result, the
web will be laid in a zigzag manner in the lattice. If the lattice moves faster the batt
thickness will be less and a slower lattice movement will result in more thickness of
batt. Figure 26.2 shows a cross laid batt.
There is a problem in cross laying: the edges of the batt will be laid heavier
than the middle. The majority of fbres in cross laying lie in the cross direction.
Consequently, cross laid fabrics are strong in the cross direction and weak in the
machine direction.

26.3 AIR LAYING

In the air laying method, air is used as a medium for laying the fbres in the batt.
Figure 26.3 shows an air laying process. The fbres are opened in opening machines
and are fed to hopper 1. Opening roll 2, revolving at high speed, opens fbres 3 fur-
ther and delivers at the back. Strong airstream 4 takes the fbres from the surface of
Nonwoven Batt Preparation Methods 175

the opening roll and deposits them on perforated conveyor 6, forming batt 7. The
remaining air goes into suction 5.
In air laying, the fbres fall on the batt in an inclined plane that is at an angle to the
plane of the fabric. Due to this, air laid fabrics have better recovery from compres-
sion than cross laid fabrics.

26.4 WET LAYING

Water is used as a medium for laying fbres. The fbres are cut very short (6–20mm)
and dispersed in a large quantity of water. The amount of water should be enough
to prevent fbre aggregating. Figure 26.4 illustrates a wet laying system. Fibre water
dispersion 1 is passed in a trough. Take-up roll 2 takes the fbres and deposits them
on conveyor 3. Extra water is drained through water drain 4. The batt is dried by
heaters 5.

FIGURE 26.3 Air laying.

FIGURE 26.4 Wet laying.

176 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

Wet laying is used to produce disposable products, such as hospital drapes and
gowns and single-use flters.

26.5 SPUN LAYING

Spun laying process involves extrusion of the fbres from the raw material, drawing
them and laying them into a batt. Often laying and bonding are done as a continuous
process. Polyester and polypropylene are the main raw materials. Developments in
spun laid process make it more versatile for producing soft-feel lightweight fabrics.
Figure 26.5 shows the spun lain process.
The polymer chips are fed to the hopper and are melted. Polymer melt 1 is fed to
extruder 2, which, in turn, feeds the polymer melt to spinneret 3 with pressure. The
polymer melt coming out of the minute holes of the spinneret is solidifed into fbres
by cooling air, 4. Then the fbres are drawn by a high-velocity airstream, 5, through
a tube. The fbres drawn by the airstream are deposited on moving conveyor belt 7.
Due to the movement of the conveyor, the fbres will have a strong machine direction
orientation. By oscillating the air tubes forwards and backwards, a cross-direction
orientation to the fbres can be given. The thickness of the batt can be controlled by
adjusting the speed of the conveyor and the number of fbres drawn from the spinneret.

26.6 MELT BLOWN

Melt blowing is the process of producing very fne fbres without the use of fne spin-
nerets. The melted polymer is extruded through relatively larger holes. When the

FIGURE 26.5 Spun laid process.

Nonwoven Batt Preparation Methods 177

FIGURE 26.6 Melt blown process.

polymer melt leaves the extrusion holes, a high-speed stream of hot air is blown over
it which breaks up the fow and stretches the fbres until the fbres are very fne. Then
cold air is blown over it, and the polymer solidifes. During this process at some
point, the flament breaks into stable fbres. The fne, stable fbres are collected in a
conveyor as a batt. Figure 26.6 shows a melt blown process.
In melt blown process, the fbres are extremely fne, and fbre-to-fbre contact is
more resulting in a batt with greater integrity. For many end uses, such as ultrafne
flters for air conditioners, personal face masks, hygiene products and oil spill absor-
bents, the batt as such can be used.
27 Nonwoven Bonding
Techniques
The second-most important process in nonwoven production is bonding the fbre.
The property of the nonwoven product depends on method used for bonding to a
larger extent. Different bonding methods produce different effects on the fnal prod-
uct. Bonding is carried out as a separate process. But in spun laying and melt blown,
bonding is carried out as a continuous process. The major fbre bonding techniques
are as follows:

1. Mechanical bonding: Mechanical bonding rely on frictional forces between

fbres and fbre entanglement. Needle punching, stitch bonding and hydro-
entanglement belong to this category.
2. Thermal bonding
3. Chemical bonding

27.1 NEEDLE PUNCHING

The concept of needle punching is simple. Needles with barbs cut in their sides are
penetrated into the batt. During penetration, the barbs catch some fbres and bend
them in the cross-sectional direction. The bent fbres will be left as such by the nee-
dles during the return movement. This creates a bonding between fbres. Figure 27.1
illustrates a needle punching machine.
Large numbers of needles are pegged into needle board 1. The needle density will
vary according to the fbre and the product. The needle board is reciprocated up and
down by crank mechanism 2. Batt 7 is fed by feed roll 5 into the gap between strip-
per plate 3 and bed plate 4. The batt will be punched by the needles when the needle
board descends and the fbres caught by the barbs will be pulled through other fbres.
When the needle board returns, the loops formed by the downstroke will be left as
such in the form of loops. The punching converts the batt into a felt. The felt will be
delivered by delivery roll 6. A typical needle punching machine will have a stroke
frequency of 120 strokes per minute, a depth of penetration of 10mm, a thickness
between two plates of 25mm and a needle density of 8000 needles per square metre.
In needle punching, only vertical loops or pegs are formed. This alone will not
be suffcient to give strength to the fabric. Parallel laid batts are not suitable for
needle punching. Cross laid, air laid and spun laid batts are mostly used in needle
punching.
Needle felts have good breaking tenacity and high tear strength. Their modulus
is low and recovery from extension is poor. Needle felts are used in gas fltration
and wet fltration. Due to their homogeneity nonwoven flters are better than woven

DOI: 10.1201/9780367853686-30 179

180 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 27.1 Needle punching machine.

fabric flters. The yarns in the woven fabric tend to stop the fow, and only the spaces
between the yarn allow fltration. Needle felts are used as carpets widely.

27.2 STITCH BONDING

Stitch bonding is a technique in which the nonwoven batts are strengthened by knit-
ted stitches in a warp knitting machine. Mainly cross laid and air laid batt are used
in stitch bonding. A modifed compound needle warp knitting machine is used.
Figure 27.2 illustrates a stitch bonding technique.
Batt 5 is passed between specially designed needles 1 and guides 3. The needles,
during their forward movement, penetrate the batt, and the hooks are open. Guides
2 will lap the stitching threads 4 in the hook. Then the needles are withdrawn, the
hooks get closed by the tongue, the old loops are knocked over and new loops are
formed. Two stitches, namely pillar stitch or tricot stitch, are used in stitch bonding.
Stitch bonded fabrics are soft and fexible. These are used as backing fabrics for
lamination and covering material in mattresses.
Sometimes stitch bonding is done without threads. The needles move backwards
and forwards without lapping the threads. During backwards movement, the needles
pick up some fbres from the batt and form loops. During the second cycle, the newly
formed loops are pulled through the previous loops just in normal knitting. These
fabrics are used in insulation and in decoration.

27.3 HYDRO-ENTANGLEMENT (SPUNLACE PROCESS)

The process of hydro-entanglement involves hitting a high-pressure jet of water
on the web which produces an entanglement of the fbres. Figure 27.3 illustrates a
hydro-entanglement process.
Batt 3, to be bonded, is passed over perforated drum 4. The high-pressure water
jets 2, emanating from nozzle 1, hit the batt, and the fbre ends are twisted to
entanglement. The water stream should be just like needles to produce the desired
entanglement in the batt. The water droplets, after hitting the batt, are collected by
the vacuum through the perforated drum and recycled.
Nonwoven Bonding Techniques 181

FIGURE 27.2 Stitch bonding.

The batts which are too light for processing in needle loom are successfully
bonded through the hydro-entanglement process. Hydro-entangled products are
used as wipes, surgeons’ gowns and disposable protective clothing. Hydro-entangled
products are lint-free because the lint is carried away by the water droplets.

27.4 THERMAL BONDING

In thermal bonding, heat is applied up to the melting point of the thermoplastic
fbres so that the fbres melt and stick together. Three types of fbrous raw materi-
als can be used in thermal bonding. First, all the fbres can be of the same melting
point, and heat may be applied at localized points so that bonding is created at those
points. Second, a blend of low-melt fbre with either a fbre having higher melting
point or a non-thermoplastic fbre can be used. If polypropylene is used as a bond-
ing fbre, the temperature to be raised is 125 °C to 155 °C, and for polyethylene the
temperature is 90°C to 110 °C. Third, a bicomponent fbre, having a core with a
higher melting point and a sheath with a low melting point, can be used. All meth-
ods of batt production are suitable for thermal bonding except the wet laid process.
However, spun laying with point bonding is an ideal process. Figure 27.4 shows a
thermal bonding process.
Batt 2, suitable for thermal bonding, is passed through heated calendar rollers 1.
The calendar roller temperature should be enough to melt the bonding fbres.
Pressure will be applied between the calendar rollers according to the requirement.
After bonding, the thermal-bonded nonwoven will be delivered.
182 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 27.3 Hydro-entanglement process.

FIGURE 27.4 Thermal bonding process.

27.4.1 THROUGH-AIR BONDING

The batt is passed through a hot-air oven so that the fusible fbre will melt and create
a bond. This technique is used to produce high-loft textiles.

27.4.2 THERMAL BONDING WITH PRESSURE

The batt is passed through the hot-air oven and is calendared by two heavy rollers to
bring to the required thickness.

27.4.3 THERMAL BONDING WITH HIGH PRESSURE

The batt is passed through two heated calendar rollers. Pressure is applied between
the rollers so that the bonded fabric is dense and heavily bonded. These nonwovens
Nonwoven Bonding Techniques 183

will have good strength, very high modulus and stiffness with good recovery from
bending. These nonwovens are used as geotextiles, stiffeners and in fltration.

27.4.4 THERMAL BONDING WITH POINT CONTACT

Fabrics produced with bonding all over the batt is too stiff. To reduce the stiffness,
point bonding is preferred. To produce point bonding, one of the calendar rollers
is engraved with a pattern so that the effective contact between the two rollers is
reduced. The bonding is confned only to the contact points. Fabrics produced by
point bonding is fexible and relatively soft. The fabrics are used as geotextiles, fltra-
tion medium and protective clothing.

27.5 CHEMICAL BONDING

In chemical bonding the batt is treated with a bonding agent, dried and cured at a
higher temperature. The curing temperature is 120 °C to 140 °C for 2 to 4 minutes.
The curing develops cross-linking in the bonding agent and creates bonding. Synthetic
lattices, such as acrylic latex, styrene-butadiene latex and vinyl acetate latex, are used
as bonding agent. There are many methods of binder application. Each method pro-
duces different properties. They are discussed in the following sections.

27.5.1 SATURATION BONDING

In saturation bonding, the whole batt is wet with bonding agent, and all fbres are
covered with a flm of binder. Figure 27.5 shows saturation bonding process. Batt
5 is passed under an impregnation roller which is immersed in binder solution. As
the batt moves, it picks up binder, and the excess binder is squeezed by the squeez-
ing rollers. After squeezing, the impregnated batt is thoroughly dried in the drying
chamber. In through drying, hot airstream is blown down through the fabric. During
drying, all the water evaporates, leaving the binder particles on the fbre surface in
a flm form. The dried batt is cured in a separate compartment with the required
temperature. Saturation bonded fabrics are stiff and have less tensile strength. They
are used as interlining fabrics and flters.

27.5.2 FOAM BONDING

Because saturation bonding involves a lot of water, foam bonding has been devel-
oped. The binder solution and air are passed through a turbine which beats the two
into a foam. The foam is applied to the batt by the impregnating roller as shown in
Figure 27.6. After impregnation, the batt is dried and cured.

27.5.3 PRINT BONDING

In print bonding, the binder is printed with a printing roller or a rotary screen printer.
Only the printed areas of the batt will be bonded, leaving the non-printed areas free.
Print-bonded fabrics are softer and fexible, owing to the large unbonded areas.
184 Fabric Manufacturing Technology

FIGURE 27.5 Saturation bonding process.

FIGURE 27.6 Foam impregnation.

27.5.4 SPRAY BONDING

In spray bonding, the latex is applied by spraying using spray guns. The spray pen-
etrates about 5mm into the surface. The batt is revered and sprayed with the binder.
After drying and curing, a thick, open and loft fabric is produced.
Index
A fexible rapier, 62
foat stitch, 135
air jet weaving, 71 fused selvedge, 50
air laying, 174
G
B
global production of textiles, 95
batt preparation, 173 guide bar, 156
bearded needle, 113
beat-up, 24
mechanism, 41
H
bonding technique, 179
horizontal strips, 139
hydro entanglement, 180
C hygiene products, 8

cam, 120
chain notation, 157 I
chemical bonding, 183
circular weaving machine, 87 indirect system, 2
closed lap, 155 intarsia, 139
clothing, 1 interlacement, 5
compound needle, 117 interlock gating, 128
confusor guides, 71 interlock knitting, 127
conventional selvedge, 48 interlock structure, 132
cotton, 1 inter looping, 7
courses, 107
crochet warp knitting, 163
cross laying, 174
J
cylinder, 120
jacquard shedding, 34
cams 122

D K
denier, 2 knit stitch, 135
dial cams, 122 knitted fabric dimensions, 147
dimensional constants, 148 knitted fabric structure, 107
direct system, 2 knitting, 107
dobby shedding, 33 cycle, 115, 117
drum storage accumulator, 46 elements, 119
dry laid process, 173 notation, 131
dry relaxed state, 149
L
E
labour cost, 99
electronic needle selection, 145 lapping diagram, 157
latch needle 114
leno selvedge, 49
F locknit, 167
loop shape, 149
feeder, 120 loop storage accumulator, 47
fat knitting machine, 153 loop transfer, 64

185
186 Index

M relay nozzles, 75
reverse locknit, 167
machine gauge, 109 rib knitting, 124
mechanical bonding, 179 rib structure, 132
melt blown, 176 rigid rapier, 61
multiphase weaving, 85 ring spinning, 2
multiple nozzles, 74 rotary reed, 86
multi track cams, 141 rotor spinning, 2

N S
natural fbres, 1 satin, 169
needle, 119 selvedges, 48
bar, 156 sharkskin, 168
punching, 179 shedding, 23
mechanisms, 31
shuttle selvedge, 48
O shuttle weaving, 39
single jersey, 121
open end spinning, 2
sinker, 119
overlap, 155
size add on, 18
size flm, 18
P size percentage, 18
sizing, 18
parallel laying, 173 ingredients, 21
patterning, 139 sley, 41
pattern wheel, 141, 143 spinning, 1–2
picking, 41 spun lace, 180
mechanism, 41 spun laying, 176
pirn change mechanism, 42 stitch bonding, 180
plain structure, 131 stitch density, 108
plating 140 stitch length, 109
polymer laid process 173 stop motions, 28
positive feeders, 149 synchronized timing, 127
power cost, 99 synthetic fbres, 1
profle reed, 74
project cost of airjet, 90
projectile, 51 T
guides, 51, 59
punched tapes, 141 take-up motion, 27
purl knitting, 128 tappet shedding, 31
purl structure, 134 tex, 2
textile fbres, 1
thermal bonding, 181
Q tightness factor, 149
tip transfer, 63
queenscord, 168 torsion rod picking mechanism, 55
tricot warp knitting, 159
tucked-in selvedge, 49
R tuck stitch, 135
two bar tricot, 167
rapier, 61
drives, 65
head, 66 U
raschel warp knitting, 160
relaxed state 148 underlap, 155
Index 187

W accumulator, 45
direction shed wave, 85
wales, 108 knitting, 110
warp, 5 wet laying, 175
direction shed wave, 86 wet relaxed state, 149
knitting, 110
let-off, 25
shed geometry, 24 Y
warping, 15
yarn, 1
machines, 15
clearers, 12
water jet weft insertion, 83
faults, 11, 15
weaving, 1, 5
feeders, 78, 80
rotor, 87
numbering, 2
weft, 5