Science

Quarter 2 – Module 1: Different Forms of EM Waves

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE (EM wave) or ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION is a wave

that is created as a result of vibrations between an electric field and magnetic field.
OERSTED’S DISCOVERY: A changing electric field produces magnetic field. A changing magnetic
field is therefore produced around a vibrating charge.
MICHAEL FARADAY, the changing magnetic field will produce electric field. A WAVE carries
ENERGY as it propagates, EM wave does the same, too.
EM WAVES can travel through anything even on vacuum, they do not need any medium to travel.
They travel in a vacuum at a speed of 3x108 m/s.
WAVE is a disturbance that transfers energy. Variation that transfers energy progressively but not
matter. Traveling disturbance that carries energy but not matter.
A. MECHANICAL WAVE requires a medium to propagate. Water waves, sound waves, and seismic
waves are common examples of mechanical waves.
B. TRANSVERSE WAVES, LONGITUDINAL WAVES, and SURFACE WAVES
ENERGY is the capacity to do work.
W = Fd F=IN
W = (IN)(im) d=Im
= INm F=Newton (N)
= IJ d=meters(m)

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
- arranged in lowest frequency to highest frequency.
- arrangement of EM waves
- RADIO WAVES, MICROWAVES, INFRARED, VISIBLE LIGHT, ULTRAVIOLET, X-
RAY, and GAMMA RAY.

Quarter 2 – Module 2: Practical Applications and Effects of

Electromagnetic Waves

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
RADIO WAVES
RADIO/TELEVISION SIGNALS
Radio and television signals are radio waves that are produced by making electrons vibrate. It has
a long wavelength capable to transmit sound and picture information over long distances.
GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS)
is a space-based navigation system that provides geographical position and time information
anywhere on or near the earth. It communicates with stations on the ground using radio waves.
MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING (MRI)
It is a medical imaging technique that uses powerful magnets, computer and radio waves to
make detailed pictures inside your body.

MICROWAVES
SATELLITE COMMUNICATION
Microwaves are used in satellite communications because it can penetrate the earth’s atmosphere.
Microwave’s signals are transmitted by an antenna to a satellite which amplifies and retransmits the
signal to an antenna in other parts of the world. This is how we communicate even from afar.
TERRESTRIAL COMMUNICATION
A cell phone is a radio transmitter and receiver that uses microwaves. Cellular phones depend on
overlapping network of cells. Each cell has its tower that receives and sends microwave signals.
COOKING
The microwaves in a microwave oven penetrate and agitate the water molecules within the food.
Thus, they create molecular friction which produces heat that will cook the food.
RADAR (RADIO DETECTION AND RANGING)
is a detection system used to determine the range, angle or velocity of objects. It can be used to
detect aircraft, ships, and the like.
INFRARED
REMOTE CONTROL (IR REMOTE)
uses LED lights to transmit signals to control devices. It emits pulses of invisible infrared light.
THERMAL IMAGING THROUGH INFRARED SCANNERS
Infrared scanner such as thermal imaging and thermal scanner are used to show the temperature
variation of the body. Our body radiates infrared and under infrared cameras, our images appear in a
variety of colors. The differences in color determine the differences in temperature. For example,
shades of blue and green indicate regions of colder temperature; and red and yellow indicate warmer
temperature.
NIGHT VISION GOGGLES
use thermal imaging technology to capture the infrared light being emitted as heat by objects in
the field of view.

VISIBLE LIGHT
Enables us to see things around us. It also gives light to the screen of most electronic devices.
Artificial Lights like flashlight, lamp etc. are any light source that produce light instead of natural
lights produced by the sun.
OPTICAL FIBERS
One use of optical fibers in medicine is ENDOSCOPE, a flexible tube with tiny camera that is
used to observe the internal parts of the body.

ULTRAVIOLET
Ultraviolet B (UVB) radiation in sunlight interact with a protein (7-DHC) in the skin, converting
it into vitamin D3, the active form of vitamin D, which is essential for maintaining healthy bones and
teeth.
SECURITY MARKINGS
Sensitive documents such as credit cards, banknotes, and passports include a UV watermark that
is only seen under UV emitting light.
STERILIZATION OF WATER IN DRINKING FOUNTAINS
Ultraviolet light disinfection is one water treatment system that can be used to remove most
forms of microbiological contamination from water.
FLUORESCENCE
Some washing powder contains fluorescent chemicals which glow in sunlight. This makes your
shirt look whiter than white in daylight.

X-RAY
DIAGNOSING BONE FRACTURES
X-rays are produced using an X-ray tube. They are emitted when fast moving electrons hit a metal
target. Long wavelength X-rays can penetrate the flesh but not the bones that’s why it is used in
diagnosing bone fractures.
AIRPORT SECURITY SCANNER
The short wavelength X-rays can penetrate through metals which can be used in airport security
scanner.

GAMMA RAY
TREAT TUMORS AND CANCER THROUGH THE PROCESS CALLED RADIOTHERAPY.
The high-energy rays of gamma destroys cancer cells in the area where it is given. Gamma rays
sterilize surgical instruments because they easily penetrate through materials and the energy
they release kills bacteria and other microorganisms.

Effects of Electromagnetic (EM) radiation on living things and the environment

The effect of EM radiation on organisms and environment depends on how much energy it
carries. Radiation can be NON-IONIZING AND IONIZING. Non-ionizing radiation does not have
enough energy to remove electrons from atoms and molecules. Radio waves, microwaves, infrared,
visible light and ultraviolet are nonionizing radiation. We are exposed to low levels of non-ionizing
radiation every day. When the exposure is intense and direct, it may result in damage to tissue due to
heat. Right amount of non-ionizing radiation like UV rays maintain the proper mechanism of
ecosystem.
 High-energy EM waves like x-rays and gamma rays are considered as ionizing radiation. Like
the non-ionizing radiation, we are also exposed to low levels of ionizing radiation that comes from the
atmosphere. This means that the usual amount of ionizing radiation from natural sources absorbed by
our bodies is small. Our main exposure to ionizing radiation comes from manmade sources through the
use of diagnostic medical exams. Excessive exposure to these radiations can alter molecules within the
cells and may cause eventual harm such as skin or tissue damage, cancer and death. When handled
improperly, radioactive pollution may occur, where the air, soil and water will be contaminated. This
pollution may eventually makes its way up to the food chain where all forms of life may be affected.

Quarter 2 – Module 3: Qualitative Characteristics of Images

Reflection of Light in Mirrors
The laws of reflection state that:
1. the incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal line to the reflecting surface all lie in the same
plane; and
2. the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

REFLECTION IN PLANE MIRROR

When light hits an object, every part of that object reflects light in all direction. Some of the reflected
light reaches our eyes. Thus, we can see an object.
Characteristics of images formed by a plane mirror:
1. Image is virtual;
2. Same size as the object;
3. Same orientation as the object; and
4. Same distance from the mirror as the object.

Types of Reflection of Light

a. Specular/Regular reflection. It is defined as light reflected from a smooth surface at a definite
angle.
b. Diffused/Irregular Reflection. It is produced by rough surfaces that tend to reflect light in all
directions

The phenomenon by which a ray of light changes the direction of propagation when it strikes a
boundary between different media through which it cannot pass is described as the REFLECTION
OF LIGHT. If the bundle of light rays is incident upon a smooth surface, then the light rays reflect
and remain concentrated in a bundle upon leaving the surface. On the other hand, if the surface is
microscopically rough, the light rays will reflect and diffuse in many different directions.
 Smooth Rough
MIRROR LEFT-RIGHT REVERSAL
That is, if you raise your left hand, you will notice that the image raises what would seem to be its
right hand. If you raise your right hand, the image raises what would seem to be its left hand. This is
often termed LEFT-RIGHT REVERSAL.
The letters in front of the ambulance are written laterally. This is because when seen in rear view
mirror by another vehicle, the image of the word would get inverted, letting the driver read the word
properly so that he can provide way to the ambulance.

Reflection on Spherical Mirrors

Most curved mirrors are called spherical mirrors because their shape follows the surface of a sphere.
Two Kinds of Spherical Mirrors:

1. The Concave Mirror

- It reflects light inward to one focal point. It is used to focus light.
- Also known as converging mirror has a reflecting surface that is recessed inward (away from the
incident light).

2. The Convex Mirror

- Also known diverging mirror is a curved mirror in which the reflective surface bulges towards the
light source.
- Convex mirrors reflect light outwards; therefore they are not used to focus light.

There are two types of images formed by reflecting surfaces

REAL IMAGE VIRTUAL IMAGE

1. A real image is formed when light rays 1. A virtual image is formed when light rays do
actually meet after reflection. not actually intersect after reflection, but they
2. A real image can be formed on a screen. appear to diverge from the mirror.
3. A real image is inverted with respect to the 2. A virtual image cannot be formed on a screen.
object. 3. A virtual image is erect with respect to the
e.g. The image of a distance object formed by a object.
concave mirror. e.g. The image of an object formed by a convex
mirror.

Ray Diagram and Image Formation by Plane Mirror

A plane mirror makes an image of objects in front of the mirror; the image appears to be behind the
plane in which the mirror lies. An image is formed by reflection when two or more reflected rays of a
point meet at a single point. The image is formed at the point of intersection of the reflected rays.

Image formation by Plane Mirror

Location Behind the mirror
Orientation Upright
Size Same as the object
Type Virtual

Images Formed by Curved Mirrors

In locating the image formed in curved mirror graphically, six important points are considered. The
following important points are enumerated below.
CENTER OF CURVATURE, C – the center of the sphere whose surface forms the curved mirror
FOCAL POINT, F – where the light rays meet
VERTEX, V – the point where the principal axis meets the mirror
PRINCIPAL AXIS – the straight line passing through the center of curvature to the mirror
FOCAL LENGTH, f – the distance from the focal point to the vertex
RADIUS OF CURVATURE, R – the distance from the vertex to the center of the curvature

Since the focal point is the midpoint of the line

segment adjoining the vertex and the center of
curvature, the focal length would be one-half the
radius of curvature
Quarter 2 – Module 4: Uses of Mirrors and Lenses
A MIRROR is a reflective surface, made of glass coated with metals, which bounces off light that
strikes its surface and form a visual representation or projection of an object called IMAGE.

Applications of Concave and Convex Mirrors

A mirror is not just flat and plane, a mirror can be curved; convex and concave mirrors. These mirrors
are collectively called SPHERICAL MIRRORS.

Concave mirror, also known as a converging mirror has reflecting surface which collects light
inward and focus them to one focal point, this type of mirror is what the dentist used in magnifying the
area behind your teeth to check on cavities and tooth decay.

Convex mirror, also known as diverging mirror, is another type of spherical mirror which has the
outer bulging surface that reflects light instead of the inner one. It has a wider view field compared to a
concave mirror. This makes bigger objects appear to be smaller than their original form. A car’s side
mirrors enable the driver and its passenger to see the vehicles behind. Also, while in mall supermarkets
and in some convenience stores, you may notice mirrors hanging on corners from which you can see
your reflection and those of other people. These are just some of the applications of convex mirrors.

Lenses come also in two types, namely: convex (converging) and concave (diverging) lenses. When
these lenses are combined, the produced lens is called MENISCUS LENS. This type has one concave
and one convex lens on opposite sides.

Uses of Convex Lenses

Sometimes called a POSITIVE LENS, a CONVEX LENS is characterized by its bulging surfaces
that is directed outward making it thicker at the center than on its edges. It is also known as
CONVERGING LENS because as light passes through it, its rays bend inward and converge at a spot
located beyond the lens known as the FOCAL POINT causing the object behind the lens to magnify or
to appear bigger than its actual size. Image produced by convex lenses can be a virtual or real image.
If both sides of the lens are curved inward, then that type of convex lens is called BICONVEX
typically seen in magnifying glasses. If only one side of the lens is curved inward and the other has a
flat surface, it is called as PLANO-CONVEX.
 BICONVEX PLANO-CONVEX

Microscopes
Among the applications in which convex lenses are used is found in compound microscopes. A
MICROSCOPE is an instrument that is used in viewing small objects and microorganisms that are
impossible for our unaided eyes to see. It uses lenses that can magnify objects100x or even more than a
thousand times.
There are many types of microscopes, among this is the most commonly used in school laboratories;
light microscope. This type of microscope uses at least two convex lenses, one on the eyepiece near the
observer’s eye and the other one is the objective lens located near the object being observed.

CAMERA LENSES
DSLR camera uses convex lenses where light rays pass through. These light rays are directed towards
the slanted mirror located near the camera shutter, and then reflected from a translucent screen
projected to another mirror until it reaches the viewer’s eye. Through this, the photographer will be
able to see what he is capturing. The image formed by the passing of light rays, from the object through
the lens directing to the film of the camera, is affected by the angle of the light entry. The closer the
lens to the object, the farther the beams converge. The farther the object from the lens, the shorter the
distance the light beams converge. That is how the camera works. Though it seems complicated, the
entire process is just seconds-long.

The Human Eye is a Natural Camera

Our EYES are our natural cameras. Some of the basic and fundamental parts of a camera functions just
like how the different parts of our eyes work. Among these are the lens, the aperture, iris diaphragm,
shutter, and photographic film. The lens, just like the cornea of our eyes gathers and bends light rays
inwardly to the camera. The iris diaphragm controls the size of the aperture (opening) to regulate the
light that enters. This duo resembles the iris and the pupil of our eyes. The shutter opens and shuts the
aperture to avoid too much light exposure thus helping the photographic film capture a beautiful image
similar to the work done by the eyelids and the retina.

CONCAVE LENS
Contrary to concave lens, CONVEX LENS has thicker edges curving towards the center, causing light
to diverge, hence it is called as the DIVERGING LENS. It spreads out light, producing virtual image,
making object to appear smaller and farther than the way it actually is. Although CONVEX LENSES
can magnify object, it still cannot transfer light accurately that’s why an object would appear blurry,
so makers of binoculars and telescopes add concave lens to these instruments in order to focus objects
that are too far for our eyes to see.

CONCAVE LENSES AND MYOPIA (NEARSIGHTEDNESS) CORRECTION

Concave lenses, such as eyeglasses and contact lenses are used in correcting MYOPIA
(NEARSIGHTEDNESS). Myopia is a condition in which light rays focus in front of the eye’s retina
instead of, on the retina. The result of this condition is a makes distant object to appear blurry, while
near objects appear normal.

MENISCUS LENSES AND HYPEROPIA (FARSIGHTEDNESS) CORRECTION

HYPEROPIA is the eye condition that enables someone to see distant object clearly but makes nearby
object seem blurry. This condition is due to the inability one’s eyes to focus on objects closer to the
eyes. A person with hyperopia has a shortened eyeball, in which the retina lies closer than usual to the
cornea and lens. This disorder leads to the formation of the image nearby object to form beyond retina.
Hyperopia is the opposite of myopia, another vision problem that needs correction. To correct
hyperopia, converging meniscus converging lens is used. The converging meniscus lens converge light
before it enters the eye eventually reducing the image distance.

Quarter 2 – Module 5: Simple Electric Motor and Generator

A GENERATOR converts Mechanical Energy to Electrical Energy. It produces an electric current

when a coil of wire is wrapped around an iron core and rotated near a magnet.
An ELECTRIC GENERATOR is a device that converts mechanical energy obtained from an
external source into electrical energy as the output.

PRINCIPLE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION IN GENERATOR

 Modern generators can be attributed to MICHAEL FARADAY’s principle of
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION. Faraday discovered that when a conductor moves in a
magnetic field, electrical charges could be created and directed to create a flow of current.
 At its most basic, an electrical generator is nothing more than an electromagnet – moving wire near
a magnet to direct the flow of electricity. It’s similar to how a pump pushes water through a pipe.
 It is important to understand that a generator does not actually “create” electrical energy. Instead, it
uses the mechanical energy supplied to it to force the movement of electric charges present in the wire
of its windings through an external electric circuit.
 This flow of electric charges constitutes the output electric current supplied by the generator. This
mechanism can be understood by considering the generator to be similar to a water pump, which causes
the flow of water but does not actually create the water flowing through it.

How water, wind, and steam make electricity through generator?

1. Water – Hydropower plants capture the energy of falling water to generate electricity. A turbine
converts the kinetic energy of the falling water into mechanical energy. Then a generator converts the
mechanical energy from the turbine into electrical energy.
2. Wind - The wind turns the blades of the windmill, known as the turbine, which, in turn, spins the
shaft that turns the coil inside the magnet, known as the generator, and it produces the electricity.
3. Fossil Fuel/Steam/Heat - Oil is burned to heat water which makes steam. Steam moves the turbine
blades that turn a shaft inside the generator. The shaft spins the coil of wire inside a magnet in the
generator that produces a current of electricity.

What are the main components of a DC generator?

A DC generator is an electrical machine which converts mechanical energy into direct current
electricity.
1. Stator - The main function of the stator is to provide magnetic fields where the coil spins. A stator
includes two magnets with opposite polarity facing each other. These magnets are located to fit in the
region of the rotor.
2. Rotor - A rotor in a DC machine includes slotted iron laminations with slots that are stacked to
shape a cylindrical armature core. The function of the lamination is to decrease the loss caused due to
“Eddy Current”.
3. Commutator - A commutator works like a rectifier that changes AC voltage to DC voltage within
the armature winding. It is designed with a copper segment, and each copper segment is protected from
each other with the help of mica sheets. It is located on the shaft of the machine. Hydraulic turbine and
electrical generator,
4. Brushes – The Brushes are in constant contact with the commutator and are attached to the wires
leading from the generator. The commutator spins while the brushes remain stationary, transferring
current from the commutator.
5. Shaft – The shaft transfers mechanical energy to the generator and turns the coil through the
magnetic field. The shaft may be turned by a turbine that operates with water, steam or air, or by other
means.
Difference between the AC Generator and the DC Generator
- AC generator produces AC electrical power whereas DC generator produces DC electrical power
- In DC generator the current flows in one direction whereas in the AC generators current reverses
periodically.
- In DC generator split rings are used they wear out quickly in AC generator slip rings are used, so they
have high efficiency.
- AC generators are used for small domestic applications whereas DC generators used to power large
motors.

What are the top Uses of Generator?

- Back -Up power for your house
- Stand-by power for businesses
- Temporary power in a construction site
- Permanent power to a farm
- Helping main source of electricity to supply the total power required
- Pop concerts, events, and exhibitions
- Caravans/Camping in remote locations Outdoor catering facilities

ELECTRIC MOTOR
 Anything that changes electricity into motion, meaning electrical energy into mechanical energy is
called an electric motor.

Basic Principles
 Danish physicist HANS CHRISTIAN ØRSTED began a new scientific era when he discovered
that electricity and magnetism are linked. He showed by experiment that an electric current flowing
through a wire could move a nearby magnet. The discovery of ELECTROMAGNETISM set the
stage for the eventual development of our modern technology-based world.

How do Electric Motors work?

 Motors work through the principles of ELECTROMAGNETISM. If you run electricity through a
wire, it creates a magnetic field. If you coil the wire around a rod and run electricity through the wire,
it creates a magnetic field around the rod. One end of the rod will have a north magnetic pole and the
other will have a south pole. Opposite poles attract one another, like poles repel. When you surround
that rod with other magnets, the rod will rotate from the attractive and repulsive forces.

What are the parts of an electric motor?

Electric motor designs can vary quite a lot, though in general they have three main parts: a rotor, a
stator and a commutator. These three parts use the attractive and repulsive forces of
electromagnetism, causing the motor to spin continually as long as it receives a steady flow of electric
current.

A. THE STATOR
Every electric motor has two essential parts; one stationary, and one that rotates. The stationary part
is the stator. Though configurations vary, the stator is most often a permanent magnet or row of
magnets lining the edge of the motor casing, which is usually a round plastic drum.

B. THE ROTOR
Inserted into the stator is the rotor, usually consisting of copper wire wound into a coil around an axle.
When electric current flows through the coil, the resulting magnetic field pushes against the field
created by the stator, and makes the axle spin.

C. THE COMMUTATOR
1. BASICS – An electric motor has another important component, the commutator, which sits at one
end of the coil. It is a metal ring divided into two halves. It reverses the electrical current in the coil
each time the coil rotates half a turn. The commutator periodically reverses the current between the
rotor and the external circuit, or the battery. This ensures that the ends of coils do not move in opposite
directions, and ensures that the axle spins in one direction.
2. MAGNETIC POLES – BRUSHES AND TERMINALS. At one end of the motor are the brushes
and the terminals. They are at the opposite end from where the rotor exits the motor casing. The
brushes send electrical current to the commutator and are typically made of graphite. The terminals
are the locations where the battery attaches to the motor and sends the currents to spin the rotor.
Difference between the AC Motor and the DC Motor
- In the AC Motor, the source of power is AC mains supply whereas in DC motor power is obtained
from batteries.
- In AC motors no commutators and brushes are used whereas in DC motors these play an important
part in their operation.
- In AC motors the armature is stationary and the magnetic field rotates whereas in DC motors it is vice
versa.
- AC motors are suitable for large industrial applications whereas DC motors are suitable for domestic
applications.

APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRIC MOTOR

Electric motors are extremely important in modern-day life. They are used in food processors, vacuum
cleaners, dishwashers, computer printers, fax machines, video recorders, machine tools, printing
presses, automobiles, subway systems, sewage treatment plants, and water pumping stations, to
mention only a few applications.

Comparison of Motor and Generator

A motor and generator perform opposite functions, but their fundamental structure is the same. Their
structure is a “coil mounted on an axle within a magnetic field”. An electric motor is used to
produce rotational motion from electrical supply. In a motor, an electric current is passed through the
coil. The coil then creates a magnetic field that interacts with the already existing magnetic field. This
interaction forces the coil to rotate.

For a motor, the input energy is electrical energy and the useful output energy is mechanical
energy.
The generator is used to produce an electric current from rotational motion (on large scale power
stations a “turbine” is used to provide this rotation). In a generator, the rotation causes the coil to
rotate inside the magnetic field. This induces an alternating current in the coil.

For generator the input energy is mechanical energy and the useful output energy is electrical
energy.
In power stations, it is usually the magnet which is attached to the axel and rotates with the coils
surrounding the magnet. However, the end result is the same. The motor and the generator are almost
similar from the construction point of view, as both have stator and rotor.

The differences between Motor and Generator are as follows:

- The motor converts electric energy into mechanical energy, whereas, generator does the opposite.
- Electricity is used in the motor, but the generator produces the electricity.
- An example of motor is an electric car or bike where electric current is supplied to the machine or
device and it gets converted to mechanical motion and, as a result, the car or bike moves. The example
of generator is that in power stations, the turbine is used as a device which converts mechanical energy
from the force of water falling from the dam to generate electric energy.