COMPREHENSIVE GRAMMAR NOTES

Contents:
I. Evolution of Latin Words
II. General Rules of Gender
III. Nouns
A. First Declension
1. Rules and Peculiarities
2. Greek Nouns
B. Second Declension
3. Rules and Peculiarities
4. Greek Nouns
C. Third Declension
5. Rules and Peculiarities
6. I-stems (Pure/Mixed)
7. Greek Nouns
D. Fourth Declension
E. Fifth Declension
F. Singularia Tantum
G. Pluralia Tantum
H. Defective Nouns
IV. Adjectives
A. Various Irregulars
B. Numerals
V. Pronouns
A. Types of Pronouns
B. Irregularities/Notables
VI. Verbs
A. Special Forms
B. Defectives
C. Impersonals List
D. Verbs from Other Verbs
VII. Adverbs
VIII. Conjunctions
IX. Interjections
X. Suffixes
XI. Syntax
A. Miscellaneous Rules of Syntax
B. Noun Case Uses
C. Independent Subjunctive Uses
D. Dependent Subjunctive Uses
E. Imperative Uses
F. Infinitive Uses
G. Sequence of Tenses
H. Gerund/Gerundive Uses
I. Conditionals
J. Other Clauses
 K. Uses of Quin/Quominus
L. Subordinate Clause Mood Summary
XII. Helpful Lists
M. Enclitics List
N. Coordinate Conjunctions List
O. Abbreviated Forms List
P. Irregular Verbs
Q. Money
R. Measurements
1. Length
2. Volume
S. Fractions
T. Miscellaneous

Evolution of Latin Words

• Changes in Spelling: lubet -> libet, vorto -> verto, optumus -> optimus, gerundus ->
gerendus.
• After v (consonant u), o was anciently used in place of u (as in vultos, servos)
• quo became cu in the Augustan period (e.g. quom -> cum), and later quu was established.
• Unaccented ci/ti when followed by a vowel eventually merged together
• h was eventually lost, e.g. arena for harena
• Adjacent Words, pronounced together, became written as one: e.g. unusquisque, siquis,
quare, quamobrem, respublica, iusiurandum, paterfamilias
• Penult = 2nd Last Syllable, Antepenult = 3rd Last Syllable
• Archaic -> Current Forms: ai -> ae, oi -> oe/u, ou -> u
• In compounds, the vowel of the simple verb often changes, e.g. facio -> conficio
• Two vowels coming together are often contracted: cogo = coago, promo = proemo, nil =
nihil, debeo = dehibeo
• Final s often became r, as honor -> honos
• t/d often became s
• Final consonant often disappears
• G, C, and H combine with an s to form an x
• G and H before T become C
• Between m/s and m/t, a p is often developed

Gender
Gender of Latin nouns is either grammatical or natural
• Gender b/c of natural gender, as in puer (m.), boy
• Many nouns have a masculine and a feminine form to distinguish sex: e.g. cervus, stag,
cerva, doe
• Jobs = Masculine, e.g. nauta, Tribes = Masculine, e.g. Romani, Persae
• A few neuter nouns designate persons as belonging to a class: as, municipium tuum, your
slave
• Pet names of girls and boys are neuter in form: e.g. Paegnium, Glycerium
 • Names of classes/collections of people can be of any gender: exercitus (m), acies (f)
agmen (n)
• Nouns of male beings, rivers, winds, months, and mountains are masculine.
o Names of months are actually adjectives, with the implied “mensis” occurring
before the month name
o Except rivers ending in –a (Allia), and with Greek names (Lethe, Styx)
o Except some names of mountains are feminine/neuter, taking the gender of their
termination: as, Alpes (f..), Soracte (n.)
• Names of female beings, cities, countries, plants, trees, and gems, of many animals (esp.
birds), and of abstract qualities are feminine
o Some names of towns and countries are masculine, as Sulmo, Gabii (pl.); or
neuter, as Tarentum/Illyricum
o A few names of plants and gems follow the gender of their termination; as,
centaureum (n.), acanthus (m.), opalus (m.)
• Indeclinable nouns, infinitives, terms or phrases used as nouns, and words quoted merely
for their form, are neuter
• Some can be either gender based on sex. These are said to be common gender: e.g. box,
ox/cow
• Several names of animals have a grammatical gender, independent of sex. These are
called epicene. Thus, lepus, hare, is always masculine, and vulpes, fox, is always
feminine.
o Fixed grammatical gender, even if sex varies.
o Masculine animal designated with adjective mas/masculinus, feminine with
femina/feminina

Nouns
First Declension: Rules and Peculiarities
• Nouns of the First Declension are Feminine
• Exceptions: Nouns like nauta (agricola, auriga, incola, pirata, scriba, andabata, collega,
poeta), personal names like Murena, Dolabella, Scaevola; also, Hadria, the Adriatic
• Genitive Singular ended in –ai (dissyllabic, so pronounced without diphthong)
• Also preserved is the genitive in -as, as seen in familias
• Loc. Form for the singular = ae, plural = īs
• Genitive plural sometimes found in –um, especially in Greek patronymics (Aeneadum),
and in compounds with –cola and –gena (caelicolum, Troiugenum), signifying dwelling
and descent; also in the Greek nouns amphora and drachma
• Dat. and Abl. plural of dea and filia are –abus; also, rarely, of liberta, mula, equa (-abus
only used in documents when the two sexes are found together)
• Old abl. singular of –ad sometimes found (praidad→ praeda)

First Declension: Greek Nouns

Electra, F. synopsis, F. art of music, F.

NOM. Ēlectra (-ā) epitomē mūsica (-ē)

GEN. Ēlectrae epitomēs mūsicae (-ēs)

DAT. Ēlectrae epitomae Mūsicae

ACC. Ēlectram (-ān) epitomēn mūsicam (-ēn)

ABL. Ēlectrā epitomē mūsicā (-ē)

Andromache, F. Æneas, M. Persian, M.

NOM. Andromachē (-a) Aenēās Persēs (-a)

GEN. Andromachēs (-ae) Aenēae Persae

DAT. Andromachae Aenēae Persae

ACC. Andromachēn (-am) Aenēān (-am) Persēn (-am)

ABL. Andromachē (-ā) Aenēā Persē (-ā)

VOC. Andromachē (-a) Aenēā (-a) Persa

Anchises, M. son of Æneas, M. comet, M.

NOM. Anchīsēs Aeneadēs (-a) comētēs (-a)

GEN. Anchīsae Aeneadae comētae

DAT. Anchīsae Aeneadae comētae

ACC. Anchīsēn (-am) Aeneadēn comētēn (-am)

ABL. Anchīsē (-ā) Aeneadē (-ā) comētā (-ē)

VOC. Anchīsē (-ā , -a) Aeneadē (-a) Comēta

• There are (besides proper names) about thirty-five of these words, several being names of
plants or arts: as, crambē, cabbage; mūsicē, music. Most have also regular Latin forms:
as, comēta; but the nominative sometimes has the a long.
• Greek forms are found only in the singular; the plural, when it occurs, is regular:
as, comētae, -ārum, etc.
 • Many Greek nouns vary between the first, the second, and the third declensions:
as, Boōtae (genitive of Boōtēs, -is), Thūcȳdidās (accusative plural
of Thūcȳdidēs, -is)

Second Declension: Rules and Peculiarities

• Earlier forms of nominative and accusative were –os/-om
• Evolution of forms like equus: equos → ecus → equus
• Names of countries and towns in –us are feminine (Aegyptus, Corinthus), plus the
following; alvus, belly; carbasus, linen (pl. sails is neuter), colus, distaff; humus, ground;
vannus, winnowing-shovel
• Greek nouns do the same; arctus, Polar Bear, methodus, method
• Neuter: pelagus, sea; virus, poison; vulgus (rarely m), crowd
o These are not found in the plural
o Except pelagus, which has a rare nominative/accusative -e
• cete, nom. pl. of cetus (sea monster) exists
• Locative form has singular in –ī, plural in –īs
• Proper names in –ius have –ī in the vocative in –i, as well as filius, son; genius, divine
guardian
• Alternative vocative of puer: puere
• Adjectives in –ius form vocative in –ie, sometimes as nouns, as Lacedaemonie (O
Spartan)
• Greek names in –ius have the vocative –ie (Lyricius)
• Gen. Plural often –um/-om (after v), especially in poetry; as, deum, superum, virum,
divom; also in compounds of vir, and words of money, measure, and weight; nummum,
of coins; iugerum, of acres
• Ablative singular original, -od, sometimes found in early Latin (Gnaivod → Gnaeo)
• Vocative Singular of deus said to be dee, but does not occur in classical Latin
• The following words decline like puer: adulter, socer, gener, vesper, Liber
• Also, compounds in –fer and –ger; as, Lucifer (morning star) and armiger (squire)
• vesper has the ablative vespere (loc. vesperi, in the evening)
• Mulciber has -beri and –bri in the genitive
• The barbaric names Hiber and Celtiber retain e throughout
• The following are declined like ager: aper, arbiter, auster, cancer, caper, coluber, conger,
faber, fiber, liber, magister, minister, oleaster, onager (-grus), scomber (-brus)

Second Declension: Greek Nouns

• Greek names of the second declension end in –os/-os/-on
• Mostly proper names, have regular plurals
Mythos (m) Athos (m) Delos (f) Ilion (n)

fable Athos Delos Ilium

 NOM
Mythos Athos Delos Ilion
.

GEN. Mythi Atho Deli Ilii

DAT. Mytho Atho Delo Ilio

ACC. mython Athon Delon Ilion

ABL. Mytho Atho Delo Ilio

VOC. Mythe Athos Dele Ilion

• Some names in –es in 3rd declension have genitive in ī; as Thucydides, Thucydidi
• Several names in –er also have a nominative in –us: as, Teucer or Teucrus. The name
Panthus has the vocative Panthu
• Genitive plural of certain titles of books takes the Greek termination –on; as, Georgicon,
of the Georgics
• Termination –oe sometimes found in the nom. pl.; as Adelphoe
• Greek names in –eus have forms of the 2nd and 3rd declension

Third Declension: Rules and Peculiarities

• Greek neuters with nominative singular in –a (as poema), frequently end in –īs for the
dative and abl. plural, rarely in -orum for the genitive plural
• Genitive plural of bos: boum
• Some nouns like honor and arbor have alternative nominatives in –s
• Some monosyllabic nouns want the genitive plural (cor)
• Locative in 3rd Decl.: Sing -i/e, Pl. -ibus

Third Declension: I-stems

Pure I-Stems: buris, febris, ravis, secures, sitis, tussis, cucumis, ignis, puppis, restis, sementis,
turris, vis, imber, uter, linter, venter

Mixed I-stems (-im in acc sing, -i in abl sing, -is in acc pl)
• Nouns with nominative sing.in -es, genitive -is (caedes, vates, et al.)
• Monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by a consonant (pons, arx, etc.)
• Polysyllables in -ns or -rs (cliens, cohors)
• Nominative in -tas, genitive -tatis (civitas)
• Penates, optimates, nouns denoting birth/abode (Quirites, Arpinates)
• Dos, fraus, glis, lis, mas, mus, nix, nox, strix, vis
• Nouns like mare have ī in the ablative singular
• Acc. in –im found:
o In Greek names + names of rivers
o Buris, cucumis, ravis, sitis, turris, vis
 o Adverbs in -tim, e.g. partim
o Sometimes in febris, puppis, restis, turris, secures, sementis
• Abl. in –ī found:
o Nouns with accusative in –im + securis
o When aequalis, annalis, consularis, gentilis, moralis, tribulis, are used as nouns
o neuters in –e, al, ar: except baccar, iubar, rete

Third Declension: Greek Nouns

• Genitive singular in –os, as tigridos
• Accusative singular in –a, as aethera
• Vocative singular like the stem, as Pericle, Orpheu, Atla
• Nominative plural in es, as heroes
• Accusative plural in as, as heroas
• Delphinus, -I (m) can also be delphin, -inis
• Salamis, -is (F) has accusative Salamina

tigris, nāis,
hērōs, M., hero lampas, F., torch basis, F., base
C., tiger F., naiad

STEM tigri STEM nāi

STEM hērō- STEM lampad- STEM basi-
d- tigri- d-

SING

NOM. hērōs lampas basis tigris nāis

GEN. hērōis lampados baseōs tigris (-idos) nāidos

DAT. hērōī lampadī basī tigrī nāidī

ACC. hērōa lampada basin tigrin (-ida) nāida

ABL. hērōe lampade basī tigrī (-ide) nāide

PLUR

NOM. hērōĕs lampadĕs basēs Tigrēs nāidĕs

basium
GEN. hērōum lampadum Tigrium nāidum
(-eōn)

hērōibu
D.,A. 1 lampadibus basibus Tigribus nāidibus
s
 basīs (-
ACC. hērōăs lampadăs tigrīs (-idăs) nāidăs
eis)
Fourth Declension:
• Masc. Exceptions:
o Fem.: acus, anus, colus, domus, idus (pl.), manus, nurus, porticus, quinquatrus
(pl.), socrus, tribus
o Neuter: cornu, genu, pecu, veru
• Senatus is 4th Declension, but with genitive in –i
• Dative/Ablative Plural in -ubus retained in partus, tribus, artus, lacus
• Old Genitive Singular in –uis/-uos and plural in –uom rarely occur
• Ablative Singular ended anciently in –ud
• Domus: special case containing both 2nd & 4th declension traits:
Sing Plural
Domus domūs
Domūs domuum (or domōrum)
domuī (or domō) domibus
Domum domōs (or domūs)
domō (or domū) domibus

Fifth Declension:
• All nouns in fifth declension are feminine, except dies (usually masculine) day, and
meridies (m.) noon
• Dies sometimes feminine in singular, especially in phrases indicating a fixed time and
regularly when used of time in general (die constituta, longa dies)
• Of this declension, only dies and res are declined in entirety (most want the plural)
• Locative form is in –e
• Materia, -ies and saevitia, -ies have forms of first and fifth declension.
• Some nouns vary between 5th and 3rd declension as requires (saties, plebes, and fames)

Singularia tantum:
• Most proper nouns: as Caesar, Gallia
• Names of things not counted, but reckoned in mass: as aurum, gold, aer, air, triticum,
wheat
• Abstract nouns
• However, many of these are used in the plural in a different sense
o Plurals of proper names can become strictly common (Ioves = images of Jupiter)
o Plurals of things reckoned in mass can mean specific objects (aera = bronze
utensils)
o Plurals of abstract nouns mean instances of the quality (otia = periods of rest)

Pluralia tantum:
• Names of towns, e.g. Athenae, Thurii, Philippi, Veii
• Festivals + Games: Bacchanalia, Quinquatrus, etc.
• Names of classes
 • Words plural by signification: arma, weapons, artus, joints, divitiae, riches, scalae, stairs,
valvae, folding-doors, fores, double-doors, angustiae, narrow pass, moenia, walls (some
of these are translated into English in the singular, as fides: lyre)

Defective Nouns:
• Indeclinable nouns, used only in nom. and acc. sing.: fas, nefas, instar, nihil, opus, (when
meaning “need”), secus
• Monoptotes:
o Nom. Singular: glos
o Genitive Singular: dicis, nauci
o Dative Singular: divisui
o Accusative Singular: amussim, venum
o Ablative Singular: pondo, mane, astu, iussu, iniussu, natu, etc.
▪ Mane is also used as an indeclinable accusative, old form mani as abl
▪ Pondo with numeral is equivalent to pounds
o Accusative Plural: infitias
• Diptotes:
o Nominative and Ablative Singular: fors, forte
o Genitive and Ablative Singular: spontis (rare), sponte
o Accusative Singular and Plural: dicam, dicas
o Accusative and Ablative Plural: foras, foris
• Triptotes:
o Nominative, Accusative, and Ablative Sg.; impetus, um, u; lues, em, e
o Nominative, Accusative, and Dat./Abl. Pl.: grates, ibus
o Nominative, Genitive, and Dat./Abl. Pl.: iugera, um, ibus
• Tetraptotes:
o Genitive, Dative, Accusative, Ablative Sg.: dicionis, i, em, e
• Nouns declined regularly in plural but defective in singular:
o Nouns found in the singular, in genitive, dative, accusative, ablative: frugis, i, em,
e; opis, i, em, e
• Nouns found in dative, accusative, ablative: preci, em, e
• Nouns found in accusative and ablative: cassem, e; sordem, e
• Found in ablative only: ambage, fauce, obice
• Regular in singular, defective in plural:
o In plural, nominative and accusative only: fel, hordeum, ius (broth), mel, murmur,
pus, rus, tus/thus (ius meaning right has very rare gen pl iurum)
o calx, cor, cos, crux, fax, lanx, lux, nex, os (both), pax, pix, ros, sal, sol, vas want
in the genitive plural
• Most 5 declension nouns want the plural
th

• Nouns defective in both singular and plural:

o Found in genitive, accusative, ablative, and nominative, accusative, dative,
ablative plural: vicis, em, e; vices, vicibus
o Noun found in the genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative singular; genitive
plural wanting: dapis, I, em, e; es, ibus
• Heteroclites
 o colus, domus, and many names of plants in us, vary between 2nd and 4th
declension
o Between 2nd and 3rd: iugerum, Mulciber, sequester, vas
o Between 2nd, 3rd, and 4th: penus
o Between 3rd and 5th: requies, fames, pubes
o Between 3rd and 4th: pecus
• Different stems, same declension
o femur (oris/inis), iecur (iecinoris/iocinoris/iecoris), munus (munera/munia)
• Heterogeneous:
o Masculine form in –us, and neuter in –um: balteus, caseus, clipeus, collum,
cingulum, pileus, tergum, vallum
o Plural a different gender from that of the singular:
▪ balneum (n.), balneae (f.)
▪ caelum (n.), caelos (m.)
▪ carbasus (f.), carbasa (n.)
▪ delicium (n.), deliciae (f.)
▪ epulum (n.), epulae (f.)
▪ frenum (n.), freni (m.), frena (n.) a bridle
▪ iocus (m.), ioca (n.), ioci (m.) jests
▪ locus (m.), loca (n.), loci (m.) topics, passages in books
▪ rastrum (n.), rastri (m.), rastra (n.)
• Nouns with different forms in singular and plural
o aedes, aedis, f. temple; aedes, aedium, house
o aqua, f. water; aquae, mineral springs
o auxilium, n. help; auxilia, auxiliaries
o balneum, bath; balneae, public baths
o bonum, n. good; bona, goods
o carcer, m. dungeon; carceres, barriers (of a race-course)
o castrum, n. fort; castra, camp
o cera, wax; cerae, wax tablets
o comitium, n. place of assembly; comitia, an election
o copia, f. plenty; copiae, troops
o delicia, pleasure; deliciae, f. pet
o fides, f. harp-string; fides, lyre
o finis, m. end; fines, territories
o fortuna, f. fortune; fortunae, possessions
o gratia, f. favor; gratiae, thanks
o hortus, m. garden; horti, pleasure-grounds
o impedimentum, n. hindrance; impedimenta, n. baggage
o littera, f. letter (of alphabet); litterae, literature
o locus, m. place; loci, topics
o ludus, m. sport; ludi, public games
o mos, m. custom; mores, character
o natalis, m. birthday; natales, descent
o nix, f. snow; nives, snowflakes
o opera, f. work; operae, day-laborers
 o ops, opis, f. help; opes, wealth
o pars, f. part; partes, party
o rostrum, n. beak of a ship; rostra, speaker’s platform
o sal, m./n., salt; sales, witticisms
o scala, ladder; scalae, stairs
o tabella, f. tablet; tabellae, records
o vas, n. vessel; vasa, dishes

Adjectives
Various Irregulars:
• meus has the vocative masc. mi
• Lack masc. sing. nom.: cetera, infera, postera, supera
• Have genitive singular in –ius and dative in –i (UNUS NAUTA)
o Ullus
o Nullus
o Unus
o Solus
o Neuter
o Alius
o Uter
o Totus
o Alter
• For alius, the genitive alterius is commonly used
• Comparatives decline like a 3rd declension noun (except plus)
• Several Adjectives vary in declension: gracilis (-us), hilaris (-us), inermis (-us), bicolor (-
orus)
• Indeclinable: damnas, frugi, nequam, necesse, tot, quot, aliquot, totidem
• Defective: exspes (nom. only), exlex (only nom/acc singular), pernox (nom./abl. sg.),
primoris, semineci, etc. (no nom singular)
• Adjectives of common gender (no neuter): adulescens, deses, inops, sospes
o Senex, iuvenis are sometimes called “masculine adjectives”
• Adjectives in –er have superlatives in –errimus
• vetus, vetustior, veterrimus
• rare alternative superlative of maturus: maturrimus
• Six adjectives take a superlative in –limus: facilis, difficilis, similis, dissimilis, gracilis,
humilis
• Compound adjectives:
o maledicus (slanderous); maledicentior, maledicentissimus
o benevolus, benevolentior, benevolintissimus
o malevolus (spiteful): malevolentior, malevolentissimus
o magnificus, grand: magnificentior, magnificentissimus
o providus, providentior, providentissimus (far-sighted)
o egenus, egentior, egentissimus (needy)
• Adjectives in –us proceeded by e or i, such as idoneus, fit: comparative = magis idoneus,
superlative = maxime idoneus, also
 o arduus, magis arduus, maxime arduus
o dubius, magis dubius, maxime dubius
• pius = piisimus or, equally common, pientissimus
• Irregular comparison:
o bonus, melior, optimus
o malus, peior, pessimus
o magnus, maior, maximus
o parvus, minor, minimus
o multus, plus, plurimus
o multi, plures, plurimi
o nequam, worthless, nequior, nequissimus
o frugi, useful, frugalior, frugalissimus
o dexter, dexterior, dextimus
o dives, ditior, ditissimus
o matures, maturior, maturrimus
• Defective comparison:
o Positive and comparative without a superlative:
▪ satis, satius, -
▪ secus (otherwise), setius (worse) ,-
o Comparatives and superlatives without a positive:
▪ ocior, swifter, ocissimus
▪ potior, preferable, potissimus
• Formed from stems not used as adjectives, but with comparative and superlative are:
o cis, citerior, citimus
o de, deterior, deterrimus
o in/intra, interior, intimus
o prae/pro, prior, primus
o prope, propior, proximus
o ultra, ulterior, ultimus
• Positive form rare except when used as nouns:
o exterus, outward, exterior, extremus (extimus)
o inferus, below, inferior, infimus (imus)
o posterus, following, posterior, postremus (postumus)
o superus, above, superior, supremus (summus)
• Comparative rare/wanting: bellus, caesius, falsus, fidus, inclutus/inclitus, invictus,
invitus, meritus, novus, pius, sacer, vafer
• Superlative wanting:
o in adjectives in –ilis/-bilis and,
o actuosus, agrestis, alacer, arcanus, caecus, diuturnus, exilis, ingens, ieiunus,
longinquus, obliquus, opimus, proclivis, propinquus, satur, segnis, serus, supinus,
surdus, taciturnus, tempestivus, teres, vicinus
• iuvenis = iunior/minor natu, maximus natu
• senex = senior/maior natu, maximus natu
• Niger/candidus (shining black/white) are compared, not ater/albus (absolute black/white)
• Many adjectives (as, aureus, golden) are from their meaning incapable of comparison
Numerals:
# Cardinal Ordinal # Cardinal Ordinal
11 undecim undecimus 80 octoginta octogensimus
12 duodecim duodecimus 90 nonaginta nonagensimus
13 tredecim tertius decimus 100 centum centensimus
14 quattuordecim quartus decimus 101 centum et +primus
unus
15 quindecim quintus decimus 200 ducenti/ae/a ducentensimus
16 sedecim sextus decimus 300 Trecenti trecentensimus
17 septendecim septimus 400 quadringenti quadringentisimus
decimus
18 duodeviginti duodevicensimus 500 quingenti quingentensimus
19 undeviginti undevicensimus 600 sescenti sescentensimus
20 viginti vicensimus 700 septingenti septingensimus
21 viginti unus vicensimus 800 octingenti octingensimus
primus
30 triginta tricensimus 900 nonagenti nongentensimus
40 quadraginta quadragensimus 1000 mille millensimus
50 quinquaginta quinquagensimus 5000 quinque Quinquiens
milia millensimus
60 sexaginta sexagensimus 10000 decem milia Deciens
millensimus
70 septuaginta septuagensimus 100000 centum milia Centiens
millensimus
• Sometimes the forms in -ensimus are written without the n (e.g. vicesimus)
• After milia the name of the objects enumerated is in the genitive (duo milia hominum)
• No words for million, billion, etc; these were expressed by multiplication
• Fractions: cardinal/ordinal (pl.), feminine
o If cardinal = 1, it is omitted and pars expressed, e.g. tertia pars = 1/3
o When denominator is 1 greater than numerator, only numerator is given, e.g. duae
partes = 2/3, tres partes = ¾

Distributive numerals:
1 singuli, one by one 40 quadrageni
2 bini, two by two 50 quinquageni
3 terni, trini 60 sexageni
4 quaterni 70 septuageni
5 quini 80 octogeni
6 seni 90 nonageni
7 septeni 100 centeni
8 octoni 200 duceni
9 noveni 300 treceni
10 deni 400 quadringeni
11 undeni 500 quingeni
12 duodeni 600 sesceni
 13 terni deni, etc. 700 septingeni
18 octoni deni, 800 octingeni
duodeviceni
19 noveni deni, 900 nongeni
undeviceni
20 viceni 1000 milleni
21 viceni singuli, etc. 2000 bina milia
30 triceni 10000 dena milia
100000 centena milia

Distributives are used:

• in the sense of so many apiece
• Instead of cardinals, when a noun plural in form but usually singular in meaning is used
in a plural sense; e.g. trina castra (cf terna castra: camps in threes)
• Multiplication: bis bina = twice two
• Poetically instead of cardinals when speaking of sets (bina hastilia: two shafts)

Numeral Adverbs:
1 semel, once 17 septiesdeciens
2 bis, twice 18 duodeviciens
3 ter, thrice 19 undeviciens
4 quater 20 viciens
5 quinquiens 21 semel viciens, etc.
6 sexiens 30 triciens
7 septiens 40 quadragiens
8 octiens 50 quinquagiens
9 noviens 60 sexagiens
10 deciens 70 septuagiens
11 undeciens 80 octogiens
12 Duodeciens 90 nonagiens
13 terdeciens 100 centiens
14 quaterdeciens 200 ducentiens
15 quindeciens 300 trecentiens
16 sedeciens 1000 millens
2000 deciens millens
• Answer the question quotiens, how many times/how often
• Numeral adverbs are used with mille to express the higher numbers, e.g. ter et triciens
(centena milia) sestertium, 3.3 million sesterces (three and thirty times a hundred
thousand sesterces) (centena milia is regularly omitted)

Other Numerals:
• Multiplicatives: simplex, duplex, triplex, quadruplex, quinquiplex, septemplex,
decemplex, centuplex, sesquiplex (1.5), multiplex (manifold)
• Proportionals: duplus, triplus, quadruplus, octuplus, etc. twice as great
 • Temporals: bimus, trimus, of 2 or 3 years’ age; biennis, triennis, lasting 2 or 3 years;
bimestris, trimestris, or 2 or 3 months; biduum, a period of 2 days; biennium, a period of
2 years
• Partitives: binarius, ternarius, of 2 or 3 parts

Pronouns
Types of Pronouns:
• Personal: ego
• Reflexive: se
• Possessive: meus
• Demonstrative: hic
• Relative: qui
• Interrogative: quis?
• Indefinite: aliquis

Irregularities/Notables:
• Old forms of genitive singular: mis, tis; accusative and ablative singular: med, ted
• Forms nostrum/vestrum, etc. are used partitively, nostri/vestri objectively
• Emphatic forms of tu are tute and tutemet
• Early emphatics: mepte/tepte
• Reduplicated: meme/tete
• Emphatic forms in –pte are found in the ablative singular, e.g. suopte
• Rare adjective: cuius, -a, -um (whose)
• One another/each other = inter se/alter…alterum
• Hic is compound of stem ho- and enclitic -ce; -ce is sometimes retained for emphasis
(his-ce)
• Old form of dative/ablative plural of hic: hibus; haec old form of hae
• Old forms of ei and eis (dative feminine): eae, eabus/eibus
• Ille preplaced the earlier ollus (olle)
• Iste is sometimes found in early writing as ste
• Illi and isti, gen sing, illae and istae, dat sing, and istaece, nom pl, are sometimes found
• Ipse compound of is and intensive -pse, also found in eapse, eampse, eopse, etc
• Old form of ipse: ipsus, superlative ipsissimus used for comic effect
• Eccum = ecce eum, this construction used with various pronouns (eccam, eccistam, etc)
• Old forms for the genitive and dative singular are quoius, quoi
• Nominative plural ques occurs in early Latin
• Dative and Ablative Plural in quis
• Both parts of quisquis are declined
• For quidam/quivis/quilibet, substantive neuter is quid and adjective quod
• Aliquis is like qui except aliqua for aliquae in all cases but nom sing fem
• ecquis is declined like aliquis, but has ecquae/ecqua in the nom. sing fem
• Unusquisque: both parts are declined (gen sing is uniuscuiusque)
Verbs
Special Forms:
• Middle voice has reflexive meaning: ferro accingor, I gird myself with my sword
• Pf. Ps. Pcp. With fore also makes a future passive infinitive, e.g. amatus fore
• Present participle of sum would be sons; appears in adjective insons (innocent)
• Imperative of scio = scito/scito
• Forms found chiefly in poetry: -ibam/-ibo for –iebam/-iam (fut) in the 4th conjugation
• Present subjunctive can have -im for -am (perduim for perdam)
• Faxim, iusso, recepso for fecerim, iusseram, recepseram
• Present passive infinitive can be in -ier instead of -i (ducier for duci)
• Form in –asso, -assere is found for future perfect: as, amassis, from amo; levasso, from
levo
• Verbs with more than one set of forms:
o lavo, lavare/lavere to wash
o scateo, scatēre/scatere, to bubble
o ludifico, lucificare/ludificor, ludificari
o fulgo, fulgere/fulgeo, fulgēre
• Deponents have no passive infinitives (i.e. no future passive infinitive)
• Gerundives for deponents found only in transitive verbs, or intransitive verbs used
impersonally (moriendum est omnibus)

Defectives:
• Semi-deponents:
o audeo, audēre, ausus sum
o fido, fidere, fisus sum
o gaudeo, gaudēre, gavisus sum
o soleo, solēre, solitus sum
• audeo has the perfective subjunctive ausim
• Neutral passives: vapulo, veneo, exsulo, fio (veneo is a contraction of venum ire)
• Sometimes semi-deponents
o iuro, iurare, iuratus sum, to swear
o nubo, nubere, nuptus sum, to marry
o placeo, placēre, placitus sum, to please
• Preteritive verbs: novi, suevi, etc.
• First Periphrastic: Fut. Act. Pcp. + forms of sum = future action
• Second Periphrastic: Gerundive + sum, denotes obligation
• Malo has no present participle
• Malo, nolo, volo have no passive system
• Irregular forms of edo: ēs for edis, ēst for edit, ēstis for editis; edim, edis, etc for pres
subj; ēssem, ēsses, etc for imp subj (passive irregular forms: ēstur for editur, ēssētur for
ederetur)
• Eo: Present participle, iens, euntis, gerundive: eundum
• Veneo has several passive forms
• Ppp of odi: osus
• Meminisse has no participles/future infinitive
 • The passive of coepī is often used with the passive infinitive: as, coeptus sum
vocārī, I began to be called, but coepī vocāre, I began to call. For the present
system incipiō is used. Early and rare forms
are coepiō, coepiam, coeperet, coepere.
• Verbs only in present system: maereo, ēre, to be sorrowful; ferio, ferire, to strike
• Pres subj of aio: aias, aiat; imperative (rare): ai; participle: aiens
• Vowels a and i are pronounced separately
• Perf ind of inquam: inquii, inquisti; pres imp: inque; fut imp: inquito; fut inquires
• Queo/nequeo have no imperative/gerundive/supine
• Quaeso (orig form of quaero) has only quaeso, quaesimus, perf system of quaero
• Ovāre (triumph) has ovas, ovat, ovet, ovaret, ovans, ovaturus, ovatus, ovandi
• A few verbs are found chiefly in the Imperative:
• Salve, salvete, salveto, rare salvere, salveo, salvetis, salvebis
• Ave (have), avete, aveto, infinitive avere
• Cĕdo, plural cĕdite (cette): give, tell.
• Apage, begone (appropriated from Greek)

Impersonals List:
• Time and weather
o fulgurat, it is lightening
o luciscit, it is getting light
o pluit, it rains
o tonat, it thunders
o grandinat, it hails
o ningit, it snows
o rorat, the dew falls
o vesperascit, it grows late
• Taking Genitive
o Interest, refert, it concerns (it is of interest to Caesar)
• Taking Dative
o Displicet, it displeases
o licet, it is permitted
o placet, it pleases
o tempus est, it is time
o libet/lubet, it pleases
o necesse est, it is necessary
o prodest, it benefits
o videtur, it seems
• Taking Accusative
o decet, it is fitting
o fallit, it deceives
o oportet, it is necessary
o delectat, it pleases
o iuvat, it helps
• Person affected in acc., cause of feeling in genitive
 o Miseret, it grieves
o paenitet, it repents
o piget, it disgusts
o pudet, it shames
o taedet, it wearies
• Followed by a substantive clause of result
o accidit, contingit, evenit, fit, obtingit, obvenit
• Take an infinitive clause
o Decet
o necesse est
o paenitet
o pudet
o libet
o oportet
o taedet
o licet
o opus est
o placet
o visum est

Verbs from Other Verbs:

• Inceptives/Inchoatives add –sco, denote beginning of an action
• Intensive/Iteratives/Frequentatives add –to/-ito, denote repeated action
• Meditatives (subset of intensives) add –esso, denote eagerness
• Diminutives add –illo, denote feeble/petty action
• Desideratives end in –turio, express longing

Adverbs
• Adverbs from 1st and 2nd Declension Adjectives are in –e
• For 3rd declension –ter
• Some 1st+2nd have both (durus, miser, etc.)
• Comparative of Adverbs = -ius, superlative = -issime
• Defective Comparatives and Superlatives:
o diu, diutius, diutissime
o potius, potissimum
o saepe, saepius, saepissime
o satis, satius
o secus, setius
o multum, magis, maxime
o parum, minus, minime
o nuper, nuperrime
o tempere, temperius

Adverbs
• et, -que, atque (ac), and
 • et...et ; et...-que (atque); -que...et; -que...-que (poetical), both...and
• etiam, quoque, neque nōn (necnōn), quīn etiam, itidem (item), also
• cum...tum; tum...tum, both...and; not only...but also
• quā...quā, on the one hand...on the other hand
• modo...modo, now...now
• aut...aut; vel...vel (-ve), either...or
• sīve (seu)... sīve, whether...or
• nec (neque) ...nec (neque); neque...nec; nec...neque (rare), neither ... nor
• et...neque, both...and not
• nec...et; nec (neque)...-que, neither (both not) ... and
• sed, autem, vērum, vērō, at, atquī, but
• tamen, attamen, sed tamen, vērum tamen, but yet, nevertheless
• nihilōminus, none the less
• at vērō, but in truth; enimvērō, for in truth
• cēterum, on the other hand, but
• nam, namque, enim, etenim, for
• quāpropter, quārē, quamobrem, quōcircā, unde, wherefore, whence
• ergō, igitur, itaque, ideō, idcircō, inde, proinde, therefore, accordingly
• sī, if sīn, but if; nisi (nī), unless, if not; quod sī, but if
• modo, dum, dummodo, sī modo, if only, provided
• dummodo nē (dum nē, modo nē), provided only not
• ut, utī, sīcut, just as; velut, as, so as; prout, ceu, like as, according as
• tamquam (tanquam). quasi, ut sī, ac sī, velutī, velut sī, as if
• quam atque (ac), as than
• etsī, etiamsī, tametsī, even if; quamquam (quanquam), although
• quamvīs, quantumvīs, quamlibet, quantumlibet, however much
• licet (properly a verb), ut cum (quom), though, suppose, whereas
• cum (quom), quandō, when; ubi, ut, when, as; cum prīmum, ubi prīmum, simul,
simul ac, simul atque, as soon as; postquam (posteāquam), after
• prius...quam, ante...quam, before; nōn ante...quam, not until
• dum, ūsque dum, dōnec, quoad, until, as long as, while
• ut (utī), quō, so that, in order that
• nē, ut nē, lest (that...not, in order that not); nēve (neu), that not, nor
• quīn (after negatives), quōminus, but that (so as to prevent), that not
• quia, quod, quoniam (†quom-iam), quandō, because
• cum (quom), since
• quandōquidem, sī quidem, quippe, ut pote, since indeed, inasmuch as
• proptereā...quod, for this reason...that

Interjections
• ō, ēn, ecce, ehem, papae, vāh (of astonishment).
• iō, ēvae, ēvoe, euhoe (of joy).
• heu, ē˘heu, vae, alas (of sorrow).
• heus, eho, ehodum, ho (of calling)
 • êia, euge (of praise).
• prō (of attestation): as, prō pudor, shame!

Suffixes
• -tor/-trix = agent
• -es = descriptive of character
• -o (added to verb) = persons employed in some specific trade, e.g. gero = bearer
• -or, -do, -go = abstract nouns from verb stems
• -ia, -tia, -tas, -tus, -tudo = abstract nouns from adjective stems (rarely from nouns)
• -io, -ionis, -tus = abstract nouns from roots/verbs
• -nia, -nium, -lium, -cinium = abstract nouns from nouns
• -men/-mentum/-monium/-monia = acts/results/means of acts
• -bulum/-culum/-brum/-crum/-trum = means/instruments
• -ium/-tium = neuter abstracts (denote offices and groups)
• Diminutives form the suffixes –ulus/-olus/-culus/-ellus/-illus
• Diminutives often are used to express pity, affection, or contempt
• -cio added to stems in n-, but only for masculines (e.g. homuncio, dwarf)
• Patronymics, indicating descent or relationship, are formed by adding –ades/-ides/-eus/-
as/-is/-eis
• Adjectives meaning full of are formed from –osus/-lens/-lentus
• Adjectives meaning provided with are formed by the stems –tus/-atus/-itus/-utus
• Adjectives of various meanings, but signifying made of/belonging to use the suffixes –
eus/-ius/-aceus/-icius/-aneus/-ticus
• Adjectives denoting pertaining to are formed by –alis/-aris/-elis/-ilis/-ulis
• Adjectives meaning belonging to are formed using -anus/-enus/-inus/-cus/-ceus/-icus/-
eus/-eius/-icius
• Belonging to places/times use –ter/-ester/-timus/-nus/-emus/-urnus/-ternus
• Belonging to use the suffixes –arius/-torius
• Adjectives expressing the action of a verb as a tendency use –ax/-idus/-ulus
• Adjectives expressing passive qualities are formed by –ilis/-bilis/-ius/-tilis
• -ndus forms a few active reflexive adjectives
• -bundus/-cundus denote a continuance of the act or quality expressed by the verb
• -minus/-mnus added to participial roots
• -arius = person employed about anything
• -aria = thing connecting with something (e.g. argentaria)
• -arium = place of a thing
• -torium/-sorium = place of action
• -ile = animal stall
• -al/-ale = think connected with the primitive
• -etum/-tum = place of a thing, especially a place where plants grow
• -o + noun stems = possessed of (e.g. epulae, feast; epulo, feaster)
Syntax:
Miscellaneous Rules of Syntax:
• Synesis: an adjective referring to a collective noun takes an adjective of a different
gender/number to indicate the individuals implied, not the actual grammar of the noun
• Superlative in the predicate can (rarely) take the gender of a partitive genitive modifying
it: velocissimum animalium delphinus est
• An adjective, agreeing with the subject or object, often has the force of an adverb: primus
venit, he was the first to come.
• With quam, vel, unus, the superlative denotes the highest possible degree (quam plurimi)
• A high degree can also be denoted by admodum, valde, etc, a low one by sub, parum,
minus
• When 2 qualities of an object are compared, both adjectives are in the comparative. Same
for adverbs, e.g. verior quam gratior, more true than agreeable
• Where magis is used, both adjectives are in the positive, e.g. clari magis quam honesti
• Superlatives can denote a part of an object, e.g. summus mons (the top of the hill)
• quisque used w/superl. and ordinal numerals, as:
o nobilissimus quisque = all the noblest
o primo quoque tempore = at the very first opportunity
o quotus quisque = how few
• Genitive + Ablative of nullus used in place of nemo
• Nonne requires yes answer, num no answer
• Particles –nam (encl.) and tandem may be added to interrogative pronouns adverbs for
the sake of emphasis
• YES: vero, etiam, ita, sane, certe, factum, ita vero, sane quidem, ita est
• NO: non, nullo modo, minime, minime vero, non quidem, non hercle vero

Noun Case Uses:

• All cases except for nominative and vocative are sometimes called oblique cases (casus
obliqui)
• Nominative:
o Subjects
o May be used in exclamations, e.g. en dextra fidesque
• Vocative:
o The vocative of an adjective is sometimes used in poetry instead of nominative,
where verb is in the second person (quo moriture ruis)
o The vocative macte is used as a predicate in the phrase macte esto virtute, success
attend to your valor
• Genitive:
o Possession
o Appositional: limiting genitive in place of nominative, e.g. nomen insaniae
(replacing insania as a nominative appositive to mean the word, madness)
o Material: talentum auri
o Quality (only when quality modified by an adjective): vir summae virtutis
o Measure (more specific quality), with numerals, denotes heights and depths more
than lengths (fossa trium pedum)
 o Partitive: Numbers take ablative, uterque and quisque take partitive genitive only
when used with pronouns (uterque consul but uterque nostrum)
o Objective: Nouns of action, agency, feeling, genitive as direct object replacement,
usually translated as “for”
o W/ ADJ: Desire, knowledge, memory, fullness, power, sharing, guilt
o Specification: Uses adjective, denotes with reference to which the quality exists,
e.g. pauper aquae, fessi rerum
o Special Verbs: Remembering and Forgetting, Pity (misereo[r]), Pleny and want
(these more common with ablative), sometimes potior, always with potiri rerum,
to be master of affairs, memini and obliviscor take acc when meaning literally
retaining in mind or losing all trace of in mind as opposed to bringing to
mind/dismissing from mind, recordor regularly acc; verbs of reminding
(admoneo, commoneo) take acc of person, gen of thing
o Charge: Verbs of accusing, condemning, and acquitting (ablative for definite
amounts of time, often for indefinite penalties)
o Impersonals, miseret, paenitet, piget, pudet, taedet, take genitive of cause of
feeling and accusative of person affected
▪ With impersonals, the cause of the feeling may be expressed by an
infinitival clause
o (Indefinite) Price: Adjectives like magni, parvi, tanti, quanti, pluri, minori, e.g.
mea magni interest, it is of great consequence to me
o Impersonals refert, interest take the genitive of the person affected
▪ Subject of the verb, neuter pronoun/substantive clause, e.g. Clodi intererat
Milonem perire, it was in the interest of Clodius that Milo should die
▪ Instead of genitive of personal pronoun, the corresponding possessive is
denoted by ablative
▪ Accusative with ad is used to express the thing with reference to which
one is interested
o Apparent genitive animi, which is really locative (in my mind) is used with some
verbs of feeling (qui pendet animi- who is in suspense)
o Exclamation
o Prepositions taking the genitive: causa, gratia, ergo, instar, tenus
• Dative:
o Indirect Object
o Special Verbs
▪ Transitive with accusative (to distinguish meanings or sometimes
indistinguishably between intransitive with dative), Intransitive with
dative (adulor, aemulor, despero, praestolor, medeor)
▪ Impersonals: libet, licet, verbs compounded with satis, bene, male
▪ Gratificor, gratulor, nubo, permitto, plaudo, probo, studio, supplico,
excello
o Compound Verbs
o Possession, also with desum + absum
o Agent: gerundive, etc. also w/ pf. pcp.
o Dative of Direction: used occasionally in poetry instead of accusative with a
preposition
 o Reference: depends on meaning of sentence, denotes the person or thing for
whose benefit or to whose prejudice the action is performed (encompasses
Advantage/Disadvantage, Person Judging)
o Ethical: used to s how a certain interest felt by the person indicated
o Separation: verbs of taking away (compounds)
o Purpose: shows for which a thing serves/which it accomplishes
o With adjective: fitness, nearness, likeness, service, inclination
• Accusative:
o Direct Object
o Impersonals: decet, dedecet, delectat, iuvat, opeortet, fallit, fugit, preverit (ita ut
vos decet)
o Cognate
o Double Accusative
▪ 2 kinds
▪ Direct object + predicate, with verbs meaning to call, appoint, nominate,
consider, estimate, judge etc.
▪ Person direct object + thing direct object: to show, to hide, to seek, to ask
▪ However, flagito, posco, quaero, peto, postulo do not take double
o Duration of time
o Extent of space
o Adverbial: id temporis, id aetatis, id genus, meam vicem, bonam partem,
maximam partem, virile secus, quod si
o Greek: denotes part affected
o DO of V in Middle Voice
o Exclamation
• Ablative
o Separation
o Source: denotes from which anything is derived (no preposition necessary with
words denoting birth)
o Material: What it’s made of
o Cause
o Agent
o Comparison
o Means/Instrument (encompasses PUFFV)
o Manner
o Accompaniment
o Degree of Difference: w/ comparatives and words implying comparison
o Quality: Used w/ adj./gen. modifier
o Price (both definite and indefinite, mostly definite)
o Specification: denotes in respect to which anything is/is done (they excel in
courage), also the use for ablative supines
o Ablative Absolute
o Time when
o Time within which
o Place from which
o Place where (Locative Ablative): taken by fretus, contentus, laetus
 o Egeo can also take the genitive
• Only islands that don’t take the locative: Sicily and Ithaca

Independent Subjunctive Uses:

• Hortatory/Jussive: negative = ne
• Optative (buzzword: utinam): negative = ne
• Deliberative: negative = non
• Potential (buzzword: forsitan)

Dependent Subjunctive Uses:

• Some conditionals (Present Contrary to Fact, Past Contrary to Fact, Future Less Vivid)
• Concessive Clauses
• Proviso Clauses
• Purpose Clauses with “ut”
• Relative Clauses of Characteristic
• Relative Clauses of Purpose
• Result Clauses with “ut”
• Relative Clauses of Result
• Cum Causal Clauses
• Cum Concessive Clauses
• Cum Circumstantial Clauses
• Temporal Clauses
• Substantive Clauses of Purpose
• Fear Clauses
• Substantive Clauses of Result

Imperative:
• Scio, memini, and habeo (meaning consider) often use the future imperative
• Prohibition: noli + infinitive, cave + present subjunctive, ne + perfect subjunctive

Infinitive Uses:
• Used as the apparent subject with many impersonal verbs, such as libet, licet, oportet,
decet, placet, pudet, visum est, piget, etc.
• Complementary: Verbs which require another half to complete the meaning verbs of
being able, daring, undertaking, remembering, forgetting, being accustomed,
continuing, etc.
• Indirect Statement
• Purpose: w/ habeo, do, ministro, paratus, suetus (rare, replaces gerund)
• Subjective: Subject of a Sentence
• Objective: DO of a Sentence
• Exclamatory: ne often attached to the first word in sentence
• Historical: Replaces imperfect indicative
Sequence of Tenses:
• Primary System = P, F, FP, P and PF subj., and P and F imperative
• Secondary System = Imperfect, Perfect, IMPF + PP subj, Historical infinitive
• Prim. in independent -> P/PF in dependent
• Sec. in independent -> IMPF/PP in dependent
• Perfect subjunctive rarely used in result clauses after secondary verbs

Gerund and Gerundive Uses:

• Gerundive
o Used to agree with a noun
o Obligation
o After verbs of giving, delivering, agreeing, having, receiving, undertaking,
demanding gerundive in agreement w/ an object is used to express purpose
• Gerund:
o Ad + gerund = purpose
o Causa/gratia + gerund = purpose
• Basically, gerund + object of a gerund vs. gerundive, which is basically an adjective

Conditionals:
• Future more vivid: fut perf + fut or fut + fut
• General conditions: indicative in apodosis (present for present, imperfect for past)
• Fut act pcp with eram or fui can replace imp/pp subj in the apodosis of a contrafactual
• Fut act pcp can replace present subjunctive in a conditional
• Nisi vs. si non: nisi- apodosis is universally true except in the single case supposed (nisi
Conon adest, maereo, unless Conon is here, I mourn); si non- apodosis only true in the
negative case supposed, no statement about other cases (si Conon non adest, maereo, if
Conon is not here, I mourn)

Other Clauses:
• Clauses of comparison: take the subjunctive, usually in the pres./pf. unless sequence of
tenses requires imp/pp, introduced by tamquam, quasi, etc. (tamquam sic laudus sim)
• Particles of concession: quamvis, ut, licet, etsi, tametsi, etiam si, quamquam, cum
• Quamvis + ut take subjunctive, licet does as well (licet limited to pres/perf subjunctive by
sequence of tenses, since it is a present-tense verb)
• etsi = etiam si = tametsi = si
• quamquam takes the indicative, introduces an admitted fact
• dum, modo, dummodo, and tantum, ut, introduce proviso and take the subjunctive
• negative with proviso= ne
• RCC: multi sunt qui, nonnulli sunt qui, etc, mood depends on author intent
• RCC can follow unus and solus
• RCC with quam ut/quam qui can be used after comparatives: Canachi signa sunt rigidiora
quam ut imitentur veritatem (the Canachian statues are too stiff to represent nature)
• Negative of RCCs with digni, etc: non
• Quod, quia, quando, quoniam take indicative, subjunctive within indirect discourse
• Relatives regularly take the subjunctive when used to express cause
 • Cum clauses
o Temporal: Time at which something occurs without further relationship,
indicative
o Circumstantial: Circumstances or surrounding events at the time of action,
subjunctive
o Causal: cause of action, subjunctive
o Concessive: subjunctive
• Substantive Clause of Purpose: used as the objectives of verbs denoting an action towards
the future: e.g. to warn, ask, command, wish, it is the same thing as an indirect command

Uses of Quin/Quominus:
• Quin:
o Result, used after a negative result clause to mean qui non
o Used in a clause of characteristic to mean qui non
o With verbs of hindering, when negative
o Non dubito + non est dubium
o +indic. = why not
• Quominus: Used with verbs of hindering to mean “to prevent from” when no negative is
implied

Subordinate Clause Mood Summary:

• Antequam and priusquam take sometimes indicative, sometimes subjunctive
o Perfect indicative states a fact in past time
o Imperfect subjunctive denotes purpose/expectancy/that the action did not take
place
o Present/future perfect indicative refers to future
• Dum + quoad take the pres./impf. subjunctive implying intention/expectancy
• Donec + quoad with perfect indicative denote an actual fact in past time
• Verbs of permitting, determining, decreeing, resolving, bargaining, take subj/infinitive
• Verbs of caution, effort take subjunctive with ut, except conor, which takes comp inf
• Volo, licet, oportet, dic, fac often take subjunctive without ut
• Use fore with a substantive clause of result if a verb has no supine ste (cum viderem fore
ut non possem)
• Indirect Question: For the future, use active periphrastic
• Accusative of Anticipation: subject of indirect question dragged into main clause as
object (nosti Marcellum quam tardus sit for nosti quam tardus sit Marcellus)
• Attraction occurs when the clause is considered a necessary part of the sentence
• A real question in indirect discourse takes the subjunctive; rhetorical questions take
infinitive with subject accusative
• All commands in indirect discourse are in the subjunctive
• The protasis of a conditional in indirect discourse is in the subjunctive, while the
apodosis is in the infinitive
Helpful Lists
Enclitics List:
 • -ce = demonstrative
• -dum = now
• -met = emphasis
• -nam = emphasis
• -ne = asks a question
• -pte – own, self
• -que = and
• -te = self
• -ve = or

Coordinate Conjunctions List:

• cum…tandem = although…nevertheless
• cum…tum = both…and/not only…but also/although…nevertheless
• mono…modo = now…now
• qua…qua = on the one hand…on the other
• quanto gravior…tanto crebiores = the severer…the more frequently
• quo minus…eo plus = the less … the more
• tam … quam = so…as
• tantus…quantus = as great…as
• tot…quot = as many … as
• tum…tum = not only, but also

Abbreviated Forms List:

• faciendum est = faciendumst
• fors sit an = forsitan (old use: indirect question)
• homo est = homost
• qui ne = quin
• si audes = sodes
• si vultis = sultis
• ut eo = quo
• ut eo minus = quominus (old use: relative clause of purpose)
• ut is = qui, quis
• venum dare = vendere
• venum ire = venire
• visne, sciscne = vin, scin
• futurum esse = fore
• tetuli = tuli

Irregular verbs:
• 1st conjugation with irregular perfect: crepo, cubo, domo, frico, iuvo, lavo, mico, no,
neco, plico, poto, seco, sono, sto, tono, veto
• Reduplicative: cado, cano, credo, disco, do, fallo, mordeo, pango, parco, pario, pello,
pendeo, pendo, perdo, posco, reperio, sto, tango, tendo, tondeo, tundo
Money:
• The as, divided into twelve unciae
• Denarius = 10 asses, sestertius = 2.5 asses
• 10 asses/4 sestertii = 1 denarius
• 1000 sestertii = 1 sestertium

Measurements:
• Length
o 12 unciae = 1 Roman foot
o 1.5 feet = 1 cubit
o 2.5 feet = 1 gradus
o 5 feet = 1 passus, 1000 paces = 1 mile
o iugerum = 240 by 120 ft.
• Volume
o 1 talent = 60 librae
o 12 cyathi = 1 sextarius (nearly pint)
o 16 sextarii = 1 modius (peck)
o 6 sextarii = 1 congius (3 quarts)
o 8 congii = 1 amphora

Fractions:
• 1/12 = uncia
• 1/6 = sextans
• ¼ = quadrans
• 1/3 = triens
• 5/12 = quincunx
• ½ = semis
• 7/12 = septunx
• 2/3 = bes(sis)
• ¾ = dodrans
• 5/6 = dextans
• 11/12 = deunx
• 12/12 = as

Miscellaneous:
• Trees: ables, castanea, cyparissus, fagus, ficus, ilex, larix, malus, myrtus, ornus, pinus,
populus, salix, taxus, ulmus, almus, cerasus, cypressus, farnus, fraxinus, iuglans, laurus,
morus, olea, palma, pirus, quercus, tamarix, tilla
• Only infix in Latin: -m-
• Only diminutive in the Aeneid: parvulus