UNIT – 3

AC models
Base biased amplifier

Coupling Capacitor

Figure (a) shows an ac voltage source connected to a capacitor and a resistor. Since the impedance of the
capacitor is inversely proportional to frequency, the capacitor effectively blocks dc voltage and transmits ac
voltage.
When the frequency is high enough, the capacitive reactance is much smaller than the resistance.
In this case, almost all the ac source voltage appears across the resistor. When used in this way, the capacitor is
called a coupling capacitor because it couples or transmits the ac signal to the resistor.
Coupling capacitors are important because they allow us to couple an ac signal into an amplifier without
disturbing its Q point.
For a coupling capacitor to work properly, its reactance must be much smaller than the resistance at the lowest
frequency of the ac source. For instance, if the frequency of the ac source varies from 20 Hz to 20 kHz, the
worst case occurs at 20 Hz. A circuit designer will select a capacitor whose reactance at 20 Hz is much smaller
than the resistance. How small is small? As a definition:
Base biased amplifier

Coupling Capacitor
For instance, if the frequency of the ac source varies from 20 Hz to 20 kHz, the worst case occurs at 20 Hz. A
circuit designer will select a capacitor whose reactance at 20 Hz is much smaller than the resistance. How small
is small? As a definition:
EX:- if R=2 kΩ and the frequency range is from 20 Hz to 20 kHz, find the value of C needed
to act as a good coupling capacitor of given figure.
EX:- if R=2 kΩ and the frequency range is from 20 Hz to 20 kHz, find the value of C needed
to act as a good coupling capacitor of given figure.
 Emitter-Biased Amplifier

The base-biased amplifier has an unstable Q point. For this reason, it is not used much as an
amplifier. Instead, an emitter-biased amplifier (either VDB or TSEB) with its stable Q point
is preferred.

• Bypass Capacitor
A bypass capacitor is similar to a coupling capacitor because it appears open to direct current
and shorted to alternating current. But it is not used to couple a signal between two points.
Instead, it is used to create an ac ground.
• Bypass Capacitor
Fig.(a) shows an ac voltage source connected to a resistor and a capacitor. The resistance R
represents the Thevenin resistance as seen by the capacitor. When the frequency is high
enough, the capacitive reactance is much smaller than the resistance. In this case, almost all
the ac source voltage appears across the resistor. Stated another way, point E is effectively
shorted to ground.
When used in this way, the capacitor is called a bypass capacitor because it bypasses or shorts
point E to ground. A bypass capacitor is important because it allows us to create an ac ground
in an amplifier without disturbing its Q point.
• Bypass Capacitor
For a bypass capacitor to work properly, its reactance must be much smaller than the
resistance at the lowest frequency of the ac source. The definition for good bypassing is
identical to that for good coupling.

When this rule is satisfied, Fig.(a) can be replaced by the equivalent circuit in Fig.(b)
• Discrete versus Integrated Circuits

• The VDB amplifier in Fig. 8-8 is the standard way to build a discrete transistor amplifier.
Discrete means that all components, such as resistors, capacitors, and transistors, are
separately inserted and connected to get the final circuit. A discrete circuit differs from an
integrated circuit (IC), in which all the components are simultaneously created and
connected on a chip, a piece of semiconductor material.
• TSEB Circuit
• Figure shows a two-supply emitter bias (TSEB) amplifier.

• Figure shows two coupling capacitors and an emitter bypass capacitor. The ac operation
of the circuit is similar to that of a VDB amplifier. We couple a signal into the base. The
signal is amplified to get the collector voltage. The amplified signal is then coupled to the
load.
• TSEB Circuit
• Notice the waveforms. The ac input voltage is a small sinusoidal voltage. The base voltage has a small ac
component riding on a dc component of approximately 0 V. The total collector voltage is an inverted sine
wave riding on the dc collector voltage of 15.32 V. The load voltage vout is the same amplified signal with
no dc component.

• Again, notice the pure dc voltage on the emitter, a direct result of using the bypass capacitor. If the bypass
capacitor were to open, an ac voltage would appear at the emitter. This would greatly reduce the voltage
gain. Therefore, when troubleshooting an amplifier with bypass capacitors, remember that all ac grounds
should have zero ac voltage
• AC Beta
• The current gain in all discussions up to this point has been dc current gain. This was defined as

• The currents in this formula are the currents at the Q point in Fig. 8-12. Because of the curvature in the
graph of IC versus IB, the dc current gain depends on the location of the Q point

• Definition
• The ac current gain is different. It is defined as

• In words, the ac current gain equals the ac collector current divided by the ac base current. In Fig. the ac
signal uses only a small part of the graph on both sides of the Q point. Because of this, the value of the ac
current gain is different from the dc current gain, which uses almost all of the graph
• AC Beta

• Graphically,β equals the slope of the curve at the Q point in Fig. If we were to bias the transistor to a
different Q point, the slope of the curve would change, which means that β would change. In other words,
the value of β depends on the amount of dc collector current.

• On data sheets,βdc is listed as hFE and β is shown as hfe. Notice that capital subscripts are used with dc
current gain, and lowercase subscripts with ac current gain. The two current gains are comparable in value,
not differing by a large amount. For this reason, if you have the value of one, you can use the same value for
the other in preliminary analysis
• Notation

• To keep dc quantities distinct from ac quantities, it is standard practice to use capital

letters and subscripts for dc quantities. For instance, we have been using
• Two Transistor Models
• To analyze the ac operation of a transistor amplifier, we need an ac-equivalent circuit for a transistor. In
other words, we need a model for the transistor that simulates how it behaves when an ac signal is present.

• The T Model

• One of the earliest ac models was the Ebers-Moll model shown in Fig. As far as a small ac signal is
concerned, the emitter diode of a transistor acts like an ac resistance and the collector diode acts like a
current source . Since the Ebers-Moll model looks like a T on its side, the equivalent circuit is also called
the T model.
• The T Model

• When analyzing a transistor amplifier, we can replace each transistor by a T model. Then, we can calculate
the value of and other ac quantities like voltage gain.

• When an ac input signal drives a transistor amplifier, an ac base-emitter voltage vbe is across the emitter
diode, as shown in Fig. This produces an ac base current ib. The ac voltage source has to supply this ac base
current so that the transistor amplifier will work properly. Stated another way, the ac voltage source is
loaded by the input impedance of the base.
• Figure(b) illustrates the idea. Looking into the base of the transistor, the ac voltage source sees an input
impedance zin(base). At low frequencies, this impedance is purely resistive and defined as:
• The T Model

• Applying Ohm’s law to the emitter diode of Fig(a), we can write:

• Substitute this equation into the preceding one to get

• This equation tells us that the input impedance of the base is equal to the ac current gain multiplied by the
ac resistance of the emitter diode.
• The π Model

• Figure (a) shows the π model of a transistor. It’s a visual representation of Eq. .The model is
easier to use than the T model. On the other hand, the model clearly shows that an input impedance of
will load the ac voltage source driving the base.

• Since the and T models are ac-equivalent circuits for a transistor, we can use either one when analyzing an
amplifier. Most of the time, we will use the model.
• Analyzing an Amplifier

• Amplifier analysis is complicated because both dc and ac sources are in the same circuit.
To analyze amplifiers, we can calculate the effect of the dc sources and then the effect of
the ac sources. When using the superposition theorem in this analysis, the effect of each
source acting alone is added to get the total effect of all sources acting simultaneously.
• The DC-Equivalent Circuit
• The simplest way to analyze an amplifier is to split the analysis into two parts: a dc
analysis and an ac analysis. In the dc analysis, we calculate the dc voltages and currents.
To do this, we mentally open all capacitors. The circuit that remains is the dc-equivalent
circuit.

• With the dc-equivalent circuit, you can calculate the transistor currents and voltages as
needed. If you are troubleshooting, approximate answers are adequate. The most
important current in the dc analysis is the dc emitter current. This is needed to calculate
for the ac analysis.
• AC Effect of a DC Voltage Source
• Figure (a) shows a circuit with ac and dc sources. What is the ac current in a circuit like
this? As far as the ac current is concerned, the dc voltage source acts like an ac short, as
shown in Fig(b). Why? Because a dc voltage source has a constant voltage across it.
Therefore, any ac current flowing through it cannot produce an ac voltage across it. If no
ac voltage can exist, the dc voltage source is equivalent to an ac short.

• Applying superposition to Fig(a), we can calculate the effect of each source acting
separately while the other is reduced to zero. Reducing the dc voltage source to zero is
equivalent to shorting it. Therefore, to calculate the effect of the ac source in Fig(a), we
can short the dc voltage source.
• AC-Equivalent Circuit

• After analyzing the dc-equivalent circuit, the next step is to analyze the ac equivalent
circuit. This is the circuit that remains after you have mentally shorted all capacitors and
dc voltage sources. The transistor can be replaced by either the model or the T model