Unit-05: Atomic Joining Processes

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 Joining Processes
Joining consists of a large number of processes used to assemble two or more parts together (temporarily
or permanently), irrespective of their composition, properties, features, shapes, etc.

Joining two or more elements to make a single part is termed as a fabrication

process. aircraft and ship bodies, bridges, building trusses, sheet metal parts, etc.

Temporary joints: A temporary joint

can be dismantled without breaking the
assembled parts/parent materials.
Screw, nut-bolt, etc.
Permanent joints: A permanent joint
cannot be dismantled without breaking Rivets: Semi-
the parent parts. permanent:

Temporary/
Joining/Fabrication: Secondary permanent
manufacturing

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Joining Processes

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Classification of Joining Processes
Joining of materials at the atomic or
molecular level, often creating very
strong, permanent bonds. These
processes typically involve altering
the atomic structure of the materials
at the joint, either through heat,
pressure, or chemical reactions.

Adhesive joining: Using synthetic

glues. Best suited for joining of
metal and non-metals.
Ex.: Brake shoe lining

4
Ghosh & Mallik
Joining processes based on Filler material/composition of the joint
Sometimes, filler materials are also used to introduce some desirable properties to the joint.
To add specific material and to increase the strength of the joint.

Autogenous joint: When NO FILLER MATERIAL is used in the joining process.

All solid-state welding processes (friction, ultrasonic, diffusion, friction welding, etc.)
Homogeneous joint: When the filler material is the SAME as the materials being joined.
Arc, gas and thermit welding.
Heterogeneous joint: When the filler material is DIFFERENT from the materials being joined.
Brazing and soldering.

Material 1 Material 2 Material 1 Material 2

Material 1 Material 2

No filler material Different filler material

The filler material (A) is the same (composition)
Autogenous joint as 1 and 2 Heterogenous joint
Homogeneous joint 5
 Introduction to Welding
❖ Welding is a material permanent joining process in which two or more parts are coalesced at their
contacting/faying surfaces by a suitable application of heat and/or pressure.

❖ In some welding processes, a filler material is added to facilitate coalescence. The assemblage of parts that
are joined by welding is called a weldment.

❑ Welding provides a permanent joint.

❑ The welded joint can be stronger than the parent materials if a filler metal is used that has strength/properties
superior to those of the parents.

❑ Welding is usually the most economical way to join components in terms of material usage and fabrication

costs.
❑ Welding is not restricted to the factory environment. It can be accomplished “in the field”.
❑ The joining bond is metallurgical (involving some diffusion) rather than just mechanical, as with riveting
and bolting.
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 Types of Welding Process
1. Solid-State Welding
Solid-state welding refers to joining processes in which coalescence results from the application of pressure alone or a
combination of heat (below melting point) and pressure.

❖ Diffusion welding: Two surfaces are held together under pressure at an elevated temperature, and the parts coalesce
by solid-state diffusion.

❖ Friction welding: Coalescence is achieved by the heat of friction between two surfaces.

❖ Ultrasonic welding: Moderate pressure is applied between the two parts, and an oscillating motion at ultrasonic
frequencies is used in a direction parallel to the contacting surfaces.

❖ Forge welding: Heating of the parts to be joined and then hammered to join them.

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 Types of Welding Process

2. Fusion Welding
Fusion-welding processes use heat to melt the base metals. In many fusion welding operations, a filler metal is added
to the molten pool to facilitate the process and provide bulk and strength to the welded joint.

❖ Arc welding (AW): Arc welding refers to a group of welding processes in which heating of the metals is
accomplished by an electric arc. Consumable and non-consumable welding.

❖ Resistance welding (RW): Resistance welding achieves coalescence using heat from electrical resistance to the flow
of current passing between the faying surfaces of two parts held together under pressure.

❖ Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW): These joining processes use an oxyfuel gas, such as a mixture of oxygen and
acetylene, to produce a hot flame for melting.

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 Types of Welding Process
3. Solid/Liquid Welding

Melting of filler material without actual melting of contacting/faying surfaces.

❖Brazing
❖Soldering
❖Adhesive bonding

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 Type of Weld Joints

Five basic types of joints: (a) butt, (b) corner, (c) lap, (d) tee, and (e) edge.

Various forms of fillet welds: (a) inside single fillet corner joint; (b) outside single fillet corner joint; (c) double
fillet lap joint; and (d) double fillet tee joint.

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 Solid-state welding processes
In most of the solid-state processes, a metallurgical bond is created with little or no melting of the base
metals.

In solid state-welding, coalescence of the part surfaces is achieved by:

(1) Pressure alone, or

(2) Heat and pressure.

❑If both heat and pressure are used, the amount of heat by itself is not sufficient to cause melting of the
work surfaces.

❑In other words, fusion of the parts would not occur using only the heat that is externally applied in these
processes.

❑No filler metal added in solid-state welding

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 Solid-state welding processes
Diffusion welding (DFW)
• A solid-state welding process that results from the application of heat and pressure, usually in a controlled
atmosphere, with sufficient time allowed for diffusion and coalescence to occur.

• Temperatures are well below the melting points of the metals (about 0.5 Tm is the maximum), and plastic
deformation at the surfaces is minimal.

• The primary mechanism of coalescence is solid-state diffusion, which involves the migration of atoms
across the interface between contacting surfaces.

• Time for diffusion is important. Similar and dissimilar materials can be joined.

Joining of thin metallic sheets and wires.

Similar or dissimilar materials joining.

Animation of Diffusion Bonding Process

Wikipedia
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13
 Solid-state welding processes
Friction welding (FRW) The axial compression force upsets the parts, and a flash is
produced by the material displaced. Part is rotated at around
1500-3000 RPM. Welding time 2-30 s.
Self-regulating:
No melting due
to frictional
heating.

The machine for

friction welding
is similar to a
centre lathe.

Friction welding (FRW): (1) rotating part, no contact; (2) parts brought into contact to generate friction heat; (3)
rotation stopped, and axial pressure applied; and (4) weld created. 14
 Solid-state welding processes
Friction stir welding (FSW)
❑ Two metal workpieces are kept in the friction stir welding
machine side by side to make a butt joint.
❑ The tool then rotates and goes into the two clamped
workpieces.
❑ The tool creates a hole in the middle of the joint and
penetrates long enough so that the tool’s shoulder can touch
the surface of the workpieces.
❑ After that, the tool dwells for a short time and then starts to
move forward.
❑ The welding friction between the wear-resistant tool and the
job parts creates heat. While the tool is traversed along the joint line, it
❑ It makes the metal soft but doesn’t melt the metal. mechanically intermixes the two pieces of metal and
forges the hot and softened metal by mechanical pressure.
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 Solid-state welding processes
Forge welding
• This is the oldest of the metal-joining processes known to humankind.

• Forge welding is a welding process in which the components to be joined are

heated to hot working temperatures (<Tm) and then forged together by hammer or
other means.

• The forge-welding operation is a very slow and labour-intensive process.

• Delhi Iron-Pillar was manufactured through this process.

First cast and then forge

welded

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instructables.com
 Solid-state welding processes
Roll welding (ROW)
❑ Roll welding (ROW) is a solid-state welding process in which pressure sufficient to cause coalescence is
applied by means of rolls, either with or without external application of heat.
❑ If no external heat is supplied, the process is called cold-roll welding.
❑ If heat is supplied, the term hot-roll welding is used.

➢ Cladding stainless steel to mild or

low alloy steel for corrosion
resistance.
➢ Producing “sandwich” coins for the
U.S. mint

Roll welding (ROW) process

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 Solid-state welding processes
Explosive welding (EXW)
➢ Rapid coalescence of two metallic surfaces is caused by the energy of a detonated explosive.
➢ Low detonation velocity explosives: Dynamites, blasting agents. High-velocity explosives: TNT, RDX, etc.
➢ Commonly used to bond two dissimilar metals, in particular to clad one metal on top of a base metal over
large areas.
No filler metal is used, no external heat is applied, no diffusion occurs during the process (the time is too short).

The flyer plate can be inclined by approx.

15-25 degrees from horizontal

1/2-1/4 of flyer
plate thickness

Explosive welding (EXW): (1) setup in the parallel configuration (2) during detonation of the
explosive charge. 18
Explosive welding (EXW)

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 Solid-state welding processes
Ultrasonic welding (USW)
➢ Two components are held together under modest clamping force, and oscillatory shear stresses of
ultrasonic frequency are applied to the interface to cause coalescence.
➢ USW operations are generally limited to lap joints on soft materials such as aluminum and copper.
➢ Thickness of the materials, generally around 3 mm. Welding of both similar and dissimilar metal work
pieces.

Fracture of the brittle oxide layer

and softening of asperities because
of localized heating by rubbing. Schematic of ultrasonic welding (USW)
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 Fusion (liquid) welding processes
❖ In fusion welding, coalescence/joining/mixing is accomplished by melting the two-part surfaces to be joined.

❖ In some cases, filler metal is added to the joint.

❖ Fusion welding is by far the most important category. It includes:

1. Arc welding (approx. temp.: 5500-6000 °C) Heat/power density the power transferred to the work per
unit surface area, (W/mm2).
2. Resistance welding
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃
Power density PD = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
=𝐴
3. Oxyfuel gas welding (approx. temp.:3500 °C)

4. Thermit welding

5. Other fusion welding processes (Laser beam,

electron beam welding, etc.)

Minimum power density for welding =10 W/mm2

If the power density is very high (>105 W/mm2),

instant vaporization of the base materials. 21
 Heat required in Fusion welding

The quantity of heat required to melt a given volume of metal

depends on:

Temperature
1. The heat to raise the temperature of the solid metal to its
melting point (1), which depends on the metal’s 2
volumetric specific heat

2. The melting point of the metal 1

3. The heat to transform the metal from solid to liquid phase

at the melting point, which depends on the metal’s latent
heat of fusion (2). Time

4. Material evaporation is avoided.

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 Heat transfer in fusion welding
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒
𝒇𝟏 : Heat transfer factor to the workpiece = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒

Heat losses= 1 − 𝒇𝟏
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒
𝒇𝟐 : Melting factor = 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒

Fraction of heat dissipated/conducted into the work= 𝒇𝟏 −𝒇𝟐

Total heat generated during welding = 𝑸

Heat available for welding (𝑄𝑤 )= 𝒇𝟏 𝒇𝟐 𝑸

Energy input and the energy needed for welding: 𝒇𝟏 - 𝒇𝟐

𝑄𝑤 = 𝑈𝑤 × 𝑉

𝑈𝑤 =Unit energy required to melt the metal (J/mm3), and 𝑉 =the volume of metal melted (mm3)
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 1. Arc Welding
❖ Arc welding (AW) is a fusion-welding process in which the coalescence of the metals is achieved by the heat of an
electric arc between an electrode and the work.

❖ An electric arc is a discharge of electric current across a gap in a circuit. It is sustained by the presence of a thermally
ionized column of gas (called a plasma) through which current flows.

❖ The electric energy from the arc thus formed produces temperatures of 5500°C (10,000°F) or higher, sufficiently hot
to melt any metal.

❖ Filler metal is added during the operation to increase the volume and strength of the weld joint.

Schematic of a typical Arc Welding process 24

 Schematic diagram
Electrodes are consumable or non-consumable.
Consumable electrodes provide the source of the filler
metal in arc welding.
Available in two principal forms: rods (also called sticks)
and wire.
Arc Shielding: Argon and helium, both of which are inert.
Flux is a substance used to prevent the formation of

Flux in coated electrodes provides: oxides and other unwanted contaminants or to dissolve

(1) A protective atmosphere for welding, them and facilitate removal.

Arc welding with coated electrodes:
(2) Stabilize the arc, and
The coating serves the following purposes:
(3) Reduce spattering.
❖ Shields the melt pool from atmosphere contamination
Power Sources in Arc Welding: Both direct current (DC) and
❖ It acts as a carrier for alloying elements, deoxidants,
alternating current (AC), are used. etc.

AC is used for welding aluminum because it cleans the metal surface and breaks down the
aluminum oxide layer that forms on the metal when exposed to oxygen. 25
 Generation of electric arc

1. Application of open circuit voltage across the electrodes.

2. The electrode is touched and withdrawn from the base
materials.
3. Cold emission of electrons from the cathode.
4. Due to the ionization of air atoms/molecules, the
formation of the plasma channel.
5. Current flows through the plasma channel, resulting in
Joule heating.
6. A fraction of energy is shared with the workpiece and
electrode.
7. Melting and vaporization of the electrodes.

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 The potential/voltage drop across the arc column
(Gaseous region of negative charge (10
µm). Voltage drop is essential for
penetration of electrons)

The visible portion of the arc consists of

plasma.

(Gaseous region of positive charge (10 µm).

Voltage drop is essential for electrons to pull
out of this space)

Voltage-arc length 𝐴: Electrodes drop, 𝐵𝐿: Column (arc) drop, 𝐿: Arc length,
Voltage drop (𝑉) = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝐿
characteristics 𝐴, 𝐵: constants 27
 Polarity in Arc Welding Weld bead

Approx.
66.67% heat
to anode and
33.33% heat
to cathode.

❑ In straight polarity or direct-current electrode negative (DCEN):

DCEN generally produces welds that are narrow and deep.
❑ In reverse polarity or direct-current electrode positive (DCEP):
Weld penetration is less, and the weld zone is shallower and wider.
❑ In the AC current method, the arc pulsates rapidly.
The effect of polarity and current type on weld beads:
This method is suitable for welding thick sections and for using large- (a) DC current with straight polarity, (b) DC current
with reverse polarity, (c) AC current.
diameter electrodes at maximum currents.
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 Voltages and currents in Arc welding
❑ Open circuit voltage, OCV (No-load voltage): It is the voltage between the electrode and parent material when
welding is not performed. This voltage determines the initial arc length (the gap between two electrodes) for the
initiation of discharge. Higher arc length requires a larger OCV.

• Generally, around 50-80 V.

• Current flowing in the gap is zero.

❑ Welding voltage and Welding current: This exists between two electrodes during welding operation once the arc has
been established and current (welding current) flows in the circuit.

• Welding voltage is always lower than OCV.

❑ Short circuit current: When two electrodes touch each other (infinitely zero resistance), the circuit becomes short,
and a sudden rise in current occurs at voltages (zero potential difference) drops to around zero.

• The current, in this case, is known as a short circuit current.

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 Power (V-I) characteristics
𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑦2− 𝑦1
=
𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
Voltage

(0, 𝑉0 )

Voltage
2 2
𝑉0 𝑉 𝐼
+ =1
𝑉0 𝐼𝑠

𝑉 𝐼
+ =1
𝑉0 𝐼𝑠

(𝐼, 𝑉) 𝑉0 (0, 𝑉0 )
𝑉
(𝐼, 𝑉)
Arc length 1
Arc length 1 𝑉
Arc length 2
(𝐼𝑠 , 0) Arc length 2 (𝐼𝑠 , 0)
𝐼 𝐼𝑠 𝐼 𝐼𝑠
Current
Current
Drooping/falling characteristics (non-linear) Flat/linear characteristics
Constant current power source Constant voltage power source
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Drooping characteristics

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V-I characteristics

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 Sharply drooping vs flat characteristics in Arc welding
Constant voltage power source:
Constant current power source: Manual arc welding operation Automatic welding operation

V-I Characteristic curves of a constant voltage

V-I Characteristic curves of a constant current arc welding machine arc welding machine (flat characteristics)
(Sharply drooping ) Linear characteristics
𝐼 𝑉 𝐼
Non-linear characteristics 𝑉 = 𝑉0 1 − , 𝑜𝑟 + =1
2 2 𝐼𝑠 𝑉0 𝐼𝑠
𝑉 𝐼 𝑉 and 𝐼: Welding voltage and welding current.
+ =1
𝑉0 𝐼𝑠 𝑉0 : Open circuit voltage, 𝐼𝑠 : short-circuit current 33
 Arc Welding Process: Non-Consumable Electrodes
Tungsten-Inert Gas (TIG) Welding
❖ In gas tungsten-arc welding (GTAW), or TIG welding, the
filler metal is supplied from a filler wire. Because the
tungsten electrode is not consumed in this operation.
❖ A constant and stable arc gap is maintained at a constant
current level.
❖ The shielding gas is usually argon or helium.
❖ The GTAW process is used for a wide variety of
applications and metals, particularly aluminium,
magnesium, titanium, and refractory metals.
A typical tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding set-up
❖ The power supply is either DC at 200 A or AC at 500 A.
❖ AC is preferred for Al and Mg because the cleaning action
of AC removes oxides and improves weld quality.
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 Arc Welding Process: Non-Consumable Electrodes
Carbon Arc Welding

❑ In this the electrode is made of either carbon or

graphite.

❑ In contrast to graphite electrodes, the carbon electrodes

are soft and therefore, cannot take up very high current

densities.

❑ The arc with the carbon electrodes is more controllable. Twin carbon arc welding torch

Lower currents also add to the higher electrode life.

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 Arc Welding Process: Non-Consumable Electrodes

Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

▪ Plasma is a state of matter when part of the gas is

ionized, making it a conductor of electric current.

▪ PAW closely resembles the TIG process in which it

also uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode and

a shielding gas such as argon.

▪ The main difference is in the construction of the torch.

In PAW, the plasma arc is tightly constrained.

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 Arc welding process: Consumable Electrodes
Metal-Inert Gas (MIG) Welding

❖ Also known as gas metal-arc welding

(GMAW)
❖ The weld area is shielded by an effectively
inert atmosphere of argon, helium, carbon
dioxide, or various other gas mixtures.
❖ The consumable bare wire is fed automatically
through a nozzle into the weld arc by a wire-
feed drive motor
❖ Deoxidizers are present in the electrode metal Schematic of a gas metal arc welding/MIG set-up

itself in order to prevent oxidation of the

molten-weld puddle.
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 Arc welding process: Consumable Electrodes
Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)

❑ Uses a consumable electrode consisting

of a filler metal rod coated with
chemicals that provide flux and
shielding.
❑ It is preferred over oxyfuel welding for
thicker sections, above 5 mm.

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 Arc welding process: Consumable Electrodes
Electroslag welding (ESW) ❑ Once a pool of slag has been created, the arc is extinguished and the
current passes from the electrode to the base metal through the
❑ Same basic equipment as in some arc welding conductive slag so that its electrical resistance generates heat to

operations, and it utilizes an arc to initiate welding. maintain the welding process.

❑ However, it is not an AW process because an arc is ❑ Because the density of the slag is less than that of the molten metal,
it remains on top to protect the weld pool.
not used during welding.

❑ Granulated conductive flux is put into the cavity.

❑ The consumable electrode tip is positioned near the
bottom of the cavity, and an arc is generated for a
short while to start melting the flux.

Combination of arc and resistance welding

Welding of very thick materials: 25-300 mm

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 2. Gas welding (oxy-fuel gas welding)

• Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW) is the term used to describe the group of FW operations that burn various fuels
mixed with oxygen to perform welding.

• The OFW processes employ several types of gases.

• Oxyacetylene welding (OAW) is a fusion-welding process performed by a high-temperature flame from the
combustion of acetylene and oxygen.

• The flame is directed by a welding torch.

• A filler metal is sometimes added.

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 Oxy-acetylene gas welding
❑ Acetylene, if stored in a confined space, decomposes
into C and H, resulting in high pressure.
❑ When this pressure is around 0.2 MPa, the mixture
of C and H becomes violently explosive, even in the
absence of oxygen.
❑ To avoid this, acetylene cylinders are packed with
porous filler materials (asbestos, balsa wood)
saturated with acetone.
❑ At 0.1 MPa pressure, 1 vol of acetone dissolves 20

Oxy-acetylene welding outfit vol of acetylene.

❑ At a pressure of 1.2 MPa, solubility increases to 300
times.

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Oxy-acetylene gas welding

Oxy-acetylene welding torch details

Welding of plates using oxy-acetylene gas welding

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 Oxy-acetylene gas welding

Oxy-acetylene welding, the following reaction takes place in

this zone:

The carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen produced in the first

stage further combine with the atmospheric oxygen and give
rise to the outer bluish flame.

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 Acetylene generator
Acetylene is normally produced by a reaction between calcium carbide and water which is instantaneous.

Acetylene generator
44
 Flame types in oxy-acetylene gas welding
A higher proportion of acetylene than oxygen

(c) Neutral flame

An equal proportion of oxygen and acetylene

A higher proportion of oxygen than acetylene

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 3. Resistance welding
• Resistance welding (RW) is a group of fusion-welding
processes that uses a combination of heat and pressure to
accomplish coalescence, the heat being generated by electrical
resistance to current flow at the junction to be welded.

• RW uses no shielding gases, flux, or filler metal, and the

electrodes that conduct electrical power to the process are non-
consumable.

• A few exceptions: Some RW can be non-fusion-based.

• The heat energy supplied to the welding operation depends on

current flow, resistance of the circuit, and length of time the
current is applied

Joule/resistive heating (J) in RW process 𝐻 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡 𝐼 ∶Current (A), 𝑅: electrical resistance (Ω), 𝑡: time s.
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 Resistance welding
Resistance in the welding circuit is the sum of:

(1) Resistance of the electrodes. (should be low, water-cooled Copper electrodes)

(2) Resistances of the work-parts.

(3) Contact resistances between electrodes and work-parts.

(4) Contact resistance of the faying/contacting surfaces.

❑ The ideal situation is for the faying surfaces to be the largest resistance in the sum, since this is the
desired location of the weld.
❑ The resistance at the faying surfaces depends on surface finish, cleanliness, contact area, and pressure.
No paint, oil, dirt, or other contaminants should be present to separate the contacting surfaces.

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 Resistance welding
Resistance spot welding (RSW)

❑ Fusion of the faying surfaces of a lap joint

is achieved at one location by opposing
electrodes.
❑ The process is used to join sheet-metal
parts of thickness 3 mm or less, using a
series of spot welds

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 Resistance welding

Seam welding (RSEW)

• In RSEW the stick-shaped electrodes in spot

welding are replaced by rotating wheels.

• Series of overlapping spotwelds are made

along the lap joint.

• The process is capable of producing air-tight

joints

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 Resistance welding
Projection welding (RPW)

Resistance projection welding (RPW): (1) at the start of operation,

contact between parts is at projections; and (2) when current is applied,
weld nuggets similar to those in spot welding are formed at the
projections.
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 4. Thermit welding
Temperature: Approx. 2500 °C

Aluminium oxide floats to the top as a slag and protects the iron from the atmosphere.
❑ Thermit is a trademark name for
thermite, a mixture of aluminium
powder and iron oxide that produces an
exothermic reaction when ignited.
❑ Heat for coalescence is produced by
superheated molten metal from the
chemical reaction of Thermit when
ignited.
❑ On-site welding of rail-road and repair Thermit welding: (1) Thermit ignited; (2) crucible tapped, superheated metal flows
into mould; (3) metal solidifies to produce weld joint.
of cracks in large steel castings and
forgings.
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 5. Beam Welding
Electron Beam Welding (EBW)

❑ The heat source in Electron-Beam Welding (EBW) for

melting the joint is a focused beam of high-velocity

electrons.

❑ The electron beam, upon impinging the workpiece, releases

the necessary heat by converting its kinetic energy.

❑ Welding is carried out in a vacuum chamber to minimize the

disruption of the electron beam by air molecules.

❑ High power density welding process.

Electron Beam Welding (EBW)
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 5. Beam Welding

Laser Beam Welding (LBW)

❑ Coalescence is achieved by the energy of a highly concentrated,
coherent light beam (LSER) focused on the joint to be welded.
❑ LBW is normally performed with shielding
gases (e.g., helium, argon, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide) to
prevent oxidation.
❑ No filler materials are generally used.
❑ Because of the highly concentrated energy in the
small area of the laser beam, the process is often used to join
small parts.
❑ High power/heat density welding process. Laser Beam Welding (LBW)
tristatefabricators.com
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 Features of a Fusion-welded Joint

1. Fusion zone:
2. Heat affected zone (HAZ):
3. Unaffected zone:

Cross section of a typical fusion-welded joint: (a) principal zones in the

joint and (b) typical grain structure

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 Heterogeneous joint Brazing
• Brazing is a joining process in which a filler metal is melted and distributed by capillary action between the
surfaces of the metal parts being joined.

• No melting of the base metals occurs in brazing; only the filler material melts.

• In brazing, the filler metal (also called the brazing metal) has a melting temperature (liquidus) that is above
450°C (840°F) but below the melting point (solidus) of the base metal(s) to be joined.

Brazing fluxes serve a similar purpose as in welding; they dissolve, combine with, and otherwise inhibit the
formation of oxides and other unwanted byproducts in the process.
Common ingredients: Borax, borates, fluorides, and chlorides

Applications: Pipes, connectors and valves requiring

leak tightness; pressure vessels requiring pressure
resistance and leak tightness; and vehicle parts
requiring corrosion and heat resistance.
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Common filler metals used in brazing and the base metals on which they are used

Several techniques for applying filler metal in brazing:

(a) torch and filler rod; (b) ring of filler metal at the entrance of
the gap and (c) The foil of filler metal between the flat part
surfaces. Sequence:(1) before, and (2) after.
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 Soldering
• Soldering is similar to brazing and can be defined as a joining process in which a

filler metal with a melting point (liquidus) not exceeding 450°C (840°F) is

melted and distributed by capillary action between the faying surfaces of the

metal parts being joined.

• As in brazing, no melting of the base metals occurs, but the filler metal wets

and combines with the base metal to form a metallurgical bond.

• Filler metal, called solder, is added to the joint, which distributes itself between
A flux is applied to the surfaces to be joined so
the closely fitting parts. Most solders are alloys of tin and lead since both metals
as to avoid the formation of oxide due to subsequent
have low melting points. Silver and antimony are also used.
heating and also to dissolve any flux still present on
them. A commonly employed general-purpose flux is
Applications: Electronic circuits, electrical connectors, and
zinc chloride.
precision electronic components
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 References

Course contents are taken from the following sources:

• M.P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing: Materials, Processes, and Systems

• Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid - Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials-Pearson
Education (2014).

• Ghosh and Malik, Manufacturing Science.

• P N Rao, Manufacturing Technology Foundry, Forming and Welding, Second Edition

• William D. Callister, Jr, Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction

• Online sources

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