PEOPLE, DEVELOPMENT AND ENVIRONMENT

The concept of People

"The concept of people" typically refers to the understanding and consideration of human beings as
individuals and as a collective society. It involves exploring various aspects of human existence,
including social, cultural, psychological, and biological dimensions.
The main factors affecting population are as follows.
1. Natality (birth rate)
2. Mortality (death rate)
3. Population dispersal (emigration, immigration and migration)
4. Age distribution (pre-reproductive, reproductive and post-reproductive)
5. Population growth rate
6. Carrying resources mainly food, water, space and there are limited resources to support all life forms.
Here are a few key aspects related to the concept of people:

Individuality and Diversity:

Recognizing that each person is unique, with their own thoughts, feelings, and experiences.
Embracing diversity in terms of culture, ethnicity, gender, and other factors that contribute to the richness
of human identity.

Social and Cultural Context:

Understanding people within the context of their social and cultural environments.
Examining how societal norms, values, and institutions shape individuals and communities.

Psychological and Emotional Well-being:

Considering the psychological and emotional aspects of individuals, such as motivations, mental health,
and well-being.
Exploring the factors that contribute to human happiness and fulfilment.

Interconnectedness:
Recognizing the interconnected nature of human relationships and the impact individuals have on each
other and the broader society.
Understanding the role of collaboration and community in human development.

Rights and Responsibilities:

Acknowledging and promoting human rights and ethical responsibilities.
Examining the ethical considerations related to how individuals and societies treat one another.

Development and Growth:

Considering the lifelong process of human development, encompassing physical, intellectual, and
emotional growth.
Exploring the factors that contribute to personal and collective progress.

Adaptation and Change:

Recognizing the ability of individuals and societies to adapt to change.
Understanding the role of innovation and evolution in shaping the concept of people over time.

Global Perspectives:
Considering the global interconnectedness of people and the impact of decisions on a broader scale.
Examining global challenges and opportunities that require collaborative efforts among people
worldwide.

Development and environment

The term "environment" originates from the French word "environner," meaning 'to surround.' According
to the Environment (Protection) Act of 1986, the environment encompasses the physical and biological
surroundings of an organism, including their interactions. It is defined as the collective presence of water,
air, and land, along with the interdependencies among these elements and their connections with human
beings, other living organisms, and materials.

Our surroundings consist of flora, fauna, microorganisms, and manmade structures, all of which engage
in a reciprocal interaction with us, either directly or indirectly. The entirety of these components and their
interplay constitutes the environment. Air, water, and land collectively form our environment and
directly impact us. Simultaneously, we also exert influence on our environment through resource
overuse, exploitation, or the release of pollutants into the air, water, and land.
The relationship between development and the environment is complex and multifaceted. Balancing
economic development with environmental sustainability is a critical challenge for societies worldwide.
Economic Development and Environmental Impact:

Resource Consumption: Economic development often involves increased resource consumption,

which can lead to depletion of natural resources, deforestation, and habitat destruction.
Industrialization: Rapid industrialization, while contributing to economic growth, can result in
pollution and environmental degradation.

Sustainable Development:

Balancing Social, Economic, and Environmental Goals: Sustainable development seeks to achieve a
balance between economic growth, social equity, and environmental protection. It aims to meet the needs
of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Green Technologies: Advancements in green technologies and practices promote sustainable
development by minimizing environmental impacts.

Climate Change and Development:

Vulnerability and Adaptation: Developing countries often face increased vulnerability to climate
change impacts. Sustainable development strategies should include measures for adaptation and
resilience.
Mitigation Efforts: Development policies need to integrate efforts to mitigate climate change, such as
reducing greenhouse gas emissions and transitioning to renewable energy sources.

Biodiversity Conservation:

Impact on Ecosystems: Unplanned development can lead to the loss of biodiversity and disruption of
ecosystems. Conservation efforts are crucial to maintaining the balance of natural systems.
Eco-friendly Practices: Sustainable development practices aim to minimize harm to ecosystems and
promote biodiversity conservation.

Urbanization and Infrastructure:

Urban Planning: Uncontrolled urbanization can result in environmental problems such as air and water
pollution, habitat destruction, and increased energy consumption.
Sustainable Infrastructure: Planning and developing sustainable infrastructure, including green
buildings and efficient transportation systems, are essential for minimizing environmental impact.

Policy and Governance:

Environmental Regulations: Strong environmental regulations and effective governance are critical to
ensuring that development activities adhere to environmental standards.
Inclusive Decision-Making: Inclusive decision-making processes that involve local communities and
stakeholders can lead to more environmentally sustainable development outcomes.

Circular Economy and Waste Management:

Reducing Waste: Moving towards a circular economy model, which emphasizes reducing, reusing, and
recycling materials, helps minimize the environmental impact of waste.
Responsible Consumption: Encouraging responsible consumption patterns can contribute to sustainable
development by reducing the overall environmental footprint.

Social Equity and Environmental Justice:

Distribution of Benefits and Costs: Sustainable development should address social equity, ensuring that
the benefits of development are distributed fairly, and the costs are not disproportionately borne by
marginalized communities.
Environmental Justice: Ensuring that vulnerable populations do not bear a disproportionate burden of
environmental degradation and that they have access to a clean and healthy environment.

MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were eight international development goals for
the year 2015 that had been established following the Millennium Summit of the United
Nations in 2000, following the adoption of the United Nations Millennium Declaration. The
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) succeeded the MDGs in2016.
All 191 United Nations member states, and at least 22 international organizations, committed
to help achieve the following Millennium Development Goals by 2015:

1. To eradicate extreme poverty and hunger

2. To achieve universal primary education
3. To promote gender equality and empower women
4. To reduce child mortality
5. To improve maternal health
6. To combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases
7. To ensure environmental sustainability
8. To develop a global partnership for development

Each goal had specific targets, and dates for achieving those targets. The 8 goals were measured
by 21 targets.

Some countries achieved many goals, while others were not on track to realize any. A UN
conference in September 2010 reviewed progress to date and adopted a global plan to achieve
the eight goals by their target date. New commitments targeted women's and children's health,
and new initiatives in the worldwide battle against poverty, hunger and disease.

The MDGs were developed out of several commitments set forth in the Millennium
Declaration, signed in September 2000. There are eight goals with 21 targets, and a series of
measurable health indicators and economic indicators for each target.

Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger

• Target 1A: Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people living on
less than $1.25 a day
o Poverty gap ratio [incidence x depth of poverty]
o Share of poorest quintile in national consumption
• Target 1B: Achieve Decent Employment for Women, Men, and Young People
o GDP Growth per Employed Person
o Employment Rate
o Proportion of employed population below $1.25 per day (PPP values)
o Proportion of family-based workers in employed population
• Target 1C: Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people who suffer
from hunger
o Prevalence of underweight children under five years of age
o Proportion of population below minimum level of dietary energy
consumption

Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education

• Target 2A: By 2015, all children can complete a full course of Primary
education/primary schooling, girls and boys
o Enrolment in primary education
o Completion of primary education
Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women

• Target 3A: Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education

preferably by 2005, and at all levels by 2015
o Ratios of girls to boys in primary, secondary and tertiary education
o Share of women in wage employment in the non-agricultural sector
o Proportion of seats held by women in national parliament[12]
Goal 4: Reduce child mortality rates

• Target 4A: Reduce by two-thirds, between 1990 and 2015, the under-five
mortality rate
o Under-five mortality rate
o Infant (under 1) mortality rate
 o Proportion of 1-year-old children immunized against measles
Goal 5: Improve maternal health

• Target 5A: Reduce by three-quarters, between 1990 and 2015, the maternal
mortality ratio
o Maternal mortality ratio
o Proportion of births attended by skilled health personnel
• Target 5B: Achieve, by 2015, universal access to reproductive health
o Contraceptive prevalence rate
o Adolescent birth rate
o Antenatal care coverage
o Unmet need for family planning
Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases

• Target 6A: Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS
o HIV prevalence among population aged 15–24 years
o Condom use at last high-risk sex
o Proportion of population aged 15–24 years with comprehensive correct
knowledge of HIV/AIDS
• Target 6B: Achieve, by 2010, universal access to treatment for HIV/AIDS for
all those who need it
o Proportion of population with advanced HIV infection with access to
anti-retroviral drugs
• Target 6C: Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the incidence
of malaria and other major diseases
o Prevalence and death rates associated with malaria
o Proportion of children under 5 sleeping under insecticide-treated bed
nets
o Proportion of children under 5 with fever who are treated with
appropriate anti-malarial drugs
o Incidence, prevalence and death rates associated with tuberculosis
o Proportion of tuberculosis cases detected and cured under DOTS
(Directly Observed Treatment Short Course)
Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability

• Target 7A: Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country

policies and programs; reverse loss of environmental resources
• Target 7B: Reduce biodiversity loss, achieving, by 2010, a significant
reduction in the rate of loss
o Proportion of land area covered by forest
o CO2 emissions, total, per capita and per $1 GDP (PPP)
o Consumption of ozone-depleting substances
o Proportion of fish stocks within safe biological limits
o Proportion of total water resources used
o Proportion of terrestrial and marine areas protected
o Proportion of species threatened with extinction
• Target 7C: Halve, by 2015, the proportion of the population without
sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation
o Proportion of population with sustainable access to an improved water
source, urban and rural
o Proportion of urban population with access to improved sanitation
• Target 7D: By 2020, to have achieved a significant improvement in the lives of
at least 100 million slum-dwellers
o Proportion of urban population living in slums

Goal 8: Develop a global partnership for development

• Target 8A: Develop further an open, rule-based, predictable, non-

discriminatory trading and financial system
o Includes a commitment to good governance, development, and poverty
reduction – both nationally and internationally
• Target 8B: Address the Special Needs of the Least Developed Countries
(LDCs)
o Includes: tariff and quota-free access for LDC exports; enhanced
programme of debt relief for HIPC and cancellation of official bilateral
debt; and more generous ODA (Official Development Assistance) for
countries committed to poverty reduction
• Target 8C: Address the special needs of landlocked developing countries and
small island developing States
o Through the Programme of Action for the sustainable Development
of Small Island Developing States and the outcome of the twenty-
second special session of the General Assembly
• Target 8D: Deal comprehensively with the debt problems of developing
countries through national and international measures in order to make debt
sustainable in the long term
o Some of the indicators listed below are monitored separately for the
least developed countries (LDCs), Africa, landlocked developing
countries and small island developing States.
o Official development assistance (ODA):

1. Net ODA, total and to LDCs, as percentage of OECD/DAC donors' GNI

2. Proportion of total sector-allocable ODA of OECD/DAC donors to basic
social services (basic education, primary health care, nutrition, safe
water and sanitation)
3. Proportion of bilateral ODA of OECD/DAC donors that is untied
4. ODA received in landlocked countries as proportion of their GNIs
5. ODA received in small island developing States as proportion of their
GNIs

o Market access:

1. Proportion of total developed country imports (by value and excluding

arms) from developing countries and from LDCs, admitted free of duty
2. Average tariffs imposed by developed countries on agricultural products
and textiles and clothing from developing countries
3. Agricultural support estimate for OECD countries as percentage of their
GDP
4. Proportion of ODA provided to help build trade capacity

o Debt sustainability:
 1. Total number of countries that have reached their HIPC decision points
and number that have reached their HIPC completion points
(cumulative)
2. Debt relief committed under HIPC initiative, US$
3. Debt service as a percentage of exports of goods and services

• Target 8E: In co-operation with pharmaceutical companies, provide access to

affordable, essential drugs in developing countries
o Proportion of population with access to affordable essential drugs on a
sustainable basis
• Target 8F: In co-operation with the private sector, make available the benefits
of new technologies, especially information and communications
o Telephone lines and cellular subscribers per 100 population
o Personal computers in use per 100 population
o Internet users per 100 Population

Sustainable development goals

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), also known as the Global Goals, were
adopted by all United Nations Member States in 2015 as a universal call to action to end
poverty, protect the planet and ensure that all people enjoy peace and prosperity by 2030.

The Sustainable Development Goals are a collection of 17 global goals along with 169
targets designed to be a "blueprint to achieve a better and more sustainable future for all".
Sustainable development is the development that aims to meet the needs of the present, without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. The focus of
sustainable development goes beyond just the environment. It's also about ensuring a strong,
healthy and equal society

The 17 SDGs are integrated that is, they recognize that action in one area will affect outcomes
in others, and that development must balance social, economic and environmental
sustainability.

Through the pledge to Leave No One Behind, countries have committed to fast-track progress
for those furthest behind first. That is why the SDGs are designed to bring the
world to several life-changing ‘zeros’, including zero poverty, hunger, AIDS and
discrimination against women and girls.

1. Eliminate Poverty
2. Erase Hunger
3. Establish Good Health and Well-Being
4. Provide Quality Education
5. Enforce Gender Equality
6. Improve Clean Water and Sanitation
7. Grow Affordable and Clean Energy
8. Create Decent Work and Economic Growth
9. Increase Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure
10. Reduce Inequality
11. Mobilize Sustainable Cities and Communities
12. Influence Responsible Consumption and Production
13. Organize Climate Action
14. Develop Life Below Water
15. Advance Life on Land
16. Guarantee Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions
17. Build Partnerships for the Goals

Goal 1: No poverty

• By 2030, eradicate extreme poverty for all people everywhere, currently measured as
people living on less than $2.15 a day
 • By 2030, ensure that all men and women, in particular the poor and the vulnerable, have
equal rights to economic resources, as well as access to basic services, ownership and
control over land and other forms of property, inheritance, natural resources,
appropriate new technology and financial services
mon
Goal 2: Zero hunger

• End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable
agriculture.
• By 2030, end hunger and ensure access by all people, in particular the poor and people
in vulnerable situations, including infants, to safe, nutritious and sufficient food all year
round
• By 2030, end all forms of malnutrition, including achieving, by 2025, the
internationally agreed targets on stunting and wasting in children under 5 years of age,
and address the nutritional needs of adolescent girls, pregnant and lactating women and
older persons

Goal 3: Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages.

By 2030:

• Reduce the global maternal mortality ratio to less than 70 per 100,000 live births.
• End preventable deaths of newborns and children under 5 years of age, with all
countries aiming to reduce neonatal mortality to at least as low as 12 per 1,000 live
births and under-5 mortality to at least as low as 25 per 1,000 live births
• End the epidemics of AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria and neglected tropical diseases and
combat hepatitis, water-borne diseases and other communicable diseases
• Reduce by one third premature mortality from non- communicable diseases through
prevention and treatment and promote mental health and well-being.
• Strengthen the prevention and treatment of substance abuse, including narcotic drug
abuse and harmful use of alcohol
• Halve the number of global deaths and injuries from road traffic accidents
• Ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health-care services, including for
family planning.

Goal 4: Ensure inclusive and quality education for all and promote lifelong learning.

• Ensure that all girls and boys have access to quality early childhood development, care
and preprimary education so that they are ready for primary education
 • Eliminate gender disparities in education and ensure equal access to all levels of
education and vocational training for the vulnerable, including persons with disabilities,
indigenous peoples and children in vulnerable situations.

Goal 5: Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.

• End all forms of discrimination against all women and girls everywhere
• Eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls in the public and private
spheres, including trafficking and sexual and other types of exploitation
• Eliminate all harmful practices, such as child, early and forced marriage and female
genital mutilation
• Ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health and reproductive rights

Goal 6: Ensure access to water and sanitation for all.

• By 2030, achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water
for all
• By 2030, improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and
minimizing release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of
untreated wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally.

Goal 7: Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all

• By 2030, ensure universal access to affordable, reliable and modern energy services

Goal 8: Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive
employment and decent work for all.

• By 2030, achieve full and productive employment and decent work for all women and
men, including for young people and persons with disabilities, and equal pay for work
of equal value
• By 2020, substantially reduce the proportion of youth not in employment, education or
training.
• Protect labor rights and promote safe and secure working environments for all workers,
including migrant workers, in particular women migrants, and those in precarious
employment
Goal 9: Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization
and foster innovation.

• Develop quality, reliable, sustainable and resilient infrastructure, including regional and
trans-border infrastructure, to support economic development and human well-being,
with a focus on affordable and equitable access for all.

Goal 10: Reduce inequality within and among countries

• By 2030, progressively achieve and sustain income growth of the bottom 40 per cent
of the population at a rate higher than the national average
• By 2030, empower and promote the social, economic and political inclusion of all,
irrespective of age, sex, disability, race, ethnicity, origin, religion or economic or other
status
• Ensure equal opportunity and reduce inequalities of outcome, including by eliminating
discriminatory laws, policies and practices and promoting appropriate legislation,
policies and action in this regard.

Goal 11: Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable

• By 2030, ensure access for all to adequate, safe and affordable housing and basic
services and upgrade slums
• By 2030, provide access to safe, affordable, accessible and sustainable transport
systems for all, improving road safety, notably by expanding public transport, with
special attention to the needs of those in vulnerable situations, women, children, persons
with disabilities and older persons.

Goal 12: Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns

• Implement the 10-Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and

Production Patterns, all countries taking action, with developed countries taking the
lead, taking into account the development and capabilities of developing countries
• By 2030, achieve the sustainable management and efficient use of natural resources
• Minimize and address the impacts of ocean acidification, including through enhanced
scientific cooperation at all levels.
 Goal 13: The official mission statement of this goal is to "Take urgent action to combat
climate change and its impacts". SDG 13 has targets which are to be achieved by
2030.

Goal 14: The official wording is to "Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine
resources for sustainable development". The Goal has ten targets to be achieved by
2030. Progress towards each target is being measured with one indicator each.

Goal 15: Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably
manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and
halt biodiversity loss

• By 2020, ensure the conservation, restoration and sustainable use of terrestrial and
inland freshwater ecosystems and their services, in particular forests, wetlands,
mountains and drylands, in line with obligations under international agreements
• By 2020, promote the implementation of sustainable management of all types of
forests, halt deforestation, restore degraded forests and substantially increase
afforestation and reforestation globally.

Goal 16: Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access
to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels

• Significantly reduce all forms of violence and related death rates everywhere
• End abuse, exploitation, trafficking and all forms of violence against and torture of
children
• Promote the rule of law at the national and international levels and ensure equal access
to justice for all
• By 2030, significantly reduce illicit financial and arms flows, strengthen the recovery
and return of stolen assets and combat all forms of organized crime.

Goal 17: Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the Global Partnership for
Sustainable Development

• Strengthen domestic resource mobilization, including through international support to

developing countries, to improve domestic capacity for tax and other revenue
collection.
HUMAN AND ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION; ANTHROPOGENIC ACTIVITIESAND
THEIR IMPACTS ON ENVIRONMENT.

Human Environmental Interactions can be defined as interactions between the human social
system and (the “rest” of) the ecosystem. Human social systems and ecosystems are complex
adaptive systems.

In order to analyse Human Environmental Interactions, it is important to be aware of specific

characteristics of the human social system. The type of society strongly influences people’s
attitude towards nature, their behaviour and therefore their impact on ecosystems. Important
characteristics of human social systems are population size, social organization, values,
technology, wealth, education, knowledge and many more. Especially values and knowledge
strongly influence peoples “view of life” and consequently define the way people act. The
choice of possible actions is then limited by the available technology.

People modify the environment for their purposes and obtain benefits (Ecosystem Services)
from it. These Ecosystem Services are essential for human well-being and include for example
the provision of resources like water, timber, food, energy, information, land for farming and
many more. Obviously by using these resources people affect the environment in a lot of ways.
Furthermore, people often reorganize existing ecosystems to achieve new ones that seem to be
more effective in serving their needs.

The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) analysed how Ecosystem Services and
constituents of human well-being are interlinked. The MA is a major assessment of the human
impact on the environment, called for by the United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan in
2000, launched in 2001 and published in 2005 with more than $14 million of grants. It
popularized the term ecosystem services; the benefits gained by humans from ecosystems.

Ecology

The term ecology was coined by Ernst Haeckel in 1869. Ecology deals with the study of organisms in
their natural home. Ecology is the scientific study of the relations that living organisms have with respect
to each other, their natural environments and ecosystems
species, population and community

A species is a set of organisms that resemble each other in certain features. The members of a species
living together and interacting with each other are called a population. The members of a population live
within a given area.

Concept of Threatened Species

Threatened species (T)
These species are likely to become extinct if immediate steps are not taken to ensure that they have
proper food, proper habitat, protection from predators and exotic species so that they are able to realize
their biotic potential. A record of threatened species of plants and animals is maintained by International
Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), Morges, Switzerland. It is called Red
Data Book.
For conservation purpose, the following four criteria have been used for this categorization.
1. Distribution: Present, past, continuous or discontinuous distribution, area and degree of decline,
if available.
2. Population: Decline in population in course of time.
3. Natural habitat: Abundance and quality.
4. Importance: Potential value and biology of the species, IUCN has identified four categories of
threatened species.
Endangered species (E)
These are threatened species or taxa which are in danger of extinction if the current causal factors
continue to operate.
Examples: Lion-tailed macaque - Macaca silenus Asiatic wild ass - Asinus hemionus Khur
Vulnerable species (V)
Vulnerable species or taxa have sufficient population at present, but at the same time, they deplete fast
(hence, depleted species) so that they are likely to enter the category of endangered species if the factors
bringing about depletion are allowed to continue. Examples: Golden langur - Presbytis geei Leopard cat -
Felis bengalensis

Rare species (R)

The populations of species or taxa are small, either localized or thinly scattered. Example: Hawaiian
monk seal - Monachus schauinslandi Slow loris - Nycticebus coucangg

Community
A community is an assemblage of all the interacting populations of different species in a geographical
area. It is a complex interacting network of plants, animals, and microorganisms. Each population has a
defined role in the community.

Ecosystem
The term ecosystem was defined by Arthur Tansley in 1935. Ecosystem is a self-regulating community
of living organisms (populations of species), interacting with each other and their non-living, physical
environment, for example, forest ecosystem and ocean ecosystem. Even a clump of bushes can be an
ecosystem.

Abiotic components
In ecology, abiotic components are non-living chemical and physical factors in the environment that
affect the ecosystems. Some of the real time examples are water, light, wind, soil, humidity, minerals and
gases. They affect the ability of organisms to survive and reproduce.

Ecological pyramids - trophic levels

The concept of ecological pyramid was developed by Charles Elton. All ecological pyramids begin with
producers like plants at the bottom and proceed through various trophic levels, such as herbivores
(consume plants), carnivores (prey on herbivores) and so on. The highest level is at the top of the food
chain.

Biosphere
There are different types of ecosystems around us, which involve living organisms and non-living things.
If we combine all the ecosystems present on earth, then it is called biosphere.
Biomes
The terrestrial portion of biosphere is divided into biomes. They usually have distinct climates and life
forms adapted to that climate. Deserts, grasslands, tropical forests and rain forests are the main examples
of biomes.
Habitat
The area or natural environment in which an organism or population normally lives is called habitat. A
habitat is made up of physical factors, such as soil, moisture, range of temperature and availability of
light as well as biotic factors, such as availability of food and the presence of predators.

Four spheres of earth

The area near the surface of the earth can be divided into four interconnected geospheres, namely the
lithosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere and atmosphere. Scientists can classify life and material on or near
the surface of the earth to be in any of these four spheres. The names of the four spheres are derived from
the Greek words for stone (litho), air (atmo), water (hydro) and life (bio).

Lithosphere
The lithosphere is a solid, rocky crust covering the entire planet. This crust is inorganic and is composed
of minerals. It covers the entire surface of the earth from the top of Mount Everest to the bottom of the
Mariana Trench.

Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere is composed of all the water on or near the earth. This includes the oceans, rivers, lakes
and even the moisture in air. Evidently, 97 per cent of the earth’s water is present in the oceans. The
remaining 3 per cent is freshwater. Furthermore, three quarters of freshwater is in the form of ice sheets
and glaciers, hardly one per cent is left for human consumption.

Biosphere
The biosphere is composed of all the living organisms. Plants, animals and one-celled organisms are all
part of the biosphere. Most of the planet’s life is found from 3 metres below the ground to 30 metres
above it and in the top 200 metres of oceans and seas.

Atmosphere
We live at the bottom of an invisible ocean called the atmosphere, which is a layer of gases surrounding
our planet. Nitrogen and oxygen account for 99 per cent of the gases in dry air, with argon, carbon
dioxide, helium, neon and other gases making up minute portions. Water vapour and dust are also part of
earth’s atmosphere
 • Harmful impacts of human interaction on ecosystem: Climate change

Factors responsible for climate change

o Ozone depletion
o Global warming
o Sea level rise
o Ocean acidification
o Disruptions in cycles

Climate change

Weather:

• Weather is the mix of events that happen each day in our atmosphere.
• Even though there’s only one atmosphere on Earth, the weather isn’t the same all
around the world. Weather is different in different parts of the world and changes over
minutes, hours, days, and weeks.
• Most weather happens in the part of Earth’s atmosphere that is closest to the ground
called the troposphere. Air pressure, temperature, humidity, wind speed and direction,
and lots of other things determine what the weather is like at a given time and location.

Climate:

• Whereas weather refers to short-term changes in the atmosphere, climate describes

what the weather is like over a long period of time in a specific area.
 • Different regions can have different climates. To describe the climate of a place, we
might say what the temperatures are like during different seasons, how windy it usually
is, or how much rain or snow typically falls.
• When scientists talk about climate, they're often looking at averages of precipitation,
temperature, humidity, sunshine, wind, and other measures of weather that occur over
a long period in a particular place. In some instances, they might look at these averages
over 30 years.

Climate change

• Climate change is any significant long-term change in the expected patterns of average
weather of a region (or the whole Earth) over a significant period of time.

Causes of climate change:

o Emission of greenhouse gas

o Deforestation
o Over exploitation of natural resources
o Pollution
o Variation of earth’s orbit

Greenhouse Effect

• The greenhouse effect is a process that occurs when gases in Earth's atmosphere trap
the Sun's heat.
• This process makes Earth much warmer than it would be without an atmosphere.
• The greenhouse effect is one of the things that make Earth a comfortable place to live.
• The average temperature existing at present is 14 degrees Celsius and without
greenhouse gases it will be -18 degrees Celsius

Greenhouse gases

• Greenhouse gas can absorb and emit infrared radiation.

• The primary greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere are water vapor (H2O), carbon
dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), nitrogen fluoride (NF3) and
fluorinated gaze (HFCS, PFCS, SF6 etc.).
The following are all greenhouse gases in order from strongest to weakest.
Notice how all of these gases contain three or more atoms.
1. Methane (CH4 ) is the strongest greenhouse gas because it has the most atoms. This is why it is the
best at trapping radiation and it has more atoms to do so. Even though it is the strongest greenhouse gas,
it is one of the least abundant.
2. Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) is the second strongest and one of the most abundant greenhouse gases. It is
the second strongest because it has the most mass, which helps it to trap heat more efficiently.
3. Nitrous oxide (NO2 ) is the third strongest greenhouse gas because it only has three atoms and does
not have as much mass as CO2 . It is not as efficient as CO2 and CH4 at trapping infrared radiation, but
it is stronger than water vapour.
4. Water vapour (H2O) is the weakest because it is the lightest of the greenhouse gases. It often
changes into liquid and solid forms as well. Hence, it is the least effective at trapping infrared radiation.

Sources of GHGs are:

1. Burning of fossil fuels

• Energy Production
• Industry
• Transportation

2. Agriculture

3. Commercial & Residential

4. Land Use & Forestry.

How Greenhouse effect work

• A greenhouse is a building with glass walls and a glass roof. Greenhouses are used to
grow plants, such as tomatoes and tropical flowers.
• A greenhouse stays warm inside, even during the winter. In the daytime, sunlight shines
into the greenhouse and warms the plants and air inside. At nighttime, it's colder
outside, but the greenhouse stays pretty warm inside. That's because the glass walls of
the greenhouse trap the Sun's heat.
• The greenhouse effect works much the same way on Earth.
• Gases in the atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide, trap heat (short wave) just like the
glass roof of a greenhouse. These heat-trapping gases are called greenhouse gases.
 • During the day, the Sun shines through the atmosphere. Earth's surface warms up in the
sunlight.
• At night, Earth's surface cools, releasing heat back into the air (long wave). But some
of the heat is trapped by the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. That's what keeps our
Earth a warm and cozy 58 degrees Fahrenheit (14 degrees Celsius), on average.

Earth's atmosphere traps some of the Sun's heat, preventing it from escaping back into space at
night.

How are humans impacting the greenhouse effect?

 • Human activities are changing Earth's natural greenhouse effect. Burning fossil fuels
like coal and oil puts more carbon dioxide into our atmosphere.
• NASA has observed increases in the amount of carbon dioxide and some other
greenhouse gases in our atmosphere. Too much of these greenhouse gases can cause
Earth's atmosphere to trap more and more heat. This causes Earth to warm up.

What reduces the greenhouse effect on Earth?

• Just like a glass greenhouse, Earth's greenhouse is also full of plants! Plants can help to
balance the greenhouse effect on Earth. All plants — from giant trees to tiny
phytoplankton in the ocean take in carbon dioxide and give off oxygen.
• The ocean also absorbs a lot of excess carbon dioxide in the air. Unfortunately, the
increased carbon dioxide in the ocean changes the water, making it more acidic. This
is called ocean acidification.
• More acidic water can be harmful to many ocean creatures, such as certain shellfish and
coral. Warming oceans from too many greenhouse gases in the atmosphere can also be
harmful to these organisms. Warmer waters are a main cause of coral bleaching.

Global Warming

• Greenhouse effect is not bad but if greenhouse gases are reduced bad part of it is global
warming.
• There is unprecedented warming over the last few decades ~0.8°C since 1880 — 2012.
• There is an increase in the average global temperature of Earth's atmosphere, near the
surface and in the troposphere.
• The causes of global warming are human – induced.
• Global Warming Potential (GWP) is a measure of the total energy that a gas absorbs
over a particular period of time (usually 100 years) compared to CO2.

Effects of global warming

• Temperature
• Pressure
• Winds
• Rainfall
Impacts:

• Melting of ice caps & glaciers

• Rise in sea level
• Changes in rainfall pattern, drought
• Bleaching of coral reefs
• Loss of plankton due to warming of seas
• Extinction of species due to habitat loss
• Increased likelihood of extreme events
• Agriculture

Urban Areas:

• Maximum risk concentrated

• Heat stress, extremes of precipitation, smog, inland & coastal flooding, landslides,
drought & water scarcity

Rural Areas

• Water availability & supply

• Food security
• Agricultural incomes
• Shift in production areas of crops

Ozone depletion

• The theory about ozone depletion was first put forward in 1974 by American scientists
Mario Molina and F. Sherwood Rowland.
• They were concerned about the impact of CFCs on the ozone layer.
• Their hypothesis was met with a great deal of skepticism, but scientific work over the
next 20 years proved them correct and prompted almost every country in the world to
action.
• In 1995, Drs. Molina and Rowland were given a Nobel Prize in Chemistry, along with
a third ozone researcher, Paul Crutzen from the Netherlands.
• Ozone gases are measured using Dobson unit.
 • If the Dobson thickness is less than 200 it is called ozone hole.
• Ozone is harmful in troposphere and good for stratosphere.
• Ozone depletion and climate change are linked in a number of ways, but ozone
depletion is not a major cause of climate change.
• Atmospheric ozone has two effects on the temperature balance of the Earth.

o It absorbs solar ultraviolet radiation, which heats the stratosphere.

o It also absorbs infrared radiation emitted by the Earth's surface, effectively
trapping heat in the troposphere

• Therefore, the climate impact of changes in ozone concentrations varies with the
altitude at which these ozone changes occur
• The major ozone losses that have been observed in the lower stratosphere due to the
human-produced chlorine- and bromine-containing gases have a cooling effect on the
Earth's surface.
• On the other hand, the ozone increases that are estimated to have occurred in the
troposphere because of surface-pollution gases have a warming effect on the Earth's
surface, thereby contributing to the "greenhouse" effect.
• Ozone-depleting substances containing chlorine include chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),
carbon tetrachloride, methyl chloroform and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs),
Halons, methyl bromide and hydrobromofluorocarbons (HBFCs) are ODSs that contain
bromine.
• The best-known and most abundant of the ODS are the CFCs.
• A single atom of chlorine from a CFC can destroy 100,000 or more molecules of ozone.
• Ozone depletion only stops when the chlorine randomly reacts with another molecule
to form a long-lived, stable substance. At that point, it is no longer free to react with
ozone.

MITIGATION STRATEGIES

• Mitigate- To make less severe or painful alleviate

• Mitigation - Human intervention to reduce the sources or enhance the sinks of CO2
/GHG

Carbon Sequestration
 1. Carbon Uptake

2. Carbon Capture & Storage

3. Taking up CO2 from the atmosphere and long-term storage

Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR)

• Set of techniques that aim to remove CO2 directly from atmosphere, by either

1. increasing natural sinks for carbon, or

2. using engineering techniques to remove CO2 with the intent of reducing CO2
concentration

• ocean — Iron fertilization

• land - large scale afforestation
• Technical- direct capture of CO2 from atmosphere by chemical means

Geoengineering / Climate Engineering

• Broad set of methods & technologies that aim to deliberately alter the climate system, in
order to alleviate the impacts if climate change, by either

1. Reduce the amount of absorbed Solar Energy

2. Increase net carbon sinks at a sufficiently large scale to alter climate

Solar Radiation Management

• Intentional modification of Earth's shortwave radiative budget with the aim to reduce
climate change

o artificial injection of stratospheric aerosols

o cloud brightening

• CO2 removal techniques

• Detonating a nuclear bomb on the lunar surface
 • Carbon Credits: A tradable certificate/permit representing the right to emit one ton of
carbon or CO2 equivalent.

Global warming potential (GWP) is the heat absorbed by any greenhouse gas in the
atmosphere, as a multiple of the heat that would be absorbed by the same mass of carbon
dioxide (CO2). GWP is 1 for CO2. For other gases it depends on the gas and the time frame.
Some gases, like methane, have large GWP, since a ton of methane absorbs much more heat
than a ton of CO2. Some gases, again like methane, break down over time, and their heat
absorption, or GWP, over the next 20 years is a bigger multiple of CO2 than their heat
absorption will be over 100 or 500 years. Values of GWP are estimated and updated for each
time frame as methods improve.

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES: LOCAL, REGIONAL AND GLOBAL

• The environmental issue or problem occurs when there is a change in the quality or
quantity of environmental factors that can affect everything on Earth directly or
indirectly.
• Environmental problems can occur on different scales: local, regional, or global.

Local Environmental Issues

• Local environmental issues are constrained to even smaller regions than regional
environmental issues. They concern a particular city or town, and sometimes even a
region as small as a district.
• The best example of this is the extreme levels of air pollution experienced by Delhi
NCR, India during the winters. There is a unique set of factors which are responsible
for enveloping Delhi in toxic smog every winter.

Other local environmental issues are:

• Waste disposal
• Water scarcity
• Desertification
 • Pollution
• Endangered species
• Contamination of lakes

Waste disposal: Soil, water and air pollution can all be a result of improper waste disposal and
occurs when either of them becomes contaminated with hazardous materials.

Methods of waste disposal:

Landfill: The waste that cannot be reused or recycled are used. A layer of soil is added after
each layer of garbage. once this process is complete, the area is declared unfit for construction
of buildings for the next 20 years. it can only be used as a playground or a park.

Incineration: The process of controlled combustion of garbage to reduce it to incombustible

matter such as ash and waste gas. This process reduced the volume of waste by 90 per cent and
considered as one of the most hygienic methods of waste disposal.

Waste Compaction: The waste materials such as cans and plastic bottles are compacted into
blocks and sent for recycling.

Composting: The process of composting starts with these organic wastes being buried under
layers of soil and then, are left to decay under the action of microorganisms such as bacteria
and fungi.

Vermicomposting: Vermicomposting is the process of using worms for the degradation of

organic matter into nutrient-rich manure. Worms consume and digest the organic matter.

Water Scarcity: Water scarcity is the lack of fresh water resources to meet water demand. It
affects every continent and was listed in 2019 by the World Economic Forum as one of the
largest global risks in terms of potential impact over the next decade. Climate change, such as
altered weather-patterns (including droughts or floods), deforestation, increased pollution,
greenhouse gases, and wasteful use of water can cause insufficient supply.

Desertification: The process by which fertile land becomes desert, typically as a result of
drought, deforestation, or inappropriate agriculture. Overgrazing is the major cause of
desertification worldwide. Other factors that cause desertification include urbanization, climate
change, over drafting of groundwater, deforestation and natural disasters
Endangered Species: An endangered species is a type of organism that is threatened by
extinction. Species become endangered for two main reasons: loss of habitat and loss of genetic
variation.

Red Data Book – The state document established for documenting rare and endangered species
of animals, plants and fungi as well as some local sub-species that exist within the territory of
the state or country.

Regional and Global Environmental Issues

• Regional environmental issues that are specific to a region. They are the result of the actions
of the individuals living in that particular region and their impact is limited by geographical
boundaries. Thus, such environmental issues vary from country to country. Further, the
gravity of the problem depends much on the laws and actions of the national governments.

o This can have greater extent than local area, but not spread globally

o Whereas the global environmental issues impact globally.

Examples of global environmental issues:

• Global warming

• Polar melting

• Ocean acidification

• Ozone depletion

Regional environmental issues:

• Contamination of river

• Poor air quality

• Habitat loss

• Acid rain

Ocean Acidification: Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth's
oceans, caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere, which makes the
sea more acidic. Ocean acidification reduces the amount of carbonate, a key building block in
seawater. This makes it more difficult for marine organisms, such as coral and some plankton,
to form their shells and skeletons.

Polar melting: The melting of the polar ice caps is caused by the overall increase in global
temperature, and this melting can have serious consequences for all organisms on Earth. the
ozone hole above Antarctica could warm the Antarctic and cause more ice to melt in coming
decades.

Acid rain – It’s a rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic, meaning that
it has elevated levels of hydrogen ions (low pH). It can have harmful effects on plants, aquatic
animals and infrastructure. It is formed when sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide mix with the
water in the atmosphere creating sulfuric acid and carbonic acid.

AIR POLLUTION

• When harmful substances contaminate the environment, it is called Pollution.

It can be defined as any undesirable change in the physical, chemical, biological characteristics
of any component of the environment which can cause harm to life and property.

What is Atmosphere?
• Atmosphere is the life blanket of Earth.
Troposphere

• The troposphere is the lowest layer of our atmosphere. Starting at ground level, it
extends upward to about 10 km (6.2 miles or about 33,000 feet) above sea level.
• We humans live in the troposphere, and nearly all weather occurs in this lowest layer.
• Most clouds appear here, mainly because 99% of the water vapor in the atmosphere is
found in the troposphere. Air pressure drops, and temperatures get colder, as you climb
higher in the troposphere.

Stratosphere

• The next layer up is called the stratosphere.

• The infamous ozone layer is found within the stratosphere. Ozone molecules in this
layer absorb high-energy ultraviolet (UV) light from the Sun, converting the UV energy
into heat.

• Unlike the troposphere, the stratosphere actually gets warmer the higher you go! That
trend of rising temperatures with altitude means that air in the stratosphere lacks the
turbulence and updrafts of the troposphere beneath.

Commercial passenger jets fly in the lower stratosphere, partly because this less-turbulent layer
provides a smoother ride. The jet stream flows near the border between the troposphere and the
stratosphere.

Mesosphere
 • Above the stratosphere is the mesosphere (85 Km above our planet)
• Most meteors burn up in the mesosphere.
• Unlike the stratosphere, temperatures once again grow colder as you rise up through the
mesosphere. The coldest temperatures in Earth's atmosphere, about -90° C (-130° F),
are found near the top of this layer.
• The air in the mesosphere is far too thin to breathe; air pressure at the bottom of the
layer is well below 1% of the pressure at sea level, and continues dropping as you go
higher.

Thermosphere

• The layer of very rare air above the mesosphere is called the thermosphere.
• High-energy X-rays and UV radiation from the Sun are absorbed in the thermosphere,
raising its temperature to hundreds or at times thousands of degrees. However,
• the air in this layer is so thin that it would feel freezing cold to us! In many ways, the
thermosphere is more like outer space than a part of the atmosphere.

Air

• Air supplies us with oxygen which is essential for our bodies to live.
• Air is a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor, carbon dioxide and inert gases.
• Human activities can release substances into the air, some of which can cause problems
to humans, plants, and animals.

Natural Composition of Gases in air:

 • Air pollution can be categorized into Indoor and outdoor air pollution.

Indoor air pollution

• It refers to the physical and chemical, characteristics of air in the indoor environment
within premises of home, or an institution or commercial facility within the close
premises.
• The rural areas experience greatest level of indoor air pollution, because people still
rely on traditional fuel such as wood, charcoal, cow dung.
• In urban areas, indoor pollution increased due to several reasons such as, construction
of more tightly sealed buildings, less ventilation and openings, the use of synthetic
materials for buildings and the use of chemical products, pesticides.

Primary causes of indoor pollution:

• Fuel-burning combustion appliances

• Tobacco products
• Building materials and furnishings as diverse as:

• Deteriorated asbestos-containing insulation

• Newly installed flooring, upholstery or carpet
• Cabinetry or furniture made of certain pressed wood products
• Products for household cleaning and maintenance, personal care, or hobbies

• Central heating and cooling systems and humidification devices

• Excess moisture

Outdoor sources such as:

• Radon
• Pesticides
• Outdoor air pollution.

Outdoor air pollution: It refers to the pollution outside of indoor premise.

Air pollution:

• An atmospheric condition in which certain substances (including normal constituents

in excess) are present in concentrations which can cause undesirable effects on man and
his environment.
• They are in the form of gases (NOx, Sox, CO, VOC); Particulate matter (dust, smoke,
fumes, etc.) & Radioactive (rad-222, Iodine-131, etc.)
• Air pollutants may be particulate or gaseous. On the basis of origin, they are divided as

1. Primary pollutants: Are emitted directly from the point source. e.g.: CO, NO2, SO2
2. Secondary pollutants: Formed by interaction of primary pollutants e.g.: PAN, Smog,
Ozone etc.

Sources of air pollution:

Criteria of pollutants:

Air Pollution and Aerosols

▪ Aerosols: They are stable suspensions of solid or liquid particles in air. Aerosols
affect the weather conditions by blocking solar radiations. Deposition of aerosols
on leaves affects the process of photosynthesis.

▪ Mist: Aerosols consisting of liquid droplets.

▪ Dust: Aerosols consisting of solid particles.

▪ Fume: Aerosols consisting of hot vapors of metals.

▪ Smoke is also an aerosol, which is a mixture of liquid and solid particles as a result
of burning.

▪ Plume: It is a geometrical form of smoke.

▪ Smog is the mixture of smoke and fog

Effect of air pollution on animals, plants, humans and environment

Effect on Human health:

• Main problems are related to Respiratory Track - Asthma, hay fever, and other allergic
diseases.
• Irritation of the eye, nose and throat. In severe cases there may be headaches, nausea,
and loss of coordination.
• Prolonged exposure can cause damage to the nervous system, digestive problems, and
in some cases cause Lung cancer.
• It lowers our resistance to colds and pneumonia.
 • CO has affinity towards Hb which cause disturbance in transportation of Oxygen,
impairing our concentration, slow our reflexes, and make us confused and sleepy.
• SO2 in the air leads to diseases of the lung and other lung disorders such as wheezing
and shortness of breath.
• Chronic respiratory disease, lung cancer, heart disease, and even damage to the brain,
nerves, liver, or kidneys.
• Effects of Arsenic, Asbestos, Mercury, Benzene etc.

Effect on Plants:

• Pollutants enter through stomata

• Destroy chlorophyll and Affect photosynthesis
• Cuticle (Wax Layer on Leaves) is lost
• Necrosis – Damage to Leaf Structure
• Chlorosis - Loss/ reduction of Chlorophyll
• Abscission - Dropping of leaf
• Epinasty – Downward curling of Leaf
• DEATH

Effect on Animals and materials

• Corrosion of metal surfaces, fading

• SO2 & water form H2S – corrosion as well as disfigurement of statues made up of
limestone or Marble
• Air pollutants mix with rain water and increase acidity (Acid Rain) of water body and
kill fish.
• Ozone causes crackling of rubber

Effect on Environment

• Visibility
• Pollutants in the presence of sunlight produce photochemical Smog
• Emission of Green House Gases tend to Global Warming
• CFC’s cause Ozone Depletion
Air borne diseases

• Anthrax
• Chickenpox
• Influenza
• Measles
• Smallpox
• Tuberculosis.

Control of Air Pollution

• Proper air pollution control devices in industries

• Using low Sulphur coal
• Regular engine tunes up, replacement of old more polluting vehicles
• Using mass transport system, bicycles etc.
• Shifting to less polluting fuels
• Planting more trees
• No to FIRE CRACKERS in Diwali and other occasions

Pollution control devices are:

1. Cyclone Separator
2. Bag House Filter

National Ambient Air Quality Standards

NATIONAL AIR QUALITY MONITORING PROGRAMME (NAMP)

• Central Pollution Control Board is executing a nation-wide programme of ambient air

quality monitoring known as National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAMP).
• The network consists of three hundred and forty-two (342) operating stations covering
one hundred and twenty-seven (127) cities/towns in twenty-six (26) states and four (4)
Union Territories of the country.
• Under N.A.M.P., four air pollutants viz., Sulphur Dioxide (SO2), Oxides of Nitrogen
as NO2, Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) and Respirable Suspended Particulate
Matter (RSPM / PM10) have been identified for regular monitoring at all the locations.
• The monitoring of meteorological parameters such as wind speed and wind direction,
relative humidity (RH) and temperature were also integrated with the monitoring of air
quality.

Air pollution in India is a serious health issue. Of the 30 most polluted cities in the world, 21
were in India in 2019. As per a study based on 2016 data, at least 140 million people in India
breathe air that is 10 times or more over the WHO safe limit and 13 of the world's 20 cities
with the highest annual levels of air pollution are in India. The 51% of pollution is caused by
the industrial pollution, 27 % by vehicles, 17% by crop burning and 5% by fireworks. Air
pollution contributes to the premature deaths of 2 million Indians every year. Emissions come
from vehicles and industry, whereas in rural areas, much of the pollution stems from biomass
burning for cooking and keeping warm. In autumn and winter months, large scale crop residue
burning in agriculture fields (a cheaper alternative to mechanical tilling) is a major source of
smoke, smog and particulate pollution. India has a low per capita emission of greenhouse
gases but the country as a whole is the third largest greenhouse gas producer after China and
the United States. A 2013 study on non-smokers has found that have 30% weaker lung function
than Europeans.

The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act was passed in 1981 to regulate air pollution
but has failed to reduce pollution because of poor enforcement of the rules.

In 2015, Government of India, together with IIT Kanpur launched the National Air Quality
Index. In 2019, India launched 'The National Clean Air Programme' with tentative national
target of 20%-30% reduction in PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations by 2024, considering 2017
as the base year for comparison. It will be rolled out in 102 cities that are considered to have
air quality worse than the National Ambient Air Quality Standards.

WATER POLLUTION

• The Contamination of water with undesirable substances which make it unfit for usage
is termed water Pollution.

Pollution Sources

• Point sources: are direct discharges to a single point;

examples: Discharges from sewage treatment plants, injection wells and some industrial
sources.

• Non-point sources: are diffused across a broad area and their contamination cannot be
traced to a single discharge point.

Examples: runoff of excess fertilizers, herbicides, and insecticides from agricultural lands and
residential areas; oil, grease, and toxic chemicals from urban runoff and energy production;
and sediment from improperly managed construction sites, crop and forest lands, and eroding
stream banks.

Sources of Water Pollution:

1. Sewage
2. Industrial effluents
3. Synthetic detergents
 4. Agrochemicals
5. Oil

Domestic Sewage

• Refers to waste water that is discarded from households. Also referred to as sanitary
sewage, such water contains a wide variety of dissolved and suspended impurities.
• It is large by volume and contains impurities such as organic materials and plant
nutrients that tend to rot.
• The main organic materials are food and vegetable waste, plant nutrient come from
chemical soaps, washing powders, etc.
• Domestic sewage is also very likely to contain disease-causing microbes.

Industrial Effluents

• Waste water from manufacturing or chemical processes in industries

• Industrial waste water usually contains specific and readily identifiable chemical
compounds.
• Mainly in the form of toxic wastes and organic pollutants.
• Chromium, mercury, lead, copper, cadmium etc.

Synthetic Detergents and Oils

• Added because of washing clothes, cleaning utensils.

• In industries for washing
• Add surfactants and soaps to water
• Toxic to fish, aquatic life.
• Oceans are polluted by oil on a daily basis from oil spills, routine shipping, run-offs
and dumping.
• Oil spills make up about 12% of the oil that enters the ocean. The rest come from
shipping travel, drains and dumping.
Agricultural Run Off

• Routine applications of fertilizers and pesticides for agriculture and uncontrolled run
off in water bodies.
• Adds Nitrogen and Phosphorus to water
• Causes Eutrophication and algal blooms.
• Nitrate concentration is above the permissible level of 45 ppm in 11 states, covering 95
districts and 2 blocks of Delhi.

Ground Water Pollution

• Is less comparatively as soil acts as a filter Still...

• Septic tanks
• Mining
• Deep well injection
• Presence of heavy metals in groundwater
• Arsenic, Nitrate, Fluoride

Control of Water Pollution

• Treatment of water before leaving in water bodies.

• Restoration of polluted water bodies.
• Ganga Action Plan
• River Water Monitoring

Marine Pollution

Marine Pollution is caused due to Sewage Sludge, Industrial Effluents, Detergents, solid waste,
plastic, etc.

Sources:

• River- Bring pollutants from drainage basins

• Catchment Area- Human Settlements
• Oil Drilling & Shipment
Effects:

• Fishes show mortality

• Oil disrupts the insulating capacity of feathers
• Due to loss of Buoyancy and subsequent drowning of Birds cause Deaths

Control measures

• Effluents should not be discharged

• Treatment before discharge
• Strict law enforcement- regarding drilling in Eco sensitive zones, dumping of toxic &
Hazardous wastes
• Minimum developmental activities on shore
• CRZs: Coastal regulation Zones

Important Water Pollution Related Issues:

Fluoride Poisoning

• A recent survey by the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) in north

Gujarat showed 42 per cent of the people covered in the sample survey (28,425) were
affected; while 25.7 per cent were affected by dental fluorosis, 6.2 per cent were
affected by muscular skeletal fluorosis and 10 per cent by both.
• Fluoride had been reported to cause depressions in DNA and RNA synthesis in cultured
cells.
• Another study on the effects of fluorides in mice showed significant reductions in DNA
and RNA levels.
• Conditions including ageing, cancer, and arteriosclerosis are associated with DNA
damage and its disrepair.

Arsenic Poisoning

• High levels of arsenic above the permissible levels of 50 parts per billion (ppb) are
found in the alluvial plains of Ganges covering six districts of West Bengal.
• Arsenic contamination of drinking water causes a disease called arenicolids, for which
there is no effective treatment.
 • Arsenic contamination is by far the biggest mass poisoning case in the world putting 20
million people from West Bengal and Bangladesh at risk though some other estimates
put the figure at 36 million people.

Blue Baby Syndrome

• Blue Baby Syndrome or Methemoglobinemia is caused by decreased ability of blood

to carry oxygen, resulting in oxygen deficiency in different body parts.
• Infants are more susceptible than adults.
• The disease can be caused by intake of water and vegetables high in nitrate, exposure
to chemicals containing nitrate, or can even be hereditary.
• As different parts of the body get deprived of oxygen, clinical symptoms of oxygen
starvation start to appear, the main being cyanosis (derived from ‘cyano’, meaning dark
blue; from Greek, kyanosS).
• The lips or even the skin start to take on a blue coloration, hence the common name,
the blue baby syndrome/ disease.

Minamata Disease

• First detected in 1956

• In Minamata, Japan, mercury was used in the industrial production of acetaldehyde.
• Discharged into the nearby bay and was ingested by organisms.
• Fish and other creatures in the sea were soon contaminated and eventually residents of
this area who consumed the fish suffered from MeHg (methyl mercury) intoxication

Itai-Itai

• Itai-itai disease ("ouch Itabirite sickness"),

• Was the documented case of mass cadmium poisoning in Toyama Prefecture, Japan,
starting around 1912.
• The cadmium poisoning caused softening of the bones and kidney failure. The disease
is named for the severe pains (Japanese: itai) caused in the joints and spine.
• The cadmium was released into rivers by mining companies. This Cadmium
contaminated water was used to irrigate rice fields.
Important water borne diseases

1. Cholera: Cholera is a serious intestinal tract infection caused by bacteria called vibrio
cholerae. It leads to acute diarrhea, dehydration, and it can sometimes cause death.
2. Diarrohea: Diarrhea is a disease that causes frequent and watery bowel movements.
It manifests as a result of intestinal infection or food poisoning by drinking
contaminated water with pathogens from animal or human waste.
3. Filaria: Filariasis is a parasitic disease and affects people who live near unsanitary
water bodies or sewages. Filariasis is spread by mosquitoes that breeds in fresh and
stagnant water bodies and is the host of the filarial nematode worm.
4. Malaria: Malaria is the world's most important parasitic disease transmitted from one
person to another through the bite of female Anopheles mosquitoes, which breed in
fresh or occasionally brackish water.
5. Typhoid: Typhoid is a serious bacterial infection distinguished by acute intestinal
ulceration and infection. It usually affects one by washing or consuming contaminated
water or ingesting food washed with contaminated water.
6. Dysentry: Dysentery is an intestinal infection marked by acute diarrhea with blood and
mucus. The disease can also cause vomiting, fever and abdominal pain. It is caused by
the bacteria.
7. Hepatatis: Hepatitis is a highly infectious disease affecting the liver. It is acquired
through the intake of water contaminated with the hepatitis virus. Also, one should not
Eat food washed with contaminated water.
8. Amoebiasis: Amoebiasis is another prevalent disease caused by water pollution. It is
also called as Traveler’s Diarrhea; one suffers the disease by consuming water
contaminated with amoeba protozoa.

Another major contributor to environment pollution is micro plastic.

A micro-plastic is any piece of plastic smaller than 5mm in diameter. Microplastics consist of
carbon and hydrogen atoms bound together in polymer chains. Other chemicals, such as
phthalates, polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), and tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA),
are typically also present in microplastics, and many of these chemical additives leach out of
the plastics after entering the environment.
Microplastics are divided into two types: primary and secondary. Examples of primary
microplastics include microbeads found in personal care products, plastic pellets (or nurdles)
used in industrial manufacturing, and plastic fibres used in synthetic textiles (e.g., nylon).
Primary microplastics enter the environment directly through any of various channels for
example, product use (e.g., personal care products being washed into wastewater systems
from households), unintentional loss from spills during manufacturing or transport, or
abrasion during washing (e.g., laundering of clothing made with synthetic textiles).
Secondary microplastics form from the breakdown of larger plastics; this typically happens
when larger plastics undergo weathering, through exposure to, for example, wave action,
wind abrasion, and ultraviolet radiation from sunlight.

Microplastics may enter drinking-water sources in a number of ways: from surface run-off
(e.g., after a rain event), to wastewater effluent (both treated and untreated), combined sewer
overflows, industrial effluent, degraded plastic waste and atmospheric deposition. Fish and
birds are likely to ingest microplastics floating on the water surface, mistaking the plastic bits
for food. The ingestion of microplastics can cause aquatic species to consume less food and
therefore to have less energy to carry out life functions, and it can result in neurological and
reproductive toxicity.

SOIL POLLUTION

• Soil is the topmost layer of the earth crust.

• Soil is a mixture of rock debris and organic materials which is developed on the earth's
surface by the action of various activities.
• Soil media for growth of all kind of vegetation, habitat for organisms, etc.
 Soil Profile

A soil profile is a vertical section of soil layers that provides a snapshot of the soil's composition,
structure, and properties at a specific location. It is a valuable tool for understanding the
characteristics of a particular soil and plays a crucial role in various fields such as agriculture,
geology, environmental science, and engineering. Soil profiles typically consist of several distinct
horizons or layers, each with its own set of characteristics
There are five soil horizons: O, A, E, B, and C. (R is used to denote bedrock.) There is no set
order for these horizons within a soil.

Types of soils:

The soil is basically classified into four types:

1. Sandy soil.
2. Silt Soil.
3. Clay Soil.
4. Loamy Soil.
Sandy soil:

The first type of soil is sand. It consists of small particles of weathered rock. Sandy soils are
one of the poorest types of soil for growing plants because it has very low nutrients and poor
in holding water, which makes it hard for the plant’s roots to absorb water.

This type of soil is very good for the drainage system. Sandy soil is usually formed by the
breakdown or fragmentation of rocks like granite, limestone, and quartz.

Silt Soil

Silt, which is known to have much smaller particles compared to the sandy soil and is made up
of rock and other mineral particles which are smaller than sand and larger than clay. It is the
smooth and quite fine quality of the soil that holds water better than sand.

Silt is easily transported by moving currents and it is mainly found near the river, lake, and
other water bodies. The silt soil is more fertile compared to the other three types of soil.
Therefore, it is also used in agricultural practices to improve soil fertility.

Clay Soil

Clay is the smallest particles amongst the other two types of soil. The particles in this soil are
tightly packed together with each other with very little or no airspace.

This soil has very good water storage qualities and making hard for moisture and air to
penetrate into it. It is very sticky to the touch when wet, but smooth when dried.

Clay is the densest and heaviest type of soil which do not drain well or provide space for plant
roots to flourish.

Loamy Soil

Loam is the fourth type of soil. It is a combination of sand, silt, and clay such that the beneficial
properties from each are included. For instance, it has the ability to retain moisture and
nutrients, hence, it is more suitable for farming.
This soil is also referred to as an agricultural soil as it includes an equilibrium of all three types
of soil materials being sandy, clay, and silt and it also happens to have hummus. Apart from
these, it also has higher calcium and pH levels because of its inorganic origins.

Soil Pollution

• Soil contamination or soil pollution as part of land degradation is caused by the

presence of chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment.
• It is typically caused by industrial activity, agricultural chemicals or improper disposal
of waste.
• Land pollution like mining, farming, and factories can allow for harmful chemicals to
enter into the soil and water. These chemicals can cause animals and plants to die,
disrupting the food chain. Landfills release the greenhouse gas methane, which may
lead to global warming.

Sources of soil pollution:

1. Heavy metals such as arsenic, cadmium, antimony, thallium

2. Industrial waste
3. Pesticides
4. Xenobiotics – Several xenobiotics known as carcinogens

Soil pollution can be broadly classified into two categories –

1. Naturally caused soil pollution

2. Anthropogenic soil pollution (caused by human activity)

Naturally caused soil pollution: is very rare process

• Some pollutant naturally accumulated in soil; this can occur due to the differential
deposition of soil by the atmosphere. Another manner in which this type of soil
pollution can occur is via the transportation of soil pollutants with precipitation water.

Anthropogenic Soil Pollution

Almost all cases of soil pollution are anthropogenic in nature. A variety of human activities
can lead to the contamination of soil. Some such processes are listed below.

• The demolition of old buildings

• Usage of lead-based paint during construction activities
• Spillage of petrol and diesel during transportation
• Activities associated with metal casting factories
• Underground mining activities
• Improper disposal of highly toxic industrial/chemical waste
• Chemical pesticides
• Sewage produced in urbanized areas

Two types of Waste:

• Biodegradable: Vegetable waste, Food waste, Tea leaves, Egg shells, Dry leaves
• Nonbiodegradable: Polythene bags, Glass bottles, Scrap metal, Tins, cans, Electronic
waste.

Impact of soil pollution

Effect on health:

The short-term effects of human exposure to polluted soil include:

• Headaches, nausea, and vomiting.

• Coughing, pain in the chest, and wheezing.
• Irritation of the skin and the eyes.
• Fatigue and weakness.
A variety of long-term ailments have been linked to soil pollution. Some such diseases are
listed below.

• Exposure to high levels of lead can result in permanent damage to the nervous system.
Children are particularly vulnerable to lead.
• Depression of the CNS (Central Nervous System).
• Damage to vital organs such as the kidney and the liver.
• Higher risk of developing cancer.

Effects on Plants and Animals

• Since soil pollution is often accompanied by a decrease in the availability of nutrients,

plant life ceases to thrive in such soils.
• Soils contaminated with inorganic aluminum can prove toxic to plants. Also, this type
of pollution often increases the salinity of the soil, making it inhospitable for the growth
of plant life.
• Plants that are grown in polluted soil may accumulate high concentrations of soil
pollutants through a process known as bioaccumulation.
• When these plants are consumed by herbivores, all the accumulated pollutants are
passed up the food chain. This can result in the loss/extinction of many desirable animal
species. Also, these pollutants can eventually make their way to the top of the food
chain and manifest as diseases in human beings.

How to control:

• Excavation and subsequent transportation of polluted soils to remote, uninhabited

locations.
• Extraction of pollutants via thermal remediation – the temperature is raised in order to
force the contaminants into the vapor phase, after which they can be collected through
vapor extraction.
• Bioremediation or phytoremediation involves the use of microorganisms and plants for
the decontamination of soil.
• Myco remediation involves the use of fungi for the accumulation of heavy metal
contaminants.
• Composting
 • Sanitary landfill
• Incineration
• Segregation of waste
• Convert waste to biogas, fuel etc.
• Current trends of 3- R’s: Reduce, Reuse, Recycle

NOISE POLLUTION

Noise pollution is generally defined as regular exposure to elevated sound levels that may lead
to adverse effects in humans or other living organisms. According to the World Health
Organization, sound levels less than 70 dB are not damaging to living organisms, regardless of
how long or consistent the exposure is. Noise pollution is a major problem in India. The
government of India has rules and regulations against firecrackers and loudspeakers, but
enforcement is extremely lax. Awaaz Foundation is a non-governmental organization in India
working to control noise pollution from various sources through advocacy, public interest
litigation, awareness, and educational campaigns since 2003. Despite increased enforcement
and stringency of laws now being practiced in urban areas, rural areas are still affected. The
Supreme Court of India had banned playing of music on loudspeakers after 10pm. In 2015, The
National Green Tribunal directed authorities in Delhi to ensure strict adherence to guidelines
on noise pollution, saying noise is more than just a nuisance as it can produce serious
psychological stress. However, implementation of the law continues to remain poor.

• Unwanted and unbearable sound is “Noise”

• Sound travels in form of pressure waves through air, liquid or solid
• Measured on DECIBEL SCALE.
• Maximum during Diwali, Ganpati and other festivals

Higher in Industrial area: 80 to 120 dB

• Crackers: 125 dB
• Construction: 100 dB

Sources and effects

• Transportation
 • Heavy Machinery
• Construction activities
• Celebrations and household appliances
• Physiological and psychological changes
• Interferes communication
• Hearing damage
• Sleep disturbance

Noise standards

• Night 10 p.m. to morning 6 a.m.- loud noise banned.

• Declaration of Zones
•

How to control noise pollution?

• Reduction at the source

• Proper maintenance of machineries
• Machineries should be covered
• Use of sound absorbing silencers
• Through law
• Planting more trees of broad leaves

WASTE (SOLID, LIQUID, BIOMEDICAL, HAZARDOUS, ELECTRONIC)

Waste:

• Any unwanted or unusable substance that is discarded after primary use.

 • Wastes are normally generated as a result of human and animal activities.
• Urbanization and rapid advancements in industrialization has led to an increase in the
production and consumption processes resulting in the generation of wastes from
various sectors that include agricultural, commercial, domestic, industrial, institutional,
social and from community activities.

Classification of wastes

Wastes are commonly classified based on the physical state as solid wastes, liquid wastes and
gaseous

wastes.

1. Solid wastes: Any discarded or abandoned materials that can be solid, liquid, semi-solid or

containerized gaseous material discarded by the human society.

• These include urban wastes, agricultural wastes, biomedical wastes and radioactive
wastes.
• The term refuse is also used for solid wastes.

• Examples: waste tires, septage, scrap metal, latex paints, furniture and toys, garbage,
appliances and vehicles, oil and anti-freeze, empty aerosol cans, paint cans and
compressed gas cylinders, construction and demolition debris, asbestos, plastics,
Styrofoam containers, bottles etc.

Classification of solid wastes

According to the modern systems of waste management, solid wastes are classified based on
their source, type, properties and its effect on human health and environment.

• Source based classification

1. Municipal solid waste (MSW)

• Municipal solid waste commonly referred to as trash, garbage or refuse comprises of

street wastes, dead animals, market wastes, abandoned vehicles, household garbage,
 rubbish, construction and demolition debris, sanitation residue, packaging materials,
trade refuges etc.

• They are collected from residential houses, markets, streets and other places mostly
from urban areas and disposed of by municipal bodies.

2. Industrial wastes

• Wastes generated during industrial activities such as manufacturing and processing

involved in chemical plants, paint industry, cement factories, metallurgical plants,
thermal power plants, petroleum, coal, gas, sanitary, textile, food processing and paper
industry are referred to as industrial wastes.

3. Institutional/ Commercial wastes

• Solid wastes originating from administrative, educational and public buildings such as
offices, schools, colleges, hospitals, government centers, prisons and other commercial
establishments like wholesale and retail stores, restaurants, hotels, markets,
warehouses.

4. Agricultural wastes

• Agriculture wastes includes both natural (organic) and non-natural wastes generated
through farming activities.

5. Biomedical wastes

• Wastes produced from hospitals, medical centers and nursing homes are called
biomedical wastes.
Other types of classification of solid waste given below

2. Liquid wastes:

• Liquid wastes can be defined as liquids/fluids that are generated from washing, flushing
or manufacturing processes of the industries.
• They are also called as sewage.
• The most common practice of disposing liquid waste is to discharge it in ground or
rivers and other water bodies without treatment.
• Examples: domestic washings, chemicals, oils, waste water from ponds, Wastewater
from manufacturing industries, manure, waste oil, fats, oils or grease (FOG), used oil,
and hazardous household liquids

3. Gaseous wastes

• It is a waste product released in the form of gases from automobiles, factories,

industries, burning of fossil fuels etc. and get mixed in the atmosphere.

• These gases include carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, Sulphur dioxide, nitrogen
dioxide, ozone and methane etc.
Traditional Waste disposal:

In the twentieth century, humans have dealt with solid wastes in three basic ways:

• by burning the waste – Burning the waste results in generation of ash and release of gas and
smoke to the environment
• by storing wastes, including the leftover as from burning, in dumps, impoundments, and
most recently sanitary landfills; and
• by injecting or burying wastes in rock cavities deep underground - a method proposed for
the disposal of industrial and conventional toxic or hazardous waste.

Other method of waste disposal and management:

1. Open burning of Wastes

• Incineration of waste at lower temperature in an uncontrolled manner is said to open

burning. Although it is a traditional method of waste management, practiced by major
population of the country, is not proper method of waste management.
• It reduces the quantity of waste. Around 40% of the worldwide solid waste is eliminated
by open burning.

2. Open Dumping

Dumping of solid waste is one of the most common tradition methods of waste disposal.
The waste is first cleared from the source of generation and dumped in specified
location in such a way that it does not cause any serious implication to the humans and
the environment.
3. Recycling

• Recycling is the process of collecting and processing waste materials into reusable
materials.
• They are primary, secondary and tertiary recycling.
• The reusing and recovering of the material without any changes in their originality after
recycling is said to be primary recycling. It can be defined as the second-hand use –
reusing.
• Secondary Recycling: This type of recycling involves some sensible alteration of the
material or product without the use of chemical processes.
• Tertiary Recycling: This type of recycling involves the reprocessing of materials or
products by a chemical process or heat.

4. Landfills

• Landfills are generally located in urban areas. A pit dug in the ground where the garbage
is dumped inside and the pit is covered with soil everyday thus preventing breeding of
flies and rodents over it.

• All types of waste are dumped in landfills and when water seeps through them it gets
contaminated. This water pollutes the neighboring areas. This contamination of
groundwater along with soil through landfills is known as leaching.

5. Incineration plants

• The process of burning waste in furnaces at high temperature is called as incineration.

The recyclable material is segregated with the rest of the material is burnt and ash is
produced.

6. Composting

• Composting is an aerobic process that involves biological degradation of organic

wastes. It is nature's way of recycling decomposed organic materials into a rich soil
known as compost.
 • By composting, the nutrients in the organic waste are returned back into the soil so as
to continue the cycle of life.

7. Vermiculture

• It is also known as earthworm farming. In this method, Earth worms are added to the
compost. The worms break the waste and the added excreta of the worms makes the
compost very rich in nutrients.

Hazards Waste

• Any waste that is toxic and/or hazardous if they “cause or significantly contribute to an
increase in mortality or an increase in serious irreversible, or incapacitating reversible
illness; or pose a substantial present or potential hazard to human health or the
environment when improperly treated, stored, transported, disposed of, or otherwise
managed.”

Sources:

• Generic wastes, commonly produced by manufacturing and industrial processes

• From industries such as wood preserving, petroleum refining, and organic chemical
manufacturing
• Commercial chemical products or manufacturing chemical intermediates.

Classification

1. Radioactive wastes:

• Substances that emit ionizing radiation is called as radioactive substances and the waste
generated from these substances are termed as radioactive wastes.

• Collection equipment and accessories: Various types of trucks and railroad equipment
depending on
• characteristics of wastes; special marking to show safety hazard; heavy loading
equipment to handle concrete-encased lead containers.

2. Biomedical wastes:
 • Toxicity and infectivity are the two important characteristics of biomedical wastes.
• The toxic nature of biomedical waste place them under hazardous waste category.
• Biomedical waste is generated from hospitals, health centers and research facilities.

3. Chemicals:

• Chemicals can be organic, synthetic, metals, acidic or basic or salts. They are
hazardous when they cause toxicity.
• Collection equipment and accessories: Flatbed trucks for wastes stored in drums;
tractor-trailer tank truck combination for large volumes of wastes; railroad tank cars;
special interior linings such as glass, fiber glass or rubber.

4. Flammable wastes:

• Flammable substances can be a gas, liquid or solid.

• Organic sludges, plasticizers, solvents are some of the examples of flammable wastes.
• Collection equipment and accessories: Same as those for toxic chemicals, with special
colorings and safety warning printed on vehicles.

5. Explosives:

• Similar to flammables, they also need special management method.

• They are produced from ordnance manufacturing and generated from industrial gases.
• Collection equipment and accessories: Same as those for toxic chemicals with some
restriction on transport routes, especially through residential areas.

6. Household hazardous wastes:

• In our everyday life we generate a lot of hazardous substances which is disposed off as
commingled waste. They are disposed along with municipal solid waste.
• Some of the hazardous waste generated from households include oil paints, nail polish,
latex, paints, batteries, cleaning chemicals, e waste, pesticides, chlorinated and non-
chlorinated solvents and many more.

Treatment and disposal method of hazardous wastes:

 • Elimination and reduction of usage
• Recycling

• Adsorption- Adsorption is defined as the deposition of molecular species onto the

surface. The molecular species that gets adsorbed on the surface is known as adsorbate
and the surface on which adsorption occurs is known as adsorbent. Common
examples of adsorbents are clay, silica gel, colloids, metals etc
• Resin adsorption
• Sedimentation
• Electrodialysis
• Reverse osmosis
• Solvent extraction
• Distillation
• Land disposal, Landfill

Electronic Waste

• Electronic waste or ‘e-waste’ in general refers to electrical and electronic equipment

(EEE) that has ceased to be of any value to its owners.
• E-waste encompasses a broad and growing range of electronic devices ranging from
large household devices such as refrigerators, air conditioners, cell phones, personal
stereos, and consumer electronics to computers, which have been discarded by their
users

Classification of e waste in India:

1. Information Technology and Telecommunication Equipment: laptops, notebook,

notepad, printers including cartridge, copying equipment, electrical and electronic
typewriters, telex, facsimile, telephones (including mobiles and cordless)
2. Consumer electrical and electronics: Television sets (including, LCD and LED
screens), refrigerator, washing machine, air conditioners, centralized air-conditioning
plants

Management:
 • Material change: Replacement of hazardous constituents with non-hazardous material
• Improved operating and maintenance procedures to increase efficiency of electronic
device
• Process-equipment modification:
• Volume reduction: It is a method by which hazardous portion of a waste is separated
from non-hazardous portion.
• Recovery and reuse

CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL

DIMENSIONS.

climate change impacts people and response measures depend on people to be successful. Thus,
the social dimensions of climate change, the interplay between climate as a phenomenon, its
related policy, and society – including the role of people as victims to and agents of climate
change – are critical to successful climate policy. To date, however, the human variable of the
climate equation has been too frequently missing or weak.

The impacts of climate change will increasingly affect the daily lives of people everywhere in
terms of employment and livelihoods, health, housing, water, food security and nutrition, and
the realization of gender equality and other human rights. Impacts are expected to hit those
living in poverty the hardest, partly due to their more prevalent dependency on the very natural
resources affected by climate change and also because they have less capacity to protect
themselves, adapt or recuperate losses. Effective policies and measures to address these impacts
and to reduce greenhouse gas emissions will in large part depend on these same people,and thus
largely depend on the transformation of social and economic relations that contribute to their
vulnerability.

Inclusion of the social dimensions of climate change can be justified on at least four equally
significant grounds. Firstly, social dimensions are already recognized in existing climate
agreements, albeit in the most elemental sense, often under-recognized and under-implemented
in practice. Secondly, the inclusion of social dimensions in climate policy is a prerequisite to
ensuring that human rights are respected; climate change and related response measures impact
the fundamental security, lives, health and livelihoods of people, especially the most
vulnerable. Thirdly, the effectiveness of climate change policies will very likely be enhanced
if social dimensions are fully integrated. According to case-studies and lessons learned from
the history of human development, inclusion of social dimensions is essential if the most
powerful and resource intensive societies are to change consumption habits and patterns.
Finally, there are essential synergies between the climate change agenda and complementary
sustainable development and human rights agendas, both in terms of their objectives and their
means of achievement. By integrating social dimensions in climate policy, these synergies have
significant potential to amplify concrete results.

IMPACTS OF POLLUTANTS ON HUMAN HEALTH.

the existence of harmful substances causing an adverse effect on the environment and in human
is known as pollution. It can occur in different forms like

• air pollution
• water pollution
• soil pollution
• noise pollution
• radioactive pollution
• light pollution
air pollution has a major impact on human health.

With the onset of industrialisation, there has been a change in the atmosphere due to the fire
used for generating energy. Not only industrialization but different modes of transport, the
burning of fossil fuels, forest fires, burning of leaves, large scale agricultural waste, industries
and power plant are one of the main sources of air pollution. they are consisting of odours,
gaseous pollutants, suspended particulate matter (SPM) in the form of dust, smoke, mist and
fume.

These sources of air pollution release harmful gases and substances that are poisonous for
human beings. Some of them are

• Sulphur tropospheric ozone

• Sulphur dioxide
• Nitrogen dioxide
• Suspended particulate matter

The effects of air pollution on human health depend upon the physical and physiological of the
person who is affected by air pollution. Many organs or body functions can be harmed by this.
Some of the consequences are

• Respiratory disease
• Cardiovascular diseases
• Fatigue, headache and anxiety
• Irritation of the eyes, nose and throat
• Damage to reproductive organs
• Harm to the liver
• Damage to the nervous system

People living in urban areas are the sufferers as they are more exposed to the air pollution.
Health impacts of some specific air pollutants
• Tobacco smoke- It generates harmful chemicals ans causes cancer to the smoker. It also
affects the passive smoker like burning sensation in the eye or nose, throat irritation
• Volatile organic compounds- They can cause irritation of the eyes, throat, nose,
headaches and nausea. They even can damage the liver and other parts of the body
• Lead- The exposure damages the nervous system, digestive problems, cancer. It also
dangerous to small children
• Ozone- The exposure to this gas causes itching n the eyes, burning and watery. It also
increases respiratory disorders like asthma. It also lowers the resistance to colds and
pneumonia.
• Nitrogen oxide- This gas makes the children disposed to resiratory diseases in winters
• Carbon monoxide- Carbon monoxide combines with haemoglobin and lessen the required
oxygen that enters our blood through lungs. This causes changes in the function of the
affected organs like the brain and cardio vascular system. It also affects the concemtration
level makes one sleepy.
• Sulpur dioxide- Sulphur dioxide in the air are caused due to increase in the burning of
fossil fuels. It causes diseases of lungs and other lung disorders like wheezing and
shortness of breath
• Suspended particulate matter(SPM)- They consist of dust, mist, fumes and smoke. The
main components of SPM that affects the heaklth are lead, nickel, arsenic and those
presesnt in diesel exhaust. When we breath these particles it affects our lungs causing lung
damage and respiratoru problems.

Radioactive pollution

Radioactive pollution happens when there is the presence of radioactive materials in the
environment is caused by the emission of harmful radiations like alpha or beta particles or
gamma rays.
The main causes of radioactive pollution are

• Nuclear accidents from nuclear energy generation plants

• The use of nuclear weapons for mass destruction
• Mining
• Spillage of radioactive chemicals
• Tests on radiation
 • Cosmic rays

The major effects of radioactive pollution are:

• Genetic mutations
• Diseases like cancer
• Infertility in soils
• Cell destruction

Some of the solutions of radioactive pollution are:

• We should dispose of the radioactive wastes properly like burying the wastes. We should
properly label the content of any radioactive content so that one can take protective
• measures to handle it.
• Banning of nuclear tests.
• We should think of alternative sources of energy like solar energy, hydro-electric and wind
power.
• Proper storage or container should be there for the radioactive materials so that there is no
leakage.

Light pollution

By light pollution, we understand the excessive, flashy and unwanted artificial lighting.
The cause of light pollution is mainly due to

• Industrialization
• Modernization

Following are the adverse effects of light pollution:

Over-illumination causes headache, fatigue, stress and anxiety.
Light trespass during night causes the sleeping disorder.
Glaring on outdoor lights decreases our vision and the chances of accidents increases.
Human activities have polluted the environment that we live in. But, at the same time, we are also
trying to repeal the damage caused by pollution. Small efforts we make towards our greener
environment will show can start showing its effect. We can still keep and save what is left
from our natural resources to make the world a better place to live for our future generation..
NATURAL AND ENERGY RESOURCES

• Energy, is defined as the ability to do work. Humans require energy to do many things
including various processes within the human body from eating to digesting that food.
Energy plays a very important role in our lives, providing comfort, increasing
productivity and allowing us to live the way we want to.

• The energy around us exists in various forms and as per the laws of physics is never
destroyed but converted from one form to another, the concept is called conservation
of energy. The energy we see around is of following forms:
1. Mechanical energy: The energy stored in a body by virtue of its state of rest or motion.
When the body is in rest it is said to possess the energy of rest called as potential energy.
When the body is moving it is said to be having Kinetic energy.

2. Thermal Energy: The energy a system has in relation to its temperature. The energy is
manifested by the movements of the molecules within the body.

3. Chemical energy: The energy stored within the bounds of molecules.

• The energy is further divided into two various categories according to their generation
and regeneration capability; Renewable and non-renewable resources.

Renewable resources:

Solar Energy

Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the Sun that is harnessed using a range of ever-
evolving technologies such as solar heating, photovoltaic, solar thermal energy, solar
architecture, molten salt power plants and artificial photosynthesis.

Advantages of solar energy

• It is clean, available in plenty and uninterrupted.

• The solar energy devices can be installed even in remote villages and now are even
getting inexpensive with the advancement in technology and increased competition.

Limitation:

• The limitations with solar energy are that it can’t be used in the temperate regions,
also consumes land and can’t be used to run heavy machines.
• The target for India has been set under National solar mission, around 100 GW
including both rooftops and large and medium scale grid installations.

Tidal Energy
Tidal stream generators are very similar to wind turbines except their below the water surface
instead of above or on land. The turbine and generator convert the movement of water coming
from change in tide, the kinetic energy, into electricity.

Pros and cons of tidal energy

Biomass energy:

• Biomass is organic material that comes from plants and animals.

• Biomass contains stored energy from the sun. Plants absorb the sun's energy in a process
called photosynthesis. When biomass is burned, the chemical energy in biomass is
released as heat.

• Biomass is the only renewable energy source that can be converted into liquid biofuels
such as ethanol and biodiesel.

Hydro electric Energy

Hydroelectricity is electricity produced from hydropower. In 2015, hydropower generated

16.6% of the world's total electricity and 70% of all renewable electricity.

Wind Energy

Wind turbines operate on a simple principle. The energy in the wind turns two or three
propeller-like blades around a rotor. The rotor is connected to the main shaft, which spins a
generator to create electricity.

Geo thermal Energy

Geothermal power plants use steam to produce electricity. The steam comes from reservoirs of
hot water found a few miles or more below the earth's surface. The steam rotates a turbine that
activates a generator, which produces electricity.

Benefits and Limitation of Geothermal energy:

Core raw materials used in nuclear energy- Uranium, Thorium, Heavy water, Zirconium,
Helium

Non-Renewable Sources:

• There are four major types of nonrenewable resources: oil, natural gas, coal, and nuclear
energy.

• Oil, natural gas, and coal are collectively called fossil fuels.

• Fossil fuels were formed within the Earth from dead plants and animals over millions
of years—hence the name “fossil” fuels. They are found in underground layers of rock
and sediment. Pressure and heat worked together to transform the plant and animal
remains into crude oil (also known as petroleum), coal, and natural gas.

• Crude oil is a liquid fuel fossil fuel that is used mostly to produce gasoline and diesel
fuel for vehicles, and for the manufacturing of plastics. It is found in rocks below
Earth’s surface and is pumped out through wells.

• Natural gas is widely used for cooking and for heating homes. It consists mostly of
methane and is found near oil deposits below Earth’s surface. Natural gas can be
pumped out through the same wells used for extracting crude oil.

• Coal is a solid fossil fuel that is used for heating homes and generating power plants.
It is found in fossilized swamps that have been buried beneath layers of sediment. Since
 coal is solid, it cannot be extracted in the same manner as crude oil or natural gas; it
must be dug up from the ground.

Nuclear Energy

• Nuclear energy originates from the splitting of uranium atoms – a process called fission.
This generates heat to produce steam, which is used by a turbine generator to generate
electricity. Because nuclear power plants do not burn fuel, they do not produce
greenhouse gas emissions.

• Nuclear power has one of the lowest levels of fatalities per unit of energy generated
compared to other energy sources.

• Both fission and fusion are nuclear reactions that produce energy, but the applications
are not the same. Fission is the splitting of a heavy, unstable nucleus into two lighter
nuclei, and fusion is the process where two light nuclei combine together releasing vast
amounts of energy.

• All nuclear power plants use nuclear fission, and most nuclear power plants use
uranium atoms. During nuclear fission, a neutron collides with a uranium atom and
splits it, releasing a large amount of energy in the form of heat and radiation.

Nuclear power plants in India

1. Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant, Tamil Nadu.

2. Tarapur Nuclear Reactor, Maharashtra.

3. Rajasthan Atomic Power Plant, Rajasthan.

4. Kaiga Atomic Power Plant, Karnataka.

5. Kalapakkam Nuclear Power Plant, Tamil Nadu.

6. Narora Nuclear Reactor, Uttar Pradesh.

7. Kakarapar Atomic Power Plant, Gujarat.

NATURAL HAZARDS AND DISASTERS: MITIGATION STRATEGIES.

HAZARDS

Any phenomenon or an event that has the potential to cause disruption or damage to people
and their environment. When these hazards involve elements of risks, vulnerabilities and
capacities, they can turn into disasters.

DISASTER

Disaster is a sudden, calamitous event bringing great damage, loss, and destruction and
devastation to life and property on a large scale.

Hazard Event:

• They are physical parameters of the hazards which cause harm to humans and society.

• Environmental events can become hazards when they cause adverse effects to the
society and the environment. Volcanic eruptions mostly do not cause harm to humans.
Hence it is termed a natural phenomenon. Such natural phenomenon events that occur
in a populated region are referred to as hazardous events.

Types of Hazards: There are different types of Hazards.

1. Natural Hazards

2. Secondary hazards:

3. Chronic hazards:

4. Based on onset

5. Man-made hazards

Types of Hazards: There are different types of Hazards.

1. Natural Hazards

These are primary hazards

• Natural hazards can be classified as: geological, hydrological, meteorological and

biological hazards.
 • Natural Hazards can also be termed as catastrophic hazards when they have
devastating consequences to large numbers of people.

Types

1. Geological Hazards
2. Meteorological
3. Biological Hazards
4. Climatological
5. Hydrometeorological hazards
6. Geological

1. Geological hazards are caused due to earth processes.

E.g.: Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides, avalanches, subsidence, and impacts with
space objects.

2. Hydrological

• The natural hazards that are triggered exclusively by hydrological extreme-event

phenomena of nature are called “hydrological hazards” or simply “water hazard.

• They include floods, droughts, mudslides and tsunamis.

• Among these floods are the most frequent and cause damage to life and property.

3. Meteorological

• Meteorological hazards are those hazards caused due to weather/ meteorological

processes.

• They include: cyclones, hurricanes, tornadoes, droughts, lightening thunderstorms,

heavy rain and flooding, heatwaves and bushfires.

• A number of other hazards such as hail, flooding or wind can also occur as a result of
more than one of these meteorological phenomena.

4. Biological Hazards

• Biological hazards are caused by biological agents.

• It includes disease epidemics and insect/animal plagues such as Dengue, Spanish flu.
 • Epidemics may be the consequence of primary disasters such as cyclones, floods,
earthquakes etc. Epidemics can also affect animals leading to economic disasters.

5. Climatological

• These hazards are due to extreme climate changes (extreme

temperatures, drought and wildfires

6. Hydrometeorological hazards

• Hydrometeorological hazards are caused by extreme meteorological and climate

events, such as floods, droughts, hurricanes, tornadoes, or landslides.

• Also include tropical cyclones (also known as typhoons and hurricanes),

thunderstorms, hailstorms, tornados, blizzards, heavy snowfall, avalanches, coastal
storm surges, drought, heatwaves and cold spells

2. Secondary hazards:

They occur as a result of other primary hazards.

For example, a primary hazard is the earthquake. Dam failures, building collapse,
ruptured power and water lines, landslides, tsunami etc. are some types of secondary
hazards that can result due to an earthquake.

3. Chronic hazards:

These are referred to as chronic because they are a group of hazards that do not
originate from one event. They occur due to continuous hazardous conditions such as
pollution, toxic contamination that accumulate over time and so on.

4. Based on onset

• Rapid onset hazards:

Examples of rapid onset hazards include volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, floods,

landslides, severe thunderstorms that strike rapidly.

• Slow onset hazard:

Examples of slow onset hazards include drought and disease epidemics that are
slow and take years to form.

5. Man-made hazards
 • These hazards are also referred to as technological hazards.

• They include: exposure to hazardous substances, such as radon, mercury, asbestos

fibers, acid rain or contaminated waters. They also include chemical disasters and
fires.

Types of disasters:

• Major natural disasters: Flood, Cyclone, Drought, Earthquake

• Major manmade disaster: Setting of fires, Epidemic, Deforestation, Pollution, Wars.

• Minor natural disasters: Cold wave, Thunderstorms, Heat waves, Mud slides, Storm

• Minor manmade disaster: Road / train accidents, riots, Food poisoning, Industrial
disaster/ crisis, Environmental pollution

Why is the human element so critical?

• The Earth’s population is increasing

o More people living in hazard-prone areas

o Populations are becoming hyper-concentrated

o consumption of resources

o Therefore, cannot stop population growth and expansion

 o Therefore, we must try to reduce (mitigate) the hazards through:

o Scientific study

o Population education

o Changes in engineering/building practices

o Management plans and hazard response scenarios

Important disasters and mitigation strategies: Earthquake

• Ground movement caused by the sudden release of seismic energy due to tectonic
forces

• The focus of an earthquake is the actual location of the energy released inside the
Earth’s crust

• The epicenter is the point on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus.

Causes of earthquakes:

1. Surface Causes: They produce earthquakes of minor intensity which can be caused due
to:
• Collapse of Caves: The collapse of caves and their impact in the surrounding area
may result in their collapse causing feeble earthquake.
• Blasting of rocks: This can generate tremors in surrounding area which may
induce landslides.
• Landslides: Massive landslide often causes minor earthquake in the surrounding
area.

2. Volcanic causes: The earthquakes are also associated with volcanoes.

3. Tectonic Causes: They include important causes for major earthquakes. These are:
 • Plate Tectonics: Earth’s crust has been divided into number of plates which may be
continental, oceanic or transitional. Movement of these plates produces
earthquakes. In most of the cases the earthquakes are disastrous.

• (ii) Movement along Fault planes: Crustal displacements or structural disturbances

cause
• sudden slipping of the Earth’s crust along the faults. As a result of movement of
the adjacent
• blocks of fault, major earthquakes are produced.

Seismic waves

• Study of earthquakes is called ‘Seismology’.

• These seismic waves travel in the form of vibrations and seismograph is used to
record these vibrations.

• The seismogram is the resulting graph which shows the vibrations and is used in
the monitoring stations for prediction and forecast.

• Seismometer: It is the instrument used to record the seismic vibrations.

• Seismogram: The graph that shows the seismic vibrations at a particular area is
called a seismogram.

Magnitude and Intensity of an Earthquake:

• The size of an earthquake is referred to as the Richter Magnitude,

Hazards due to earthquakes

 • The natural hazard that on average kills the highest number of people per year (> 1
million during the past century)

• Commonly strikes without warning

• No time for evacuation

• Not a predictable trend to earthquake numbers, magnitude or location

• 1000's of large earthquakes every year

• ~ 20 are > M 7.0 and these account for 90% of the energy released and 80% of all

the fatalities

• Hazards due to earthquakes includes the following:

o Damage to Buildings

o Surface Geology: The composition of the soil/rock type, water content and
thickness of the soil/

o rock affects the shaking.

o Ground Displacement

o Fault zone: Ground rupture generally occurs only along the fault zone.

• Other Secondary Hazards due to earthquakes:

o Mass movements: Hilly terrains are subjected to earthquakes.

o Flooding: This occurs due to the damages in dams, due to tsunamis

o Fire

o Contamination of water

o Related health hazards.

o Changes in Ground Level: Earthquakes may cause changes in ground level. This
includes both

o uplift and subsidence of the land surfaces.

o Tsunamis
How do we mitigate the hazard from earthquakes?

• Reinforce buildings

• Education

• Disaster plan

Major earth quake in the world

Mag Location Alternative Name

1. 9.5 Bio-Bio, Chile Valdivia Earthquake, 1960

2. 9.2 Southern Alaska 1964 Great Alaska Earthquake,

Prince William Sound Earthquake,
Good Friday Earthquake

3. 9.1 Off the West Sumatra-Andaman Islands

Coast of Earthquake, 2004 Sumatra
Northern Earthquake and Tsunami, Indian
Sumatra Ocean Earthquake

Major earthquakes in India

Bihar
Magnitude: 8.1
Date: January 15, 1934

Gujarat
Magnitude: 7.7
Date: January 26, 2001

Marashtra
Magnitude: 6.4
Date: September 30, 1993
Assam
Magnitude: 8.6
Date: August 15, 1950

Uttarkashi
Magnitude 6.1
Date: October 20, 1991

TSUNAMI

• An earthquake under the ocean has the potential to form a tsunami.

• The earthquake must vertically displace overlying water (extensional or

compressional faults - not transform)

Extension

Compression

Transform
How do we mitigate the hazard from tsunamis?

• Monitoring

o process is very technology- intensive

o High costs for many poorer countries

o Often no technology available to monitor local tsunamis

o for example, tsunami in 1998 was not detected

o Pressure Recorders and Tide Gauges are two of the main gadgets that are used to
detect a tsunami attack.

• Building restrictions in hazard prone areas

• Seawall construction

o Cause early wave breaking

o Prevent wave run up into urban areas

• Education

o Warning systems

o Evacuation plans

o General understanding of the hazards involved

Tropical Storms

• A tropical storm is a cyclonic storm that originates from the tropics and has sustained
winds ranging between 39 and 73 miles/hour (34 to 63 knots; 63 to 117 kilometers per
hour).

• It is characterized by a low-pressure center and by several thunderstorms that create

strong winds and heavy rain.

Difference between cyclone, hurricane and typhoon

• These are same thing, but named differently based on the location of storms

• Hurricanes occur in the Atlantic and typhoons, in the Pacific. Tropical storms in
Indian Ocean known as cyclone.

Tropical cyclones and damages

• Cyclones are intense, low-pressure weather systems forms over the oceans. It is
normally associated with warm core, large scale convective wind system, heavy
rainfall and sustained wind speed.

• Can be deadly!

For example, in 1991 a large cyclone in Bangladesh killed >138,000 people in just
two days!

• Most widespread destructive weather hazard

How do we mitigate the hazard from a cyclone?

• Monitoring

• Early warning systems

 • Infrastructure

• cyclone walls

• communal shelters

• Education and planning

Strong Wind

Elements at Risk

• Lightweight structures.

• Elevated utilities (Power and communication lines)

• Fishing boats and other maritime industries.

Main Mitigation Strategies.

• Structural engineering measures.

• Planting of windbreaks.

On 3 February 1605, in the Keichō era, a magnitude 8.1 quake and tsunami hit Japan.
A tsunami with a maximum known height of 30 m was observed from the Bōsō Peninsula to
the eastern part of Kyushu Island.

FLOOD

• A flood is an overflow of water that submerges land which is usually dry.

• Floods are of many types which include flash flood, riverine flood, coastal floods etc.

• flash flood is “A rapid and extreme flow of high water into a normally dry area, or a
rapid rise in a stream or creek above a predetermined flood level, beginning within six
hours of the causative event (e.g., intense rainfall, dam failure, ice jam).

• Riverine flood: Floods occurs in all type of rivers either they are smallest or largest
one. This type of flood caused when water runoff collects in river and start
overflowing the banks.

• Coastal floods: This type of flood occurs when sea water enters into the low-lying
area near sea/ocean.
 • Various causative agents for coastal floods includes hurricanes, tropical cyclones and
tsunamis along with topography of that area.

• General reasons for flood:

o Inundation of land

o India – Monsoon climate

o Rainfall concentrated to limited months

o Large network of rivers

o Possibilities of flood and drought

• Natural Reasons

o Heavy rainfall

o cloud burst

o La-Nina

• Anthropogenic Reasons:

o Global warming – melting of glaciers

o Deforestation – siltation- lower channel capacity

Solutions for flood

• Administrative strategies:

o Flood management program

o Flood control commission to control flood in 23 rivers

o Information exchange other countries and states about volume of water in rivers in
their origin

• Forestation on the banks of rivers

• Better settlement management

 • Watershed management and rainwater harvesting than construction of dams and
canals

Drought

• Drought is an extreme climatic event with deficiency in precipitation over an

extended period from months to years.

• Rainfall less or equal to 75 cm or less than 60 cm = Drought

• Drought is often classified into three types as the following

1. Meteorological Drought

2. Agricultural Drought

3. Hydrological Drought

1. Meteorological Drought: Meteorological drought is usually defined based on the

degree of dryness (in comparison to some “normal” or average) and the duration of
the dry period. It is often accompanied with above-normal temperature. Drought onset
generally occurs with a meteorological drought.

2. Agricultural Drought: Agricultural drought links various characteristics of

meteorological (or hydrological) drought to agricultural impacts, focusing on
precipitation shortages, soil water deficits, reduced ground d water or reservoir levels
needed for irrigation, and so forth.

3. Hydrological Drought: Hydrological drought usually occurs following periods of

extended precipitation shortfalls that impact water supply (i.e., stream-flow, reservoir
and lake levels, ground water), potentially resulting in significant societal impacts.

Problem of Drought

o Drought is not only about water scarcity – much more complex in India

o Drought is related development

o Drought = agrarian poverty = high IMR, high MMR, low literacy

• Drought can affect only if the farmers are not prepared.

• Economic status of farmers

• Irrigation facility

• Alternative livelihood

Solution to the drought:

• Expansion of irrigation facility

• Use ground water in water-crisis situation

• rainwater harvesting

• Check-dams

• Watershed- management

• Alternate income to farmers from: Animal husbandry (dairying, meat, poultry, animal
products, bee keeping, Seri culture)

• Argo-forestry

• Food-processing industries, handicraft, tourist

• Watershed management

o Sustainable way to use water resource

o Understanding the natural resource in its entirety

o Integrated or system approach

o Human intervention should be limited to natural limits

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION ACT- 1986

It was enacted under Article 253 of the Indian constitution and the expression in the say of
environmental quality was taken at the United Nation Conference on the Human Environment
held at Stockholm in June 1972. The government of India strongly voiced against the
environmental concerns and further passed many Acts related to the environment.

Objectives

The Environmental Protection Act, 1986 (EPA) was passed with the following objectives:

1. It was enacted to implement the decisions which were made at the United Nation
Conference on the Human Environment held at Stockholm in June 1972.
2. Creation of authority for government protection.
3. Coordinating the activities of various regulating agencies which is done under the existing
law.
4. The main task is to enact general laws for environmental protection, which could be
unfolded in areas of severe environmental hazards.
5. Providing deterrent punishment to those who inculcate in endangering the human
environment, safety and health.
6. The main goal for the environment should be sustainable development and it can be
regarded as one of the goals for Environment Protection Act, 1986.
7. Sustainable development includes achieving the object and the purpose of the act as well
as the protection of life under Article 21 of the Indian Constitution.

Scope and commencement of the Act

The Environment Protection Act, 1986 extends to whole India and it came into force on 19th
November.

Section 2 of the Environmental protection Act, 1986 (EPA) deals with some of the information
about the definition of the Act and these definitions are as follows:

“Environment” the word environment includes water, air, land and also the inter-relation
between their existence. It also includes human beings and other living creatures such as plants,
micro-organisms and property.

“Environmental Pollutants” means any substance in solid, liquid or gaseous form which in
consideration is injurious to the health of living beings.
“Handling” means any substance which is in the relation of being manufactured, processed,
collected, used, offered for sale or like of such substance.

“Environmental Pollution” includes the presence of environmental pollutants in the

environment.

“Hazardous substance” includes the substance or the preparation by which the physical-
chemical property is liable to harm the human beings or other living creatures such as plants,
microorganisms and the property.

“Occupier” is in the relation of factory or any other premises which means a person who has
control over the affairs of it. From the above definitions given the Environmental protection
Act tends to cover a wide range of matters related to the environment protection.

Power of the Central government for measures to protect and improve the Environment

It is the power vested in the central government that they can take any reasonable and valid
steps and measures for the purpose of the protection and improvement of the quality of the
environment. These measures are taken for the prevention, control and abatement of
environmental Pollution.

Such measures may include measures with respect to all namely as follows.

1. Laying down the standards for the quality of the standards of the environment.
2. Coordination of actions which are obliged to the state officers and other authorities
under any law.
3. Execution and proper planning of the worldwide national programme for the
prevention, controlling and the abatement of environmental pollution.
4. Restrictions to be applied in any of the industries, process and any operation shall be
carried out.
5. It is the power and the duty of the government to lay down the procedure to carry
forward safeguards for the prevention of many inevitable accidents which may
inculcate in more environmental pollution.
6. Proposal of remedies should be put forward for the protection and prevention of further
incidents.
7. Duty and power to lay down the procedures and safeguards to handle the hazardous
substance.
 8. Examination of manufacturing processes should be done, materials, substances which
are likely to cause environmental pollution.
9. Power to inspect at various premises, equipment, material and the substances and power
to direct the authorities for the prevention and control of environmental pollution.
10. To collect the dissemination in the respect of information related to environmental
pollution.
11. Preparation of the manuals, codes, guides which are considered suitable enough for
controlling environmental pollution.
12. One of the most important tasks is to establish the laboratories.
13. Serving other matters which are necessary for the central government to deal for the
effective implementation of the Environmental Protection Act, 1986.

Under Section 3 of the following act, the central government has the power to authorize or
constitute other authorities for the accurate implementation of powers and duties which are
mentioned above.

Section 3 of the Environmental Protection Act holds importance due to the fact of a better
regulatory mechanism.

In the case of Vellore Citizens’ Welfare Forum v Union of India, the Supreme Court has
directed the central government to constitute the ‘authority’ for the implementation of powers
under section 3(3). Thus, the Court directed while keeping in the notice about the degrading
quality of the environment that authorities should implement the ‘precautionary principle’ and
‘pollution pay principle’.

Power to give direction: The central government in the exercise of powers designated by the
Act can issue the directions in writing to any of the person or any officer. They shall be bound

to comply with these given directions. The powers to issue directions will include the power to
direct which are as follows:

1. The direction of closure, prohibition or the regulation of any industry and its operational
process.
2. direction for the stoppage or regulation of the supply of electricity, including any other
services.
The Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986

The rules of Environment protection came into force on 19th November 1986 and

these rules provide for the following:

1. The standards of quality of air, soil and water for various areas and purposes of
environment.

2. The standard set up to know about the limits of the environmental pollutants.

3. Rules include the procedure and safeguards needed to handle the hazardous substance.

4. Restrictions and some prohibitions on handling the hazardous substances in different areas
and premise.

5. The procedures and safeguards required for the prevention of accidents which may cause
environmental pollution and also the remedies for it.

6. The prohibition and restrictions possessed on the location of industries in different areas.

Prevention, Abatement and Control of Environmental Pollution

Section 7 of the Environment Protection Act 1986 suggest that no person in the country shall
be carrying any of the activity or operation in which there is a large emission of gases or other
substances which may lead to excess environmental pollution.

Section 7 of the act provides certain standards that ought to be maintained in which it is a must
that no person is allowed to damage the environment and if a person is found guilty for causing
damage to the environment by polluting the pollution pay principle. He can be asked for the
‘exemplary damages’ if he is found guilty of damaging the environment.

Section 8 provides that any person who is handling the hazardous substance needs to comply
with the procedural safeguards. If the emission is to a very large extent or is apprehended
through an accident, the person responsible for it is obliged to mitigate from that place in order
to reduce the environmental pollution. He is also required to give an intimation to the higher
authorities regarding the same and for that one receipt of remedies shall be required to prevent
or to mitigate the environmental pollution. In subsection (1), it is also provided that if a person
willfully delays or obstructs the person designated by the central government, he will be
charged guilty under this act.
Procedure to be followed for the legal proceedings under the Environmental Protection
Act

The following procedure needs to be followed for the legal proceedings.

1. The notice must be delivered to the occupier or his agent and it must indicate the intention
or the analysis of the issue of a particular case.

2. Samples of the extent of pollution to be checked must be taken in the presence of the occupier
or the agent.

3. The sample should be sent directly to the laboratory without any delay in the process.

4. The sample should be kept in a container with a label on it and it should have the signature
of both the occupier party and the person taking the sample.

The central government must recognize at least one or two laboratories under this act and the
report of analysis can be used as evidence of the facts stated in any procedure done under this
act.

Penalty for the Contravention of Rules and orders of this Act

As it was stated earlier that the most important goal of the environmental protection act is to
provide for the punishment of the offence of endangering the human environment, safety and
health.

Section 15 states that any person who is not complying to the provisions stated in this act and
its failure or contravention will make him liable and punishable as the following:

1. In terms of imprisonment up to the extension of the time span of five years.

2. With fine which may extend to the term of one lakh rupee.

3. Or the liable person has to deal with both of the punishments.

4. If the contravention of the offence that continues for one year, the punishment can extend up
to seven years.

Section 24 a provision that if any offence is punishable under the Environment Protection Act
and also under other Act, then the person shall not be liable under the Environment Protection
Act, 1986.This particular section reduces the punishment extent as other Act includes lesser
punishment.
Offences by the Companies and the Governmental Departments

Section 16 of the Environmental Protection Act, 1986 explains the principle of vicarious
liability of the in-charge person such as directors, Managers and secretary etc. for if the offence
is committed by any company.

He is not held liable for the following:

1. If the offence is committed without his knowledge.

2. If he has taken diligent care to prevent the commission of the offence.

Illustration: If any company which is emitting some hazardous substance out of its industry
and is taking care of the standard level of the harm produced to the environment and if the
offence committed by the industry is not in knowledge of person taking the liability, then the
person will not stand as liable.

There cannot be a liability on his part if he proves the following.

1. That the offence was committed without his knowledge.

2. If he has exercised the diligent care to prevent the commission of any offence

Who can make a complaint? A complaint can be filed by two parties:

1. The central government or any authority associated with the government.

2. Any person who has given the notice of complaint within the term of sixty days of the alleged
offence or the has the intention to make the complaint to governmental authority or the
central government.

Bars to the Jurisdiction: The Act has barred the civil court to entertain any proceedings in
respect of any action taken by the central government. Most of the cases in India, pertaining to
Environmental Law have to come before the courts in the form of Public Interest Litigation
(PIL) and can be filed in High Courts and Supreme Courts.
NATIONAL ACTION PLAN ON CLIMATE CHANGE

• The National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) was launched in 2008 by the Prime
Minister's Council on Climate Change.

• There are 8 national missions forming the core of the NAPCC which represent multi-
pronged, long term and integrated strategies for achieving key goals in climate change.

• The plan was drafted to emphasize the overriding priority of maintaining high economic
growth rate to raise living standards; the plan “identifies measures that promote our
development objectives while also yielding co-benefits for tackling climate change
effectively.”

• NAPCC is guided by following principles-

o Protection of poor and vulnerable sections of society through inclusive and sustainable
development strategy, sensitive to climate change.

o Achievements of national growth through qualitative changes enhancing ecological

sustainability.

o Deployment of appropriate technologies for both adaptation and mitigation of Green

House Gases emissions extensively and at an accelerated pace.

1. National Solar Mission:

• Specific goals for increasing use of solar thermal technologies in urban areas,
industry, and commercial establishments;
• A goal of increasing production of photovoltaics to 1000 MW/year;
• A goal of deploying at least 1000 MW of solar thermal power generation.
2. National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency:

• Mandating specific energy consumption decreases in large energy-consuming

industries, with a system for companies to trade energy-savings certificates;
• Energy incentives, including reduced taxes on energy-efficient appliances; and
• Financing for public-private partnerships to reduce energy consumption through
demand-side management programs in the municipal, buildings and agricultural
sectors

3. National Mission on Sustainable Habitat:

• Extending the existing Energy Conservation Building Code;

• A greater emphasis on urban waste management and recycling, including power
production from waste;
• Strengthening the enforcement of automotive fuel economy standards and using
pricing measures to encourage the purchase of efficient vehicles;
• Incentives for the use of public transportation.
4. National Water Mission:

• With water scarcity projected to worsen as a result of climate change, the plan sets a
goal of a 20% improvement in water use efficiency through pricing and other
measures.

5. National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem:

• The plan aims to conserve biodiversity, forest cover, and other ecological values in
the Himalayan region, where glaciers that are a major source of India’s water supply
are projected to recede as a result of global warming.

6. National Mission for a “Green India”:

• Goals include the afforestation of 6 million hectares of degraded forest lands and
expanding forest cover from 23% to 33% of India’s territory.

7. National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture:

• The plan aims to support climate adaptation in agriculture through the development of
climate-resilient crops, expansion of weather insurance mechanisms, and agricultural
practices.
8. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change:

• To gain a better understanding of climate science, impacts and challenges, the plan
envisions a new Climate Science Research Fund, improved climate modeling, and
increased international collaboration. It also encourages private sector initiatives to
develop adaptation and mitigation technologies through venture capital funds.

Other Programs of NAPCC

The NAPCC also describes other ongoing initiatives, including:

1.Power Generation: The government is mandating the retirement of inefficient coal-

fired power plants and supporting the research and development of IGCC and
supercritical technologies.
2.Renewable Energy: Under the Electricity Act 2003 and the National Tariff Policy
2006, the central and the state electricity regulatory commissions must purchase a
certain percentage of grid-based power from renewable sources.
3.Energy Efficiency: Under the Energy Conservation Act 2001, large energy-
consuming industries are required to undertake energy audits and an energy labelling
program for appliances has been introduced.

INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS/EFFORTS

What is an international environmental agreement?

International environmental agreements (IEAs) are signed treaties that regulate or manage
human impact on the environment in an effort to protect it.

International -To qualify as international, the treaty must be bilateral agreements are between
two governments, and multilateral agreements are between more than two.

Environmental-The term environmental is broad. Some agreements encompass a range of

environmental protections, while others are extremely specific.

The International Environmental Agreements Database Project separates agreements into the
following environmental categories:

Nature: conservation and protection of resources and systems

Species: interaction with mammals, agriculture, and marine life

Pollution and climate: pollution of the air, land, oceans, and freshwater systems

Habitat and oceans: maintaining ecosystems

Freshwater resources: regulation of lakes and rivers

Energy, nuclear issues, and conflict: energy production, nuclear-weapon-free zones, and
environmental weapons (bacteriological, chemical, toxin)

Agreement

A convention can refer to an actual meeting or conference between parties where they reach
an agreement on the final terms of a treaty. However, it is also broadly used to describe wide-
scale agreements between governments.

A protocol is usually supplemental: It further amends an existing convention and creates

additional restrictions or standards. Original signatories of a convention are not automatically
bound to protocols without a separate ratification.

Who participates in international environmental agreements?

Representatives from countries can accept and sign the terms of an international agreement
on behalf of their government, making their country a signatory. The European Union (EU)
also has the authority to sign treaties under international law and is often party to
environmental agreements, in addition to the countries within it.

Signature vs. Ratification

A signature is not the last step. Ratification by the state’s governing body is required before
countries are full participants in international agreements. While a signature is interpreted as
a commitment to moving forward with full ratification, that’s not always the case.

For example, the United States is a signatory of the Basel Convention, a transboundary
regulation on the movement and disposal of hazardous waste and materials. The United States
signed the Basel Convention in 1990, one year after its adoption, but has yet to implement
legislation to ratify it.

This means that although the state advised to participate initially, it is not technically a party
in the convention.

Adopting renewable energy sources and reducing CO2 emissions are common goals of
environmental agreements. They can also be indicators of a country’s larger environmental
shifts. The United States, for example, increased contribution of renewables to energy
production by 27 percent between 1990 and 2015 and reduced CO2 emissions per capita by 21
percent.

Countries like the United Kingdom, Germany and South Africa are seeing even more positive
shifts in their use of renewables, with increases ranging from 530 to 773 percent. Some
emerging nations like Brazil and India exhibit negative trends — increasing CO2 emissions by
54 and 156 percent, respectively. Also, their use of renewables as a proportion of total energy
production is decreasing.

When do governments sign international environmental agreements?

Adoption vs. Entry Into Force

Adoption is the establishment of the treaty or agreement, and the first point at which
governments can begin to sign. After adoption, parties can sign at will. This can happen
immediately or years later.

For example, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and
Fauna (CITES) was first ratified by the United States in 1974. However, additional members
have joined as recently as 2016.

Entry into force is the date when a treaty goes into effect for members. The agreement
determines when entry into force occurs, usually after a predetermined amount of time and
when countries have ratified.

It took the World Heritage Convention and CITIES agreements, first ratified in the 1970s, 16
years to be ratified by over 100 countries. The Kyoto Protocol however, was first ratified in
1998 and only took five years to reach the same point and the Paris Agreement (2016)
received 121 ratifications in its first year.

How do international environmental agreements work?

Binding vs. Nonbinding Measures

As treaties, IEAs are governed by international law and binding once entered into force.
However, that does not always translate to compliance. Domestic legislation is usually
required to meet the standards of an environmental agreement.
The IEA itself can include mechanisms for treaty compliance consequences for failure to
meet the agreed-upon standards or incentives to do the opposite. Some examples include
performance reviews, financial assistance, and stricter requirements.

Action plans, directives, and commissions are examples of nonbinding environmental

measures. Signatories are not legally obligated to fulfil the requirements or terms, so
nonbinding measures can serve as political indicators of government intent.

Refer class PPT for point wise content.

Montreal Protocol

The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (a protocol to the Vienna
Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer)

• An international treaty with 197 parties

• Designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous
substances that are responsible for ozone depletion.
• It was agreed on 16 September 1987, and entered into force on 1st January 1989,
following a first meeting in Helsinki, May 1989. Since then, it has undergone nine
revisions:

In 1990 (London), 1991 (Nairobi), 1992 (Copenhagen), 1993 (Bangkok), 1995 (Vienna),
1997 (Montreal), 1998 (Australia),1999 (Beijing) and 2016 (Kigali).

o The landmark multilateral environmental agreement that regulates the production and
consumption of nearly 100 man-made chemicals referred to as ozone depleting
substances (ODS).

o When released to the atmosphere, those chemicals damage the stratospheric ozone
layer, Earth’s protective shield that protects humans and the environment from
harmful levels of ultraviolet radiation from the sun.

• The Protocol is to date the only UN treaty ever that has been ratified every country on Earth
- all 197 UN Member States.
• Under this treaty, all parties have specific responsibilities related to the phase out of the
different groups of ODS, control of ODS trade, annual reporting of data, national licensing
systems to control ODS imports and exports, and other matters.
• Developing and developed countries have equal but differentiated responsibilities, but
most importantly, both groups of countries have binding, time-targeted and measurable
commitments.

• The substances controlled by the treaty are listed in

o Annexes A (CFCs, halons),

o -B (other fully halogenated CFCs, carbon tetrachloride, methyl chloroform),
o -C (HCFCs),
o E (methyl bromide) and F (HFCs).
• The treaty evolves over time in light of new scientific, technical and economic
developments, and it continues to be amended and adjusted.
• The Meeting of the Parties is the governance body for the treaty, with technical support
provided by an Open-ended Working Group, both of which meet on an annual basis.
• The Parties are assisted by the Ozone Secretariat, which is based at UN Environment
headquarters in Nairobi, Kenya.

VIENNA CONVENTION FOR THE PROTECTION OF OZONE LAYER

• Held in Vienna, 1985

• Came into force in 1988

• Multilateral environmental agreement

• Framework to protect the ozone layer

• COP- every 3 years (2014)

• No legally binding reduction goals of CFCs (laid out in Montreal Protocol)

RIO SUMMIT/ RIO CONVENTION

• 3 conventions are resulted from Rio summit Which held on June 1992.

• Rio Conventions
1. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) - Biodiversity
2. UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) — Climate Change
3. UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) — Desertification
1. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

• Convention was opened for signature at the Rio Summit 1992 and came into force on
29 December I993

• Legally binding

• Secretariat of CBD —: Montreal, Canada

3 main goals

o Conservation of biological diversity

o Sustainable use of components of biological diversity
o Fair & equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources

Conference of Parties (COP)

o Governing body of CBD

o Includes all parties who have ratified the convention (US has signed, but not ratified
CBD so it is not a party to CBD, but attends the meetings of CBD)

o COP - Meets every 2 years

o COP 1 -1994 — Bahamas

o COP 11 — 2012 - Hyderabad

o COP 12 - 2014 — PyeongChang
o COP 13- 2016 —Cancun
o COP 14 - 2018 - Egypt

o COP 14 - 2018 - Egypt

• Three protocols are emerged from CBD

 1. CARTAGENA PROTOCOL on BIOSAFETY

2. NAGOYA - KUALA LAMPUR SUPLLEMENTARY PROTOCOL on LIABILITY

AND REDRESS

3. Nagoya protocol

CARTAGENA PROTOCOL on BIOSAFETY

• In 2000, the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity

adopted a supplementary agreement to the Convention known as the Cartagena
Protocol on Biosafety

• Came into force in 2003

• COP-MOP along with COP every two years

i.e., COP-MOP 6 in 2012, along with COP 11 @ Hyderabad (COP-MOP:

Conference of Parties serving as the Meeting of Parties to the protocol)

• The Protocol aims to ensure the safe handling, transport & use of Living Modified
Organisms (LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology that may have adverse effects on
biological diversity, taking also into account risks to human health
• Number of Parties- 167

o Latest ratification — Iraq, in March 2014

• India signed, and ratified

• The Protocol seeks to protect biological diversity from the potential risks posed by Living
Modified Organisms (LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology.

• Protocol establishes

o Advance Informed Agreement (AIA): Procedure for ensuring that countries are
provided with the information necessary to make informed decisions before
agreeing to the import of such organisms into their territory.

o Biosafety Clearing-House: To facilitate the exchange of information on living

modified organisms and to assist countries in the implementation of the Protocol.
 o Living Modified Organism-: any living organism whose genetic material has
been altered by the use of modern biotechnology

• Broadly equivalent to GMOs, except:

o LMOs are capable of growing, and generally refer to agricultural crops.

o GMOs can be dead or alive.

• Miami Group:

o Opposes the Cartagena Protocol provisions

o US, Canada, Australia, Argentina, Chile, Uruguay (exporters of GM crops +

developed countries with large biotechnology industries, includes 3 developing
countries).

o Wanted free trade of GM products without burdensome bureaucratic approval

procedures and protectionism masquerading as environmental.

NAGOYA - KUALA LAMPUR SUPLLEMENTARY PROTOCOL on LIABILITY

AND REDRESS

• Intended to supplement the CPB by providing international rules & procedures in

liability & redress for damage to biodiversity resulting from LMOs

• The Supplementary Protocol focuses, mainly, on administrative procedures and

requirements with respect to response measures that need to be taken in the event of
damage by LMOs that adversely affect the conservation and sustainable use of
biological diversity, taking also into account risks to human health.

• will enter into force 90 days after being ratified by at least 40 Parties to the Cartagena
Protocol on Biosafety

• India signed, but not ratified

NAGOYA PROTOCOL on ACCESS BENEFIT SHARING

• Adopted at COP I0 held at NAGOYA in AICHI Province in Japan in 2010

• Entered into force on 12 October 2014.

 • It has been ratified by 123 parties, which includes 122 UN member states and the
European Union.

• Also known as the Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS) is a 2010
supplementary agreement to the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).

• "Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and Fair and Equitable Sharing of
Benefits Arising from their Utilization (ABS) to the Convention on Biological
Diversity”.

• An international agreement which aims at sharing the benefits arising from the
utilization of genetic resources in a fair and equitable way, including by appropriate
access to genetic resources and by appropriate transfer of relevant technologies,
taking into account all rights over those resources and to technologies, and by
appropriate funding, thereby contributing to the conservation of biological diversity
and the sustainable use of its components

• India Signed and ratified

AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS

• COP 10 held in Nagoya in Aichi Province of Japan adopted a revised and updated*
Strategic Plan for Biodiversity, including the Aichi Biodiversity Targets, for the 201 I
-2020 period. (*-there was already a Strategic Plan 2002-2010)

• AICHI Biodiversity Targets 20 targets under 5 Strategic Goals (some well-defined,

some ill-defined)

UNITED NATIONS FRAMEWORK CONVENTION ON CLIMATE CHANGE

(UNFCCC)

• It is one of the conventions of Rio summit

• Convention was opened for signature at the Rio Summit 1992 and came into force in
1994

• Legally binding

• Secretariat in Bonn, Germany

 • KYOTO protocol is result of UNFCC

• Governing body — Conference of Parties COP meets annually the meeting is also
called UN Climate Change Conference.

• The ultimate objective of the Convention is to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations

"at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic (human induced) interference
with the climate system”

• • COP I in 1995 @ Berlin, Germany

• • COP 3 in 1997 @ Kyoto, Japan

• • COP 7 in 2001 @ Marrakech, Morocco

• • COP 13 in 2007 @ Bali, Indonesia

• • COP 15 in 2009 02 Copenhagen, Denmark

• • COP 16 in 2010 @ Cancun, Mexico

• • COP 17 in 2011 @ Durban, South Africa

• • COP 18 in 2012 @ Doha, Qatar

• • COP 19 in 2013 @Warsaw, Poland

• • COP 20 in 2014 December @ Lima, Peru

• • COP 21— 2015 — Paris

• • COP 22 — 2016 — Marrakesh

• • COP 23 — 2017 — Bonn

• • COP 24 — 2018 — Katowice

• • COP 25 — 2019 - Chile

Must watch the video lecture on this topic for more clarification.
REDUCING EMISSION from DEFORESTATION and FOREST DEGRADATION
(REDD)

• Set of steps designed (to use market & financial incentives) in order to reduce
emission of GHGs from deforestation & forest degradation (AFOLU) (which now
actually account to nearly 20% global emissions, 2nd only to energy sector)

• Developed on the sidelines of UNFCCC

• Focus is on developing countries

• Next stage of REDD+

• "reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in developing

countries; and the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and
enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries"

UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION TO COMBAT DESERTIFICATION (UNCCD)

• Opened for signature in 1994

• Came into force in 1996

• 1st and only legally binding international agreement to address the problem of
desertification
• 196 Parties (195 countries + EU) Canada pulled out of the convention in 2013
• COP — meets every 2 years COP l I in 2013 @ Namibia
• Global Environmental Facility (though established in 1991) is now a financial
mechanism for UNCCD

Rio Summits followed by 1992 and their importance

1. 1992: UN Conference on Environment & Development (Rio Summit 1992)

2. 2002: World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) @ Johannesburg, South

Africa (Earth Summit 2002) (Rio +10)

3. 2012: UN Conference on Sustainable Development (UNCSD) @ Rio de Janeiro,

Brazil (Earth Summit 2012) (Rio +20)

UN CONFERENCE ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT (UNCSD) (RIO +20)

 • 3rd International Conference on Sustainable Development after 1992 and 2002

• Themes: -

o Green Economy
o Institutional Framework for Sustainable Development

• Objectives: -

o Securing renewed political commitments for sustainable development

o Assessing the progress & implementation gaps in meeting previous
o commitments Addressing new & emerging challenges

• Primary result of the conference was the non-binding document- "The Future We
Want”, it is basically a post 2015 development agenda

• Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to take over where Millennium Development

Goals (MDGs) leave.

Inter-Governmental Panel for Climate Change (IPCC)

• Scientific inter-governmental body established by World Meteorological Org (WMO)

and UNEP in 1988

• It reviews and assesses the most recent scientific, technical and socio-economic
information produced worldwide relevant to the understanding of climate change,
does not carry out its own research, nor does it monitor climate change

• Headquarters at Geneva, Switzerland

• Chair - Rajendra K Pachauri

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment

• It is Scientific Assessment Report for CBD (like IPCC for UNFCCC)

• The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment assessed the consequences of ecosystem

change for human well-being.

• From 2001 to 2005, the MA involved the work of more than 1,360 experts
worldwide.
 • Their findings, contained in five technical volumes and six synthesis reports, provide
a state-of-the-art scientific appraisal of the condition and trends in the world’s
ecosystems and the services they provide (such as clean water, food, forest products,
flood control, and natural resources) and the options to restore, conserve or enhance
the sustainable use of ecosystems.

Ecosystem Services:

• Provisioning Services
• Regulating Services
• Cultural Services
• Supporting Services

• Provisioning Services

o Products obtained from Ecosystem

• Regulating Services
o Benefits obtained from regulation of Ecosystem processes

• Cultural Services

o -Non material benefits people obtain from ecosystem through spiritual

enrichment, cognitive development, reflection, recreation & aesthetic
experience

• Supporting Services

o Not used directly by people, but are necessary for production of all other
ecosystem services
o -Constituents of Human Well Being Basic:
o material for good life
o Health
o Good social relations
o Security
o Freedom of choice & actions.

CONVENTION ON BIODIVERSITY
 • Convention was opened for signature at the Rio Summit 1992 and came into force on
29 December I993

• Legally binding

• 3 main goals

1. Conservation of biological diversity

2. Sustainable use of components of biological diversity

3. Fair & equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources

• Secretariat of CBD — Montreal, Canada

• Conference of Parties (COP)

• Governing body of CBD

• Includes all parties who have ratified the convention (US has signed, but not ratified
CBD so it is not a party to CBD, but attends the meetings of CBD)

COP - Meets every 2 years

• COP 1 -1994 — Bahamas

• COP 11 — 2012 - Hyderabad

• COP 12 - 2014 — PyeongChang

• COP 13- 2016 —Cancun

• COP 14 - 2018 - Egypt

• COP 15 - 2020 - China

KYOTO PROTOCOL

• The UNFCC meetings are called as COP (Conference of parties).

• Kyoto was signed at the 3rd CoP of the UNFCC in Kyoto, Japan

• The protocol came into effect in 2005

• There are around 192 member countries where the major polluting countries like US
(never singed the protocol) and Canada (withdrew in 2012) are absent.
 • It is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations

• Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that commits state parties to

reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

• The first commitment period of Kyoto ended in 2012 (2008- 2012), post which the
second commitment period started called as the Doha amendment to the Kyoto Protocol
(2013 – 2020).

• During 1st commitment period-37 industrialized countries & the European community
committed to reduce GHG emissions to an average of 5% against 1990 levels

• During 2nd commitment period-Parties committed to reduce GHG emissions by at least

18% below 1990 levels in the eight-year period from 2013 to 2020.

• Russia & Japan have not signed the 2nd commitment period

• The Kyoto protocol divides countries into following groups called as annexes:

• Annex I countries:

• Parties included the industrialized countries that were members of OECD in 1992,
+plus countries with Economies in Transition (EIT), including the Russian Federation,
Baltic States, several Central & Eastern European States

• Annex II countries:

• Parties included OECD members of Annex I, but not the EIT parties, required to
provide financial resource to developing countries to undertake emission reduction
activities and should also promote development & transfer of environmentally friendly
technologies to EIT Parties & developing countries

• Non-Annex l Parties:

• Developing Countries

Annex A:

Greenhouse gases that come under KP

• Carbon dioxide (CO2)

• Methane (CH4)
 • Nitrous oxide (N2O)
• Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
• Perfluorocarbons (PFCs)
• Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)

Annex B

• Reduction commitments of Parties in Annex I, under 1st or 2nd commitment periods

• The countries that are bound to Kyoto are bound to meet their reduction targets by
domestic actions by the policies and domestic legal acts.
• But they can meet part of their targets through three “Market-based mechanisms”

KYOTO Mechanisms

1. International Emissions Trading

2. Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)

3. Joint Implementation (JI)

• Emissions allowed by a country/party are divided into "Assigned Amount Units"

(AAUs) Carbon credit.

1. International Emissions Trading

Emissions trading allows countries that have emission units (AAUs) to spare - emissions
permitted them but not "used" - to sell this excess capacity to countries that are over their
targets.

Thus, a new commodity was created in the form of emission reductions or removals.

Since carbon dioxide is the principal greenhouse gas, people speak simply of trading in carbon.
Carbon is now tracked and traded like any other commodity. This is known as the "Carbon
market”.

2. Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)

The mechanism allows a country with an emission-reduction commitment under the Kyoto
Protocol (Annex B Party) to implement an emission-reduction project in developing countries.
 Such projects can earn Certified Emission Reduction (CER) credits, each equivalent to one
ton of CO2, which can be counted towards meeting Kyoto targets.

3. Joint Implementation (JI)

The mechanism allows a country with an emission reduction or limitation commitment under
the Kyoto Protocol (Annex B Party) to earn Emission Reduction Units (ERUs) from an
emission-reduction or emission removal project in another Annex B Party, each equivalent to
one ton of CO2, which can be counted towards meeting its Kyoto target.

In short:

• Emissions Trading

o One party buying excess AAUs from another

• Clean Development Mechanism

o Annex B countries earning CERs for investing in cleaner technologies in

developing countries

• Joint Implantation

o One Annex B country earning ERU for investing in emission reduction projects
in another Annex B country

If a country does not comply with the Kyoto Protocol?

• If any country is not complying with the Kyoto mechanisms than the country is not allowed
to gain any credit through joint implementation.
• The country is also expected to pay a penalty of additional thirty percent over the difference
by which it exceeded the allowed amount of carbon credits.

To get more explanation, watch the lecture session on this topic.

PARIS AGREEMENT

• The Paris Agreement (French: Accord de Paris) is an agreement within the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
• Dealing with greenhouse-gas-emissions mitigation, adaptation, and finance, signed in
2016.

• The Paris Agreement builds upon the Convention and – for the first time – brings all
nations into a common cause to undertake ambitious efforts to combat climate change
and adapt to its effects, with enhanced support to assist developing countries to do so.

• The Paris Agreement opened for signature on 22 April 2016 – Earth Day – at UN
Headquarters in New York.

• It entered into force on 4 November 2016, 30 days after the so-called “double threshold”
(ratification by 55 countries that account for at least 55% of global emissions) had been
met.

• The Paris Agreement central aim is to strengthen the global response to the threat of
climate change by keeping a global temperature rise this century well below 2 degrees
Celsius above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature
increase even further to 1.5 degrees Celsius

IMPORTANT POINTS IN THE AGREEMENT

• Differentiation
• Long-Term Goal
• Mitigation
• Carbon Markets
• Transparency and Support
• Finance
• Adaptation
• Loss and Damage

INDC

• INDC stands for Intended Nationally Determined Contributions. Before several months
of Conference, Parties were asked to submit their INDC with plan,
policies, measures, actions etc. to Secretariat.
• Out of 188, 160 INDCs have been submitted to Secretariat till date.
 • INDC consists of the plan of a particular country to achieve the objective of the
convention.
Recently India has ratified the agreement which means
1. India will have to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions
33-35 per cent from the levels on 2005. This goal has to be
achieved by 2030.
2. Another tough commitment is reduction in emission intensity targets. To achieve that,
India will also need a 175-Gigawatt power production capacity from renewable energy
sources by 2025.
3. Mmassive increase in green cover. India will need to increase the forest cover by five
million hectares and also improve the quality of green cover of an equal measure.
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)
• Opened for signature in 1994 & came into force in 1996
• 1st and only legally binding international agreement to address the problem of
desertification
• COP — meets every 2 years
• Global Environmental Facility (though established in 1991) is now a financial
mechanism for UNCCD

INTERNATIONAL SOLAR ALLIANCE

• The International Solar Alliance (ISA) is an alliance of 121 countries initiated by India,
most of them being sunshine countries, which lie either completely or partly between the
Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn.
• •The primary objective of the alliance is to work for efficient exploitation of solar energy
to reduce dependence on fossil fuels.
• •The launch of the International Solar Alliance (ISA) was announced by Mr. Narendra
Modi, the Hon’ble Prime Minister of India and Mr. Francois Hollande, former Hon’ble
President of France on 30th November 2015, at the 21st session of United Nations Climate
Change Conference of the Parties (COP-21) in Paris, France.
• In conference, Mr. Modi referred the sunshine countries as Suryaputra ("Sons of the Sun").
• The alliance is a treaty-based inter-governmental organization. Countries that do not fall
within the Tropics can join the alliance and enjoy all benefits as other members, with the
exception of voting rights.
 • After the United Nations, it is the largest grouping of states world-wide.
• The framework agreement of the International Solar Alliance opened for signatures in
Marrakech, Morocco in November 2016, and 200 countries have joined.
• The interim Secretariat of ISA is in National Institute of Solar Energy Campus, Gurugram,
Haryana,

The vision and mission of ISA

Vision and mission of the International Solar Alliance is to provide a dedicated platform for
cooperation among solar resource rich countries where the global community, including
bilateral and multilateral organizations, corporates, industry, and other stakeholders, can make
a positive contribution to assist and help achieve the common goals of increasing the use of
solar energy in meeting energy needs of prospective ISA member countries in a safe,
convenient, affordable, equitable and sustainable manner.

The objectives are:

• The focus is on solar power utilization.
• The launching of such an alliance in Paris also sends a strong signal to the global
communities about the sincerity of the developing nations towards their concern about
climate change and to switch to a low-carbon growth path.

ISA - Key Focus Areas

1. Common Knowledge Platform
Knowledge platform for Sharing of policy development experiences, best practices,
online real time consultations, discussion groups, demo of best practices
2. Financing Solar with more than US$ 1000 Billion
• Developing synergy and earmarking low cost, long tenor financial resources from bilateral
and multilateral agencies, sharing of innovative financial mechanisms
3. Technology
• Joint R&D, networking of Centre of Excellence
4. Capacity Building
• Focussed training programmes and exchange of officials/ sector experts/ Students, interns
5. Projects and Programmes to create buyers’ market
• Scaling solar applications for agricultural use
• Affordable finances at scale
India’s Commitment to ISA
• India to host ISA Secretariat for 5 years (2016-21)
• Support of INR 175 crore (US $27 million) to ISA for creating corpus, building
infrastructure and recurring expenditure over 5-year duration from 2016-17 to 2020-21
• Rent free space in Surya Bhawan as per resolution passed by the Governing body of
NISE
• 5 acres of land in NISE campus (additional 5 acre under process)

A snap shot of main environmental movements in India

• Chipko Movement: It was started in 1973 in Chamoli District of Uttarakhand. It entailed

embracing the trees upon seeing an axe coming near the tree to cut it. Its main leader was
Shri Sunderlal Bahuguna.
• Appiko Movement: It was started in 1983 in the villages of Western Ghats in Uttar
Kannada region of Karnataka. The main purpose was to prevent commercial felling of trees.
It became a symbol for people’s power for their rights of natural resources with regard to
the state.
 • Tehri Dam Movement: This movement was spearheaded by Baba Amte against the
submergence of land by construction of dams,population displacement among other
environmental concerns. It started in 1970s and continued until a decade ago.
• Save Silent Valley Movement: It was started in Palakkad district of Kerala in 1973 to save
the Silent Valley Reserve Forest from being flooded by a hydroelectric project. The valley
was declared as Silent Valley National Park in 1985.
• Narmada Bachao Andolan: It was launched to protect the population from the adverse
effects of Narmada Valley Project, i.e., two mega projects, such as Sardar Sarovar Project
and Narmada Sagar Project in Madhya Pradesh. This interstate project involving Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra and Gujarat has been constructed on Narmada River. Its main leader
is Medha Patkar. The main issues involved are related to displacement of population and
submerging of forest land.
• Taj Trapezium Zone: Sulphur dioxide gas released by Mathura Oil Refinery and other
industries (combined with oxygen and moisture to form sulphuric acid) caused extensive
damage to Taj marbles. It corroded the marble and formed fungus also referred as ‘marble
cancer’. A lawyer Mahesh Chander Mehta filed a case before Supreme Court in 1984. The
court ruled in 1996 to relocate and shift certain industries

SOME IMPORTANT ABBREVATION

FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
HLCP - High-level Committee on Programmes
ILO -International Labour Organization
IOM- International Organization for Migration
IPCC -Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
ITU -International Telecommunication Union
NAPA -National Adaptation Programmes of Action
OHCHR -Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights
PAHO -Pan American Health Organization
RH/FP -reproductive health and family planning
SDCC -social dimensions of climate change
UNAIDS -Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS
UNDESA- United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs
UNDP -United Nations Development Programme
UNESCO -United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNFCCC -United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
UNFPA -United Nations Population Fund
UN-HABITAT- United Nations Human Settlements Programme
UNICEF -United Nations Children’s Fund
UNITAR -United Nations Institute for Training and Research
UNISDR -United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction
UNRISD -United Nations Research Institute for Social Development
UNU -United Nations University
WB -World Bank
WFP -United Nations World Food Programme
WHO -World Health Organization

Important days linked with

Environment
January 30 -World Leprosy Day

June 27 -International Diabetes Day

February 2 -World Wetlands Day

July 11 -World Population Day

February 25 -World Sustainable Energy Day

July 28 -World Nature Conservation Day
March 20 -World Sparrow’s Day

July 29- World Tiger Day

March 21- World Forestry Day

August 6 -Hiroshima Day

March 22 -World Water Day

October 3 -World Nature Day

April 22- World Earth Day

October 4 –World Animal Day

April 25 -World Malaria Day

December 2- World Pollution Prevention Day

May 31 -World No Tobacco Day

December 14 -World Energy Day

June 5 -World Environment Day

December 29- International Biodiversity Day

June 8 -World Oceans Day