Informal Fallacies The term “fallacy” is from the Latin fallo which means “I de- ceive.” That is why it has come to mean a deceptive argument, that is, an argument that seems to be correct but is actually in. correct. A fallacy may be formal when the deception is due to viola- tions of the antecedent-consequent relationship or the rules of the syllogism, both categorical and hypothetical. But a fallacy may also be non-formal when the deception is due to the material con- tent of the argument. It is this latter sense that is the object of our study now, ‘We shall follow substantially the Aristotelian classification of fallacies. Aristotle divides them into two: verbal and non-verbal, Verbal Fallacies These are due to the misuse of a word or a phrase which camouflage the real intent of the argument, Among these fallacies are; 1, Equivocation — is the error of using the same ward or phrase with different meanings in the same argument, Example: “Boy” rhymes with “toy”; but you have a boy; therefore you have a toy. “Boy” and “toy” are words and differ from the existential boy and toy. a 2. Amphiboly — is lack of verbal clarity because of a gram- matical error. This usually happens when the antecedents of pronouns are vague or when participles are misplaced. Examples: 1. My mother told your mother that she should go to the Real Estate Division of the SSS. To whom does “she” refer? 2, To be repaired: the rocking chair of an old lady with two broken legs. Whose iegs? The rocking chair's or the old lady's? . € ition — is the error which states that what is true : phage of a whole is true of the whole thing.But not all part-to-whole inferences are fallacious. For ex. ample: Each student in that class has superior intelligence; hence all students in that class have superior intelligence, 4. Division — is the converse of composition. It states that what is true of the whole is true of the parts of the whole, Example: The family of Santiago is very musical; therefore Consolacion, the eldest daughter, must be mu- sically inclined. Non-Verbal Fallacies 1. Accident — is the fallacy that equates or confuses substance with accident. Example: All men are equal; but Johnny’s hair is blond while that of Cesar is jet black; therefore .not all men are equal. . Confusion of Absolute and Qualified Statements — is the fallacy that considers as (a) totally true or false what is true or false of particular instances only, and (b) what is true or false of particular instances only as true or false of all its instances. Examples: a) The Japanese are technologically oriented; therefore, Yokoshita, a Japanese, is a tech- nology expert. b) Charito is a Pampaguefia and she is a good cook; therefore all Pampanguefias are good cooks. 3. Ignoratio Elenchi — is the fallacy that proves some other conclusion rather than the one at issue. It is often referred to as “missing the point” or “irrelevant conclusion” or “gene tic fallacy” (which concentrates on the source rather than the product of the source). This fallacy has different forms, among which are: a. Argumentum ad hominem (attack against the man) — The attack is levelled against the man, not against his argument. Example: I saw and heard the candidate on TV last night. I shall not vote for him because he has lost his good looks. .(oque means “you're another” Example: You say I'm not : Pretty? Look a talking. b, Irrelevant Function or Goals — nas or program a goal it was not intended to achieve. Example: The SWA should sell NGA rice to the public. c. Emotional Appeals, such as: ascribes to a certain plan (1) Appeal to Pity (Argumentum ad Misericordiam) Brample: Vote for Lim » Earn be haw sevady et 0 eartache in the campaign, (2) Appeal to the People (Arguméntum ad Populum) Example; A rabble rouser: “All Muslims to arms! A Muslim earlier today was killed by a Christian!” (8) Appeal to Shame (Argumentum ad Veracundiam) Example: How dare you doubt the word on poetry of the great science genius Einstein? (A) Appeal to Force (Argumentim ad Baculum) Example: Agree with me or F shall hit you with this stick. (5) Appeal to Pride Example: Of course, the painting is beautiful I aid it, didn't P A. Begging the Question —*is the fallacy of using the conclu- . sion as a premise and using it to prove the same conclusion. It bas several forms: a. The Vicious Circle Example: Why are you standing? Because I am not sitting. b. Both Premise and Conclusion Argument tea: 1) This is a flawless gem because it is with- Bxemples: 1) out blemish. 2) He is & person of impeccable character because he is irreproachable. 4c. Question-Begging Expressions Examples: 1) The Dean of Men addressing the Council for Student Affairs convened to pass judg- ment on a student: “Let us deliberate on. whether this troublemaker with border- line grades should be expelled or suspend- ed.” Judgment has already been p&ssed with the use of such an expressicn. 2) It is clearly evident that Nicky is a liar. Such terms as “it was clearly evident,” “there is no question that,” “certainly,” “surely,” and “of course” are question- begging in the sense that they intend to persuade by exuding confidence although usually they are unnecessary. d. The Loaded Question or Many Questions Example: Do you still cheat on your wife? This is actually equivalent to two questions: (1) Did you ever cheat on your wife? and (2) Are you still cheating on her? . False Cause — The Aristotelian fallacy is what the term says: the reason assumed for the thesis is not really the rea- son and, therefore, the conclusion is absurd. The Folks Arts Center is,established by the First Lady fo please the Americans, (As you can see, this is a preposterous deduction.) Later logicians give a wider scope to this fallacy. They ascribe it to any conf of causal with non-casual relation- ship like temporal causes. Example: She was born ahead of you; therefore she is your mother. . Consequent — is the error we are already familiar with: when it infers that because the consequent is true, the ante- cedent is true, and that because the antecedent is false, the consequent is false. . :Nonr-Aristotellan Fallacies 1, Non Sequitur — is the name of the fallacy wherein proposi- tions simulate a syllogism with the It the - sion does not follow, 4 Ue ee Example: Movie stars are people; but Gina wants to be a movie star; therefore she is going to Hollywood. |. Suppressing the Facts — is the error that occurs when only favorable or unfavorable facts are given. Examples are lives of saints which picture them as beings who never were men of flesh and blood; also character assassinations of political opponents. 3. Argument from Silence — is the fallacy which considers that because nobody speaks about something or because a fact is not in books or in newspapers, it did not happen. 4. Illicit Generalization — is the fallacy that draws a conelu- sion from insufficient evidence. We took this up in the chapter ‘on induction. 5, False Assumption — is the fallacy which means use of a false unexpressed premise to draw a conclusion. Example; You cannot see God; ample: ferefore there is no God. ‘This rests on the false unexpressed premise that you must have sensible evidence for the existence of something. 6g. Unwarranted Asrumption — has several forms, some of which we shall consider here: Confusing Necessary snd Sufficient Condition — is, the & coy bwhich considers “necessary” and “sufficient? as equivalent terms. , Exercise is necessary tor good health; Bxample: iS sufficient for good health. w. -Asrumption of Irreversible Order — is one that assumes * that if A is By B cannot be A. But it forgets that there ine instances where reciprocity is involved, as in the rat- ‘or of feelings: I love you and you love me.c. Argument of the Beard — has its origin from the prac. tice of ancient philosophers who used to discuss the num- ber of hairs in a beard. It has several forms, two of which are: 1) Small differences are always not important. Example: Usher: The auditorium is SRO. There is no. available space. Latecomer: Please let me in. I'm alone. T'm sure I can squeeze in, 2) Small differences are unimportant; therefore all differences are unnoticeable. Example: The angle is ninety degrees. Anothert two de- grees will not be noticed.