Engineering Mathematics III (MTH 211)

Indira Mishra

IIIT Bhopal

July 24, 2024

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Solutions of Algebraic and
Transcendental Equations

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 Iterative Methods

Iterative Methods

The limitations of analytical methods for the solution of equations

have necessitated the use of iterative methods.

An iterative method begins with an approximate value of the root

which is generally obtained with the help of Intermediate value
property of the equation.

This initial approximation is then successively improved iteration

by iteration and this process stops when the desired level of
accuracy is achieved.

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 Iterative Methods

Iterative Methods

The iterative methods are divided into two categories: Bracketing

Methods and Open-end Methods.

Definition:
Bracketing methods begin with two initial approximations which
bracket the root.
Then the width of this bracket is systematically reduced until the
root is reached to desired accuracy.

The commonly used Bracketing methods are

1 Graphical method
2 Bisection method
3 Method of False posi

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 Iterative Methods

Iterative Methods: Open-end methods

Definition: Open-end methods are used on formulae which require a

single starting value or two starting values which do not necessarily
bracket the root.

The commonly used Open-end methods are

1 Secant method
2 Iteration method
3 Newton-Raphson Method
4 Muller’s method
5 Horner’s method

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 Iterative Methods

Bisection Method
The Bisection Method relies on the Intermediate Value Theorem.

If a continuous function f (x) changes sign over an interval [a, b],

then there exists at least one root in that interval.

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 Iterative Methods

Steps of the Bisection Method :

1 Choose an interval [a, b] such that f (a)f (b) < 0
2 Calculate the midpoint : m1 = (a + b)/2
3 Evaluate f (m1 ) :
- If f (m1 ) = 0, then m1 is the root.
- If f (a) · f (m1 ) < 0, set b = m1 .
- Otherwise, set a = m1 .
4 Continue the process until root is found to desired accuracy.
5 We obtain the bisection method
1
mk+1 = (ak + bk ), k = 0, 1, 2, · · ·
2
where a0 = a, and b0 = b.

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 Iterative Methods Bisection Method

Bisection Method : Observation

where
(ak , mk+1 ) , if f (ak ) f (mk+1 ) < 0
(ak+1 , bk+1 ) =
(mk+1 , bk ) , if f (mk+1 ) f (bk ) < 0

Since the new interval containing the root, is exactly half the
length of the previous one, the interval width is reduced by a
factor of 12 at each step.

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 Iterative Methods Bisection Method

At the end of the nth step, the new interval will therefore, be of
length (b − a)/2n .

If on repeating this process n times, the latest interval is as small

as given ε then (b − a)/2n ≤ ε.

This implies that n ≥ [log(b − a) − log ε]/ log 2. This gives the
number of iterations required for achieving an accuracy ε.

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 Iterative Methods Rate of convergence

Rate of convergence

A sequence of iterates xk is said to converge to the root α if

lim |xk − α| = 0.
k→∞

An iterative method is said to be of order p or has the rate of

convergence p, if p is the largest positive real number for which

|k+1 | ≤ c|k |p

where k = xk –α is the error in the kth iterate.

The constant c is called the asymptotic error constant.

As the error decreases with each step by a factor of 1/2, that is,
(n+1 /n = 1/2), the convergence in the bisection method is
linear.
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 Examples

Example : Find a root of the equation x3 − 4x − 9 = 0, using the

bisection method correct to three decimal places.

Solution : (a) Let f (x) = x3 − 4x − 9

Since f (2) < 0 and f (3) > 0, a root lies between 2 and 3 .
Therefore the first approximation of the root is
1
x1 = (2 + 3) = 2.5.
2
Thus f (x1 ) = (2.5)3 − 4(2.5) − 9 = −3.375, which is negative.

Consequently, the root lies between x1 and 3 .

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 Examples

Thus the second approximation to the root is

1
x2 = (x1 + 3) = 2.75
2
Then f (x2 ) = (2.75)3 − 4(2.75) − 9 = 0.7969 which is positive,
f (x1 ) < 0,
therefore, the root lies in (x1 , x2 ).

Thus the third approximation to the root is

1
x3 = (x1 + x2 ) = 2.625.
2

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 Examples

Then

f (x3 ) = (2.625)3 − 4(2.625) − 9 = −1.4121 i.e., − ve.

The root lies between (x2 , x3 ).

Thus the fourth approximation to the root is

1
x4 = (x2 + x3 ) = 2.6875, which is positive.
2

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 Examples

Repeating this process, the successive approximations are

x5 = 2.71875, x6 = 2.70313, x7 = 2.71094

x8 = 2.70703, x9 = 2.70508, x10 = 2.70605
x11 = 2.70654, x12 = 2.70642

Hence the root is 2.7064 .

Example : Using the bisection method, find an approximate root of

the equation sin x = 1/x, that lies between x = 1 and x = 1.5
(measured in radians). Carry out computations up to the 7th stage

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 Examples

Solution : Let f (x) = x sin x − 1. We know that 1r = 57.3◦ .

Since f (1) = 1 × sin(1) − 1 = sin (57.3◦ ) − 1 = −0.15849 and

f (1.5) = 1.5 × sin(1.5)r − 1 = 1.5 × sin(85.95)◦ − 1 = 0.49625

=⇒ a root lies between 1 and 1.5.

First approximation to the root is x1 = 12 (1 + 1.5) = 1.25

Next, f (x1 ) = (1.25) sin(1.25) − 1 = 1.25 sin (71.625◦ ) − 1 = 0.18627

and f (1) < 0.

=⇒ A root lies between 1 and x1 = 1.25.

Next, The second approximation to the root is
x2 = 21 (1 + 1.25) = 1.125.

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 Examples

Then f (x2 ) = 1.125 sin(1.125) − 1 = 1.125 sin(64.46)◦ − 1 = 0.01509

and f (1) < 0.

=⇒ A root lies between 1 and x2 = 1.125. Thus the third

approximation to the root is x3 = 21 (1 + 1.125) = 1.0625.

Then f (x3 ) = 1.0625 sin(1.0625) − 1 = 1.0625 sin(60.88) − 1 = −0.0718

< 0 and f (x2 ) > 0,

=⇒ the root lies between x3 = 1.0625 and x2 = 1.125.

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 Examples

Therefore the fourth approximation to the root is

x4 = 21 (1.0625 + 1.125) = 1.09375

Next, f (x4 ) = −0.02836 < 0 and f (x2 ) > 0, i.e., The root lies between
x4 = 1.09375 and x2 = 1.125.

Therefore, the fifth approximation to the root is

x5 = 12 (1.09375 + 1.125) = 1.10937

Next, f (x5 ) = −0.00664 < 0 and f (x2 ) > 0.

=⇒ The root lies between x5 = 1.10937 and x2 = 1.125.

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 Examples

Thus the sixth approximation to the root is

1
x6 = (1.10937 + 1.125) = 1.11719
2
Next, f (x6 ) = 0.00421 > 0. But f (x5 ) < 0.

Therefore the root lies between x5 = 1.10937 and x6 = 1.11719.

Thus the seventh approximation to the root is

1
x7 = (1.10937 + 1.11719) = 1.11328
2
Hence the desired approximation to the root is 1.11328 .

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 Examples

Exercise : Find the root of the equation cos x = xex using the
bisection method correct to four decimal places.

Exercise : Find a root of the following equations, using the bisection

method correct to three decimal places
(i) x3 − x2 − 1 = 0
(ii) x4 − x − 10 = 0.
(iii) x − cos x = 0.

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Thank You