UNIT-4

CHEMICAL Technology
Different types of basic Chemical Industrial Equipment’s and Devices Used in
chemical industries are as below…!

1. Pumps
2. Valves
3. Reactors
4. Pressure Vessels (Storage Tanks)
5. Distillation Columns
6. Adsorption and Dehydration Column
7. Dryer
8. Vacuum Ejector
9. Compressors
10. Cooling Tower
11. Boiler
12. Reboiler, Condenser and Heat Exchangers
13. Nitrogen Plant
14. Strainer
15. Fire Extinguishers & Many more…!
Different types of chemical reactors :
 i. Batch Chemical Reactors.
 ii. Semi-batch Chemical Reactors.
 iii. Continuous Flow Chemical Reactors with sub category such as plug flow
reactor and continuous-stirred tank reactors.
 a. Gas-solid.
 b. Liquid-solid.
 c. Gas-liquid-solid.
 d. Gas-liquid Phase.

What is Reactor | Define a chemical

reactor
A reactor is a process vessel design to add chemicals
and conduct chemical reactions. The chemical reactor
consists of different parts Chemical reactors are
designed to give maximum yield in a chemical
reaction. Different types of reactions are being carried
out in chemical reactors.
Types of Reactor | Types of Chemical
Reactors
There are several types of reactors that are being
used in Chemical industry. Selection criteria i.e. when
to use which type of reactor will be discussed in the
later part of the article. The basic types of reactor are
as follows

1. Batch Reactor
2. CSTR reactor – Continuous stirred tank
reactor
3. PFR – Plug flow reactor
4. Semibatch reactor
5. Nuclear Reactor
these are the basic types of chemical reactor, Now let
us discussed all the reactos in details.

1. Batch Reactor

A batch reactor is the simplest type of reactor that

consists of agitator and had a provision to apply
utilities to heat ot cool the reaction mass. This is a
closed system in which there is no flow of material
entering or exiting the system. In the batch reactor,
raw materials are charged into the reactor and allow
to get agitation. Jackets are provided to the batch
reactors where we can apply utilities to heat or cool
the reaction mass according to the process
requirement. These are mostly used in the
pharmaceutical industry and also prepare solution i.e
dosing chemicals etc. Batch reactors are used for
chemical preparation, fermentation, crystallization
and etc.

Batch Reactor Application – Batch reactors are

used to prepare chemicals for dosing in the reaction.
In caustic chlorine industry, batch of sodium sulfite is
prepared that is used to dose in brine to remove free
chlorine is dichlorination outlet

We had also posted detailed article on types of

distillation. So do check out that also.

2. Continuous stirred tank reaction

(CSTR)
Continuous stirred tank reactor in another type of
reactor also known as back mix reactor, mixed flow
reactor (MFR), or continuous-flow stirred-tank
reactor (CFSTR) is widely used in the chemical
industry and had various applications. CSTR reactors
are batch reactors with open systems and have an
impeller equipped with it to provide agitation for
proper mixing or reactor content. these reactors allow
adding continuous raw material into the reactor and
continuous removal of product. CSTR reactor is
considered an idealized agitated tank reactor and use
to model operation variables required to achieve a
specified output.

CSTR Application – CSTR reactors are used in

chemical industries, especially in continuous plant

3. PFR – Plug Flow reactor

 Plu
g Slow reactor
PFR stands for Plug flow reactor, and also known as a
continuous tubular reactor (CTR) is another type of
reactor where one or more chemicals as a fluid
injected or pumped through a pipe or tube. These
types of reactors are known as plug flow or tubular
reactors as this reactor had a tube-like design and the
reaction take place The chemical reaction proceeds
as the reagents travel through the PFR. In this type of
reactor, the changing reaction rate creates
a gradient with respect to the distance traversed; at
the inlet, to the PFR the rate is very high, but as the
concentrations of the reagents decrease and the
concentration of the product(s) increases the reaction
rate slows.

4. Semibatch reactor
A semi-batch reactor is operated with both continuous
and batch inputs and outputs. These types are
reactors are a combination of batch and continuous
reactors. In semi-batch reactors, raw material and
reactants are charged and other chemicals are added
slowly in the process along with time procedure.
Agitator provides and agitation to the reaction mass
will help to achieve uniform composition and
temperature throughout the reactor. Semibatch
reacts provides the option/flexibility to add chemicals
in the continuous process reaction. Sebi batch
reactors had jackets also in which utilities can be
used to provide heating and cooling to the reaction
mass according to the chemical process requirement.

Don’t forget to check pump performance curve if you

want to learn more about pumps.

5. Nuclear Reactor

Source – www.energy.gov
Nuclear reactors are the reactors designed to perform
nuclear fission reactions i.e. splitting of atom and
release energy. Uranium such as uranium-
235 or plutonium-239 is used as a nuclear fuel.
These are designed to sustain the controlled nuclear
chain reactions. These Nuclear reactors are used in
nuclear power stations to generate electricity. In the
nuclear reactor, the fuel is reacted and converted into
uranium dioxide powder and then pellets are made by
pressing them and process them to make hard
ceramic material. The pellets are then stacked into
the tubes called fuel rods. The number of fuel rods
are depends on the capacity of the reactor. In the
reactor vessel, Control rods made up of different
material has properties to reduce the reaction are
used to control the reaction. There are inserted into
the core of the reactor to reduce the rate of reaction
or withdrawn to increase it.

Application of Nuclear Reactors – Nuclear reactors

are used in a nuclear power stations.

What is reactor and its types?

A reactor is a process vessel in which raw materials
are added and a reaction can be conducted. There
are different types of reactors use in different types of
industries like pharmaceutical industries, color and
dyes industries, petrochemical industries, fine
chemical industries, and many more.

What are the 4 types of nuclear

reactors?
Nuclear reactors are of different types listed below
1. Fast neutron reactor (FNR)
2. Pressurized water reactor (PWR)
3. Advanced gas-cooled reactor (AGR)
4. Boiling water reactor (BWR)
5. Light water graphite-moderated reactor (LWGR)
What is a PFR?
PFR is a type of chemical reactor, which stands for a
Plug flow reactor.

What is an SSR reactor?

Reactors are of different MOC i.e. Material of
construction which is SSR Stainless steel reactor and
GLR – Glass lined reactor.

Wrapping Up
This was the detailed article on types of
reactors used in chemical industries or to be precise,
types of chemical reactor. If you have any doubt
related to the reactor topic or in case you want some
more details about the reactors i.e. batch reactor,
CSTR reactor, etc then feel free to use the comment
section, We will help you with that. We post articles
related to chemical engineering and industrial safety,
in meantime do read NFPA Diamond Diagram. Till
then keep learning and exploring the world of the
chemical world.
Extruders
Extruders are used to produce plastic products such as flexible pipes and
plastic sheets. They can also be used to mix materials. For more
information on mixing applications, see the Mixers section of the
encyclopedia. Each types of extruders in this article is described by
general information, equipment design, usage examples, and
advantages/disadvantages.
 (Courtesy of
Welex, Inc., Blue Bell, PA)
Table of Contents

 Single Screw

 Twin Screw

 Multi Screw
 Sheet

 Acknowledgements

 References

 Developers

Polymer Product Manufacturing Steps

Extrusion is one of the ways you can process the polymer in the
manufacture of polymer products:

1. Polymer Production
2. Polymer Processing, which could include:
o Blow Molding
o Blown Film
o Calendering
o Extrusion
 o Fiber Spinning
o Injection Molding
o Powder Coating
o Reactive Polymer Processing
o Rotational Molding
o Thermoforming
3. Quality Control

Single Screw
Material flow in single screw extruders is driven by the properties of the
material. Depending on the material being fed, a different screw can be
used to handle the new material. Single screw extruders are really popular
and can handle some of the toughest materials. The single screw extruder
pictured below comes with a flame-hardened screw for handling abrasion
and corrosion.

(Courtesy of
Milacron, Batavia, OH)

General Information
In single screw extruders, a screw mixer melts the entering plastic
materials, pushes the material through the extruder, and forms the plastic
into the desired shape.

Equipment Design

Extruders have three key components:

 The hopper, where the material is fed to the extruder.

 The screw runs along the length of the machine.
 The optional static mixers at the end.

Single screw extruders rely on the friction between the material and the
barrel for flow: the greater the friction, the slower the flow. One way to
increase friction is to increase the length of the barrel, but this could
result in a change in viscosity with the position. The extruder temperature
can be adjusted to control the viscosity.

Usage Examples

Typical extruder products such as plastic panels, plastic molding, pipes,

and tubes are shown below.

(Courtesy of Milacron, Batavia,

OH)

Advantages
 Less expensive than twin-screw extruders
 Less sheer than twin-screw extruders
  High thru-put
 Handles a variety of materials

Disadvantages
 Poor mixing compared to twin-screw extruders
 Relies upon the physical properties of the material to drive the material
through
 Temperature regulation necessary

Twin Screw
Not all extruders with two screws are twin-screw extruders. Screw
placement and type are also important determinants.

(Courtesy of Baker Perkins

Group Ltd., Grand Rapids, MI)

General Information

Twin-screw extruders have two intermeshing screws and operate in the

same manner as a single screw extruder. The picture below shows the
barrels of the extruder exposed. Twin-screw extruders depend minimally
on the friction of the material against the barrel to move forward. They
rely instead on the properties of the extruder and the screws. The two
most important features are the meshing characteristics and the type of
rotation.
(Courtesy of Baker Perkins Group Ltd., Grand Rapids, MI)

Mills
In the pharmaceutical, fine chemicals, and cosmetics
industries, conical mills enable efficient sorting of different particles
and following safety standards. Hammer mills also allow you to
choose the size of the resulting components for various products
useful in the field.

Industrial Mills
Types of mills.

The article will bring more detail to topics such as:

 Principles of Mills
 Categories of Mills
 Types of Mills
 Applications and Benefits of Mills
 And Much More…
Chapter 1: Principles of Mills
This chapter will discuss what mills are and the typical components of mills.

What is a Mill?
A mill is a machine that is used to break down solid materials into smaller pieces by
cutting, grinding, or crushing. The process of milling includes the use of force that acts
on a material to tear it apart and reduce its size. Milling improves the performance of
ingredients, and the products made from them. The two basic forms of milling are dry
milling and wet milling where dry milling uses particle to particle contact while wet
milling suspends materials in a slurry.
There are numerous types of mills, and materials processed by them. The first mills were
manually operated, powered by animals, or powered by the wind or water. Modern mills
are powered by electricity, which provides more power and saves on labor costs.

With a mill, solid materials are ground using mechanical force that breaks down the
structure of the material by overpowering its interior bonding. Solid material is changed
into small particles, grain, and various shapes. Milling also refers to the process of
breaking down, sizing, separating, or classifying material like mineral ore. For example,
rock crushing or grinding are used to produce uniform particle size for construction or the
separation of rock and soil for filler or land restoration.

Milling is used to remove or separate contaminates or moisture from soil to make dry fill
to be used for transportation or filling. Milling serves the following engineering purposes:

 Increase the surface area of a solid before it reacts or is added to a solvent

 Achieving a desired grain size
 Pulping

 Industrial Mill Components

Mills are complex pieces of equipment that have a wide assortment of parts and
components that have to work together to achieve a desired outcome. Although there
are several different designs of mills, all types have certain components and pieces that
are common. The most basic and beginning component of a mill is its shell, which has to
be strong, durable, sturdy, and resilient to be able to withstand the demands of the
milling process.

Shell
Shells are made of a thick steel plate that is welded and sealed into a cylinder such that
it will not distort or be susceptible to failure. For the best possible results, shells are
electronically welded using an automated process. A basic feature of all mills is their
ability to withstand impact and heavy loads. Holes are drilled in the shell such that bolts
can be used to hold the liner of the mill, which is not necessary with wedge type liners.

Flanges
Flanges are designed to meet the dimensions and material that will be processed by a
mill. They must be uniform in diameter and may have recesses and undercuts near the
arbor sleeve. It is essential that flanges be properly maintained in regard to flatness,
finish, balance, and wear. The securing of flanges must be completed with care since
over tightening can warp a flange and cause other damage.

Shell Liners
The shell liner is a protective covering that lines the inner part of the shell and protects
the mill shell from forces created by the milling process. They are made of various
materials depending on the type of mill and material to be milled. Rubber liners are used
in ball mills while metal liners are used in autogenous (AG) and semi-autogenous (SAG)
mills. The design of the liner of a mill determines the movement of the media.

 A C Lorain Shell Liners - A C shell liners are used in Allis-Chalmers mills and are
made of carbon rolled steel with lifters.
 Wave Ball Mill Shell Liners - Wave liners are made with lifters and liner sections
manufactured as one piece and are bolted in place by bolts placed through the
liner and shell.
 Wedge Shell Mill Liners - Wedge shell mill liners are used where the liner is
connected without the use of bolts. They have a wave pattern and are made of
highly resilient materials.
 Mill Spiral Shell Liners - Mill spiral shell liners have a spiral shape that shoves the
material along the length of the mill that causes the material to advance rapidly.
Heads
Mill heads are made of iron or steel. They are bolted to the flange of the shell and are
conical shaped or have a starfish design. Ball, rod, preliminary, Ballpeb and Compeb mills
have conical heads while longer Ballpeb and Compeb have starfish heads, which offer
extra support and strength due to the braces. An essential part of a mill head is its
trunnion bearings that provide support for the revolving material in the mill.

Pinion Shaft
The pinion shaft is the drive mechanism for a mill that moves the gear train that turns
the mill assembly. It is mounted on roller bearings that have a decreased friction
coefficient, which requires minimum lubrication and has excellent seal. Lubrication is
provided from a reservoir located at the bottom of the gear housing where a lubricating
pinion mates with the main gear.
Mill Drive
Smaller mills of less than 250 hp have a V belt drive while larger mills of over 250 hp
have direct drive. The motors for direct drive mills have wound rotor motors that are
connected directly to the pinion shaft. Several types of motors are available to drive a
mill with varying torques that are determined by a mill’s design and its manufacturer.

Mill Feed Chutes

Mill feed chutes come in a wide array of shapes, sizes, and configurations. The use of a
chute depends on the industry and type of material to be milled with mining, cement,
and rock production having the choice of mills with or without a chute. The types of
feeders include combination, spout, scoop, and drum types.

 Spout Feeder - A spout feeder has a very simple design. They have a steel or
rubber lined chute that feeds directly into the trunnion opening of the mill.
 Scoop Feeder - Scoop feeders return media to the mill, have a single or double
scoop design, and may be used to take in the initial feed. They are used when the
size of the feed is very fine. The internal structure of a scoop feeder uses a spiral
to pass the feed to the trunnion.
 Drum Feeder - Drum feeders are used in place of spout feeders. They have a drum
and are used for single pass grinding. Drum feeders receive the mill feed via a
chute and send the feed to the trunnion using a spiral configuration.
 Combination Feeder - A combination feeder consists of a drum and scoop lift that
returns media to the mill. The feed enters the drum like a drum feeder.
Discharge Unit
Once the material has been ground and processed, it is removed from a mill through the
discharge unit. Discharging completed material from a mill can be completed in different
ways depending on the design of the mill. In many cases, it resembles pouring liquid
from a pitcher or barrel. The types of discharge methods or units are overflow,
peripheral, and diaphragm.

 Overflow Discharge Mill - The process used by an overflow discharge unit is

referred to as displacement where new material enters displacing an equal
volume of processed material.
 Peripheral Discharge Mill - A peripheral discharge mill has an opening in the
center of the mill or at one end through which the processed material is
discharged and released.
 Diaphragm Discharge Mill - A diaphragm discharge mill has a diaphragm made of
perforated steel placed near the discharge head. Lifters raise the ground material
and drop it into a discharge cone that directs the material to the trunnion and out
of the mill. A diaphragm discharge design keeps the grinding media in the mill as
it releases the processed material.
Industrial Mill Grinding Media
Grinding media is used to refine and reduce particle sizes to produce a wide variety of
shapes and sizes to meet application needs. There are several varieties of grinding
media that include metallic and non- metal types, each of which is designed to process
various kinds of materials. The selection of the type of grinding media determines the
success of the grinding process.

Metallic Grinding Media

Metallic grinding media includes carbon steel, forged steel, stainless steel, and chrome
steel, which come in the form of balls, beads, bars, and tiny cylinders.
  Steel balls are the most common form of grinding media and come in diameter
sizes of 20 mm up to 120 mm to meet different grinding requirements.
 Short tiny cylinders are used with open circuit and closed circuit grinding systems
and used with fine grinding chambers.
 Steel bars are cut to the size of the mill shell and are used with ball mills. Bars can
be 50 mm to 100 mm and are shorter than the milling shell.
Non-Metallic Grinding Media
Non-metallic grinding media includes alumina balls, glass beads, silicon carbide balls,
silicon nitride balls, ceramic balls, and zirconium balls. These media are used where
contamination is a concern. The choice of non-metallic media is highly dependent on the
type of material to be processed since the wrong choice can damage the interior lining of
a mill.

Emulgators(emulsifiers)
These are used to aid in the processing of foods and also to help
maintain quality and freshness. In low fat spreads, emulsifiers can
help to prevent the growth of moulds which would happen if the oil
and fat separated. The table shows foods in which emulsifiers are
most commonly used.

What is Emulsification?
Emulsification is the formation of emulsions from two immiscible liquid
phases is probably the most versatile property of surface-active agents for
practical applications and, as a result, has been extensively studied.

The process of dispersing one immiscible liquid into another immiscible

liquid is called emulsification. Some common emulsifying agents
are detergents and soaps, etc. This process is widely carried out in
industries by mechanical mixing of the ingredients of the emulsion in
different types of mixers.

Table of Contents
 Some Examples of Emulsions
 Emulsifier
 Aims of Emulsification
 Emulsification Process
 Emulsion Uses
 Recommended Videos
 Frequently Asked Questions – FAQs
Some Examples of Emulsions:
 Egg yolk – contains the emulsifying agent lecithin.
 Butter – water in the fat emulsion.
 Oil and water mixture.
 Mayonnaise – an emulsion of oil in water.
 Crema on espresso – an emulsion of water and coffee oil.

Emulsifier
An emulsifier is a substance that stabilises an emulsion. It is also called
emulgent. Surfactants such as detergents are one type of emulsifier.
Surfactants are also referred to as surface-active agents.

Some examples of emulsifiers are lecithin, soy lecithin, diacetyl tartaric

acid ester of monoglyceride, Mustard, sodium stearoyl lactylate, and
sodium phosphates.

Aims of Emulsification
The emulsification unit operation has three specific aims. First, it has to
ensure the physicochemical stability of the product. Emulsification
determines the characteristic structure of the batter which greatly
influences fat and moisture separation from the product during cooking.

Second, it creates a typical sensory property such as appearance, texture,

flavour or noise. Finely comminuted products are defined by their smooth
surface.

Emulsification Process:
Some mechanisms involved in emulsification are discussed below.

 According to surface tension theory, emulsification is carried out by reducing

the interfacial tension between the two phases.
 According to the repulsion theory, a film is created over one phase by the
emulsifying agent. The film forms globules, that repel each other. This is their
cause for suspension in the dispersion medium.
 Viscosity modification – Some emulgents like acacia, glycerine, and
carboxymethyl cellulose, increase the viscosity of the medium. This helps in
maintaining and creating the suspension of globules of the dispersed phase.
Emulsion Uses:
 Usually used in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and personal hygiene.
 Microemulsions are used to deliver vaccines to kill various microbes.
 It is used in chemical synthesis.
 It is used in firefighting.
 Nanoemulsions such as soybean oil are used to kill microbes.
 Mayonnaise is an oil in water emulsion with egg yolk or sodium stearoyl
lactylate.