P a g e | 406

2022 PHYSICS PRACTICAL QUESTIONS Repeat the whole experiment as shown in the figure, with mass
m immersed into a beaker with water and record the new
Answer All Questions. distances 𝑑2 , of 𝑚1 from G. Record your results as shown below.
d/cm 𝑑1 /𝑐𝑚 𝑑2 /𝑐𝑚 𝑑1 − 𝑑2 /𝑐𝑚
QUESTION 1: 10.0
Solid of unknown mass m, metre rule, knife edge, beaker with 15.0
water, threads, a 100kg mass 𝑚1 20.0
25.0
10cm 30.0
G
(i)Plot a graph of di against (𝑑1 − 𝑑2 )
(ii) Determine the slope of the graph.
(iii) IR is the relative density of the solid, show that 𝑑1 =
𝑅(𝑑1 − 𝑑2 )
d d1
(iv) What does the slope represent?
[Total 10 Marks]

M M1
Question 2
10cm APPARATUS:
G
Voltmeter, a pair of battery 3V, 20 resistor, Key, Potentiometer,
Jockey and set of connecting wires

R K
E
d1 A
d
d
s

M M1 A Jockey
PROCEDURE
I. Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram above.
PROCEDURE
II Close the key and use the jockey to make contact with the
Determine the centre of gravity, G, of the metre rule
potentiometer wire such that d = 10 cm
Balance the rule a knife at G
III Read and record the value of the potential difference V.
Hang the solid of unknown mass m at the 10cm mark from the Evaluate 𝑑 −1 and 𝑉 −1
edge of the rule. From the other end of the metre rule hang the
IV. Repeat the experiment ford- 20, 30, 40, 50, and 60 cm
known mass 𝑚1 (=100kg) and adjust until the rule balances
respectively. Determine the values of V, 𝑉 −1 and 𝑑 −1 in each
horizontally.
case. Tabulate your readings as shown below.
Measure and record the distances d and d1 of m and m1 from G.
Repeat the experiment using the following distances d from the d/cm 𝑉(𝑣) 𝑉 −1 (𝑣 −1 ) 𝑑 −1 (𝑐𝑚−1 )
edge of the rule 15,20,25,30 cm
 P a g e | 407

10.0 (iii) let 𝑤𝑎 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟

20.0
30.0 𝑤𝑤 = Weight of unknown solid in water
40.0 R = relative density of solid
50.0
60.0 By the principle of moments
𝑤𝑎 × 𝑑 = 𝑤1 × 𝑑1 and 𝑤𝑤 × 𝑑 = 𝑤1 × 𝑑2
V. Plot a graph with 𝑑 −1 on the vertical axis and 𝑉 −1 on the
𝑤1 𝑑1
horizontal axis, starting both axes from the origin (0, 0). ∴𝑤𝑤 =
𝑑

VI. Determine the slope S of the graph, hence evaluate K = 1/S, 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟
Relative density =
hence state the physical implications of your result. 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

VII. State TWO precautions taken to ensure accurate results. 𝑤𝑎 𝑑1

𝑅= =
𝑤𝑎 − 𝑤𝑤 𝑑1 − 𝑑2
VIII. Explain the term Ohmic conductor".
∴ 𝑑1 = 𝑅(𝑑1 − 𝑑2 )
[Total- 10 Marks]
(iv) Therefore, the graph of 𝑑1 against 𝑑1 − 𝑑2 will have a slope
equal to the relative density of the solid.
Solution ∴ slope = relative density
1. 2. (iv)
d/cm 𝑑1 /𝑐𝑚 𝑑2 /𝑐𝑚 𝑑1 − 𝑑2 /𝑐𝑚
d/cm 𝑉(𝑣) 𝑉 −1 (𝑣 −1 ) 𝑑 −1 (𝑐𝑚−1 )
10.0 42.00 39.00 3.00
15.0 39.50 35.00 4.50 10.0 0.60 1.667 0.100
20.0 35.00 30.00 5.00 20.0 0.80 1.250 0.050
25.0 30.00 27.20 2.80 30.0 1.00 1.000 0.033
30.0 27.20 20.50 6.70 40.0 1.20 0.833 0.025
50.0 1.40 0.714 0.020
(i) Plot graph
60.0 1.60 0.625 0.017

𝑑1 cm
(v)

d-1 x10-2cm-1

40 10
35
9
30
8
25
7
20
6
15 5
10 4
5
3
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 𝑑1 − 𝑑2 /𝑐𝑚 2
1
∆𝑑1
(ii) Slope =
∆(𝑑1 −𝑑2 )
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 V-1x10-1
6
 P a g e | 408

∆𝑑 −1 (4.6−1.0)×10−2 3.6×10−2
(vi) slope, 𝑠 = = =
∆𝑉 −1 (12−5.4)×10−1 6.6×10−1

= 0.0545𝑣/𝑐𝑚
1 1
𝑘= = = 18.3𝑐𝑚/𝑣
𝑠 0.0545
vii Precautions with Potentiometer:
*emf of the cell connecting in primary circuit must be more than
or equal to the emf of the cell of secondary circuit otherwise
zero deflection can not be obtained.
* All the high potential points or positive terminals should be
connected at A.
* Balancing length should be calculated from A.
Viii. Ohmic conductors are those electrical conductors that
follow Ohms law. In other words there is a linear relationship Fig. 1.1
between voltage and current for all values
ii. Measure and record the distance ℎ between the pin and
the mark.
2021 jupeb physics practical
c) Displace the card shape/metre rule to the left. Release the shape
Question 1:
and watch its movement. The shape will move to the right and
Apparatus: Performed metre rule, split cork, retort stand and then to the left again, completing a swing as shown in Fig. 1.2.
clamp, one optical pin, stop watch.

Procedure:

a) You are provided with a T-shaped card/metre rule. The

card/metre rule has a mark on it and 14 holes. Label the holes on
the card/metre rule, 1 to 14, starting from the top end as shown
in Fig. 1.1.
b) i. Set up the apparatus, placing the pin through hole
number 9, as shown in Fig. 1.1.

Fig. 1.2

Measure and record the time for at least 10 swings.

Record enough readings to determine an accurate value for the

time 𝑇 taken for one complete swing.
d) Vary ℎ, by changing the hole through which the pin is placed
upward, and repeat (b)ii and (c) until you have six sets of
values of ℎ and 𝑇.
Include values of 𝑇 2 ℎ and ℎ2 in your table.
 P a g e | 409

e) i. Plot a graph of 𝑇 2 ℎ on the y-axis against ℎ2 on the x- v. Repeat the proceeding step to obtain SIX sets of
axis. readings of 𝐼 and 𝑉.
ii. Draw the straight line of best fit. vi. Record your results as shown in table below.
iii. Determine the gradient and y-intercept of this line.
𝑉(𝑉)
The qualities 𝑇 and ℎ are related by the equation.
𝐼(𝐴)
𝑇 2 ℎ = 𝑃ℎ2 + 𝑄
𝐸 − 𝑉(𝑉)
Where 𝑃 and 𝑄 are constants.
Using your answers from (e)(iii), determine the values of 𝑃
and 𝑄. Question 3:
Give appropriate units. [TOTAL = 10
a. Plot a graph of (𝐸 − 𝑉) against 𝐼.
Marks]
b. Determine the slope of the graph.
Question 2: c. State the relationship between 𝐸, 𝑉, 𝐼 and 𝑟 where 𝑟 is the
internal resistance of the cell.
Apparatus: Two cells of 1.5 V each, high resistance voltmeter (0
d. Hence, determine the internal resistance, 𝑟 of the cell.
– 5V), ammeter (0 – 1A), variable resistor, connecting wires and
a key. e. Why do we use a high resistance voltmeter in this
experiment?
f. State two precautions you took to ensure accuracy.

Solution

Question 1:

Fig. 2

Procedure:

i. Set up the circuit as shown in Fig. 2.

ii. With the key opened, record the reading of the voltmeter
connected across the cell. Record this value as 𝐸.
iii. Close the key and adjust the variable resistance so that a small
current passes through the circuit. Record this current (𝐼) and
the corresponding voltmeter reading (𝑉).
iv. Keep the key closed and adjust the variable resistance to
obtain a slightly larger current. Record the value of this
Date: 1(a) to (c)
current 𝐼 and the corresponding voltmeter reading 𝑉.
Experiment: Experiment I
 P a g e | 410

Title: Compound Pendulum Experiment Diagram:

Apparatus: (d) Readings:

S/N 𝒉(𝒎) 𝒉𝟐 (𝒎𝟐 ) 𝒕(𝒔) 𝒕 𝑻𝟐 (𝒔𝟐 ) 𝑻𝟐 𝒉(𝒔𝟐 𝒎)

𝑻= (𝒔)
𝟏𝟎
1 0.45 0.2025 26.29 2.629 6.9116 3.1102
2 0.55 0.3025 26.28 2.628 6.9064 3.7985
3 0.60 0.3600 19.38 1.938 3.7558 2.2535
4 0.65 0.4225 16.85 1.685 2.8392 1.8454
5 0.70 0.4900 15.76 1.576 2.4838 1.7386
6 0.75 0.5625 15.32 1.532 2.3470 1.7603

𝑉(𝑣) 2.00 2.40 2.60 2.70 2.75 2.80

𝐼(𝐴) 1.00 0.60 0.45 0.33 0.27 0.23
(e) (𝑖)𝑇 2 ℎ(𝑠 2 𝑚) 𝐸−𝑣 1.00 0.60 0.40 0.30 0.25 0.20
(c) 𝐸 = 𝐼(𝑅 + 𝑟) = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑟 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑟

(d) From the graph, 𝑟 = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒; 𝑟 = 1.05Ω

(e) To prevent current from flowing through the voltmeter.

(f) I avoided error due to parallax when reading the

ammeter and voltmeter.

(g) I ensured tight corrections.

JUPEB PRACTICAL 2020

∆𝑇 2 ℎ(𝑠 2 𝑚)
(𝑖𝑖)𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = Question1
∆ℎ2 (𝑚2 )
APPARATUS: 500𝑐𝑚3 beaker, water, thermometer, 100g
= −5.272𝑠 2 /𝑚 mass, stirrer, measuring cylinder (100𝑐𝑚3 ), pair of tongs and
Bunsen burner.
𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 = 4.47

𝑇 2ℎ = 𝑃 ℎ2 + 𝑄
(𝑖𝑖𝑖) ↓ . ↓ ↓ . ↓ Thermometer
𝑦 . 𝑚 𝑥 . 𝑐
Stirrer
𝑃 = 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = −5.272𝑠 2 /𝑚

𝑄 = 4.47𝑠 2 𝑚
Beaker
Water
Question 2:
Mass(100g)
Table of values

𝐸 = 3.00
 P a g e | 411

Power source Key

Pair of tongs Mass(100g) A

x
A C B
Flame

Figure 1
V
PROCEDURE

Using a measuring cylinder, measure 100𝑐𝑚3 of water into Figure 2

the beaker. Record this volume as V. Measure and record the
initial temperature of the water t. Calculate the mass of the PROCEDURE
water M using the formula: Mass = density x volume. Where
(a) Place the sliding contact C on the resistance wire AB at a
density of water 1g𝑐𝑚−3 . Using a pair of tongs, hold the
distance x from A, where x = 0.100 m.
100g mass in the flame of a Bunsen burner for 4 minutes.
Quickly transfer the hot 100g mass into the beaker of water. (b) Record the value of x as in the table below.
Stir gently and record the highest temperature 𝑡1
(c) Switch on. Using the voltmeter, measure the potential
Evaluate 𝑇 = 𝑡1 − 𝑡. difference (V) across the wire between A and C. Record the
value of V.
Empty the content of the beaker and repeat the procedure
above for values of V= 150𝑐𝑚3 , 200𝑐𝑚3 , 250𝑐𝑚3 and (d) Using the ammeter, measure the current I in the wire.
300𝑐𝑚3 . Tabulate your readings. Record the value of I.

(a) i. Plot a graph with M on the vertical axis and T on the (e) Take the sliding contact away from the wire AB and
horizontal axis. switch off.

ii. Determine the slope S of the graph. (f) Calculate the resistance R of the section AC of the wire
𝑉
50 using the equation 𝑅 =
ii. Evaluate K = 𝐼
𝑠
(g) Record R in the table.
(b) i. When the bulb of a thermometer is placed in a beaker
of hot water, the level of mercury first falls and then rises x/m V/V R/Ω
gradually. Explain this observation.

ii. A solid of mass 100g at a temperature of 90°c is placed in

100g of water at 200 C in a container of negligible heat
capacity, if the final steady temperature is 600 , calculate the
specific heat capacity of the solid. (Specific heat capacity of
water = 4.2× 103 Jk𝑔−1 𝑘 −1 )

Question 2 (h) Repeat steps (a) to (g) with the sliding contact at distances
of 𝑥 = 0.300 𝑚, 0.500 𝑚, 0.700 𝑚 and 0.900 m from A.
APPARATUS: Length of resistance wire AB, power source
(3.0 V), key, ammeter, voltmeter and jockey.

(i) Plot a graph of R/ Ω (y-axis) against x/m (x-axis).

(j) Within the limits of experimental accuracy, what do you

conclude about the variation of resistance with distance
 P a g e | 412

along the wire? Justify your conclusion with reference to (ii) Heat lost by solid = Heat gained by water
your graph.
(𝑀𝐶∆𝛳)𝑆𝑂𝐿𝐼𝐷 = (𝑀𝐶∆𝛳)𝑊𝐴𝑇𝐸𝑅
(k) Using your graph, determine a value for the resistance R
𝑀𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 = 100𝑔 = 0.1𝑘𝑔
when the length x = 0.750 m.
𝑀𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 100𝑔 = 0.1𝑘𝑔
Show clearly on your graph how you obtained the necessary
information. 𝐶𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 4200𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1
SOLUTIONS 𝛳1 = 90, 𝛳2 = 60, 𝛳3 = 20

Initial Temperature (t) = 250 𝐶 ∴(MC(𝛳1 -𝛳2 )solid = (MC𝛳2 -𝛳3 )Water

Density of water(𝜌) = 1𝑔𝑐𝑚−3 0.1 x C x (90 – 60) = 0.1 x 4200 x (60 – 20)

𝑉(𝑐𝑚3 ) 𝑀=𝜌× 𝑡1 ( 0𝐶 ) 𝑇 3𝐶 = 16800

𝑉(𝑔) = 𝑡1 16800
C= = 5600𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1
− 𝑡( 0𝐶 ) 3
100.00 100.00 65.00 40.00 Question 2
150.00 150.00 61.00 36.00
200.00 200.00 56.00 31.00 E.M.F = 3.0v
250.00 250.00 51.00 26.00
300.00 300.00 46.00 21.00 Current I = 0.25Amps
∆𝑚(𝑔) 𝑚2 −𝑚1
(aii) Slope S = = X (𝑚) 𝑉V) 𝑉
∆𝑇(°𝐶) 𝑇2 −𝑇1 𝑅= (𝛺)
𝐼
=
80−500
=
−420
= −10𝑔/℃ 0.100 0.22 0.880
43−1 42 0.300 0.65 2.600
50 50 0.500 0.97 3.880
(aiii) 𝑘 = =− = −5℃/𝑔 0.700 1.35 5.400
𝑆 10
0.900 1.82 7.280
From the graph as x increases R also increases therefore x is
decreasing proportional to R
xαR
K when x = 0.750m
R = 5.8 𝛺

Physics Practical (SCI-j155) June 2019 examinations

time allowed: 3 hours

1. APPARATUS: Metre rule, unknown mass M, knife

edge, set of known masses.

(bi) This is due to the expansion of the glass of the

thermometer first which causes the mercury level to fall and
then rise
 P a g e | 413

PROCEDURES: Suspend a metre rule on a knife PRACTICAL SOLUTION 2019

edge. Adjust the metre rule carefully until settles
horizontally. Read and record the point of balance G of 1.
the metre rule. Keep the knife edge at the point G M(g) Y(cm) 1/y(c𝑚−1 )
throughout the experiment. Suspend the object labelled 20 45 0.022
M at 20cm mark of the rule. 30 30 0.033
40 22.5 0.044
On the other side of G suspend mass 𝑚 = 20𝑔 and adjust
50 18 0.056
its position until the rule settles horizontally. Read off the 60 15 0.067
position P of the mass on metre rule. Record the distance y
between G and P. also record the value of m. repeat the
procedures keeping the knife edge at G and the object M at ii.
20cm mark but using masses m=30g, 40g, 50g, and 60g on
the values of m and y. Graph of m(g) against 1/y(cm-1)
Scale:on the y-axis ,1cm rep. 10unit. on
(i) Tabulate your readings
the x-axis, 2cm rep. 0.01unit
(ii) Plot a graph of m against 1/y.
(iii) Determine the slope, s, of the graph. 70
(iv) Evaluate s/x
60
(v) State two precautions taken to obtain accurate
results 50
(vi) Define moment and state the principles of 40
m(g)

moment.
30
2. APPARATUS: Potentiometer, 2 battery cell of 1.5v
20
each, voltmeter (0-5v), jockey key and connecting wires.
10
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
1/y(cm-1)

𝑦2 −𝑦1
iii. Slope = =
𝑥2 −𝑥1

iv. Since the knife edge is at G i.e. half the metre rule is
50cm
PROCEDURES: Connect the circuit as shown in the
diagram. With L=10cm, close the key, observe and record Then, 20 + 𝑥 = 50𝑐𝑚
the voltmeter reading v. repeat the procedure with L=
20cm, 30cm, 40cm, 50cm, 60cm. 𝑥 = 50 − 20 = 30𝑐𝑚
𝑠 𝑔𝑐𝑚
(i) Tabulate your results. Hence, =
𝑥 30𝑐𝑚
(ii) Plot a graph of v on the vertical axis
against L on the horizontal axis v. precautions
(iii) Find the slope, s of your graph.
i. ensured I avoid error due to parallax
(iv) Estimate the standard error in s.
(v) What physical quantity does s represent? ii. I ensured I shut the doors and windows properly to
avoid external wind or air that might displace the metre rule
from the knife edge.

iii. Moment is the turning effect of a force at a point of

rotation

Principle of moment
 P a g e | 414

i. The sum of Upward forces is equal to the sum

of downward forces
ii. The sum of clockwise moment is equal to the PRACTICAL. 2018
sum of anticlockwise moment. APPARATUS
D.C voltmeter (0-5V) range that read a minimum of 0.06V,
2. i. resistance box, key, two 1.5V cells. Constantan wire SWG
321.26m long, 2 crocodile clips, 8 pieces of connecting
L(cm) V(cm) 𝑙− (𝑥 − )2 wires, ammeter (0-1A) D.C
10 0.3 -25 625
20 0.5 -15 225 Diagram
30 0.8 -5 25
40 1.00 5 25
50 1.30 15 225 Procedure
60 1.50 25 625 Use the voltmeter provided to read the voltage across the
=1525 battery E and record the value. Connect the circuit as seen in
the circuit diagram above, with the resistance wire connected
ii. across the terminals of the voltmeter such that the wire is in
parallel with the voltmeter. Introducing length = 20cm of the
Graph of m(g) against 1/y(cm-1) wire into the circuit, with the key closed, read and record the
Scale:on the y-axis ,1cm rep. 0.2unit. corresponding value of the voltmeter reading V. repeat the
on the x-axis, 1cm rep. 20unit procedure with increasing in steps of 20cm up to 120cm.
tabulate your results to include L, V, L-1, V-1
1.8 Also, record the value of voltage for E measured before
1.6 circuit connection, plot a graph of V-1 against L-1
1.4 (i) Deduce the slope, S of your graph
1.2 (ii) Estimate the intercept I on the X-axis, assuming V and L
1 1 𝑅 𝑅+𝑟
= =
V(v)

are related thus

𝑉 𝐸𝐾𝐿 𝐸𝑟
0.8
iii)
0.6
(i) Deduce the value of r from your graph
0.4 (ii) Deduce also the value of k from your graph
0.2
0 QUESTION TWO
0 20 40 60 80 APPARATUS
L(cm) Diagram
Procedure
𝑦2 −𝑦1 1.3−0.3 1
Suspend the half meter rule horizontally with the graduated
iii. Slope = = = = 0.025V/cm face up by a pair of vertical threads of length, L =80cm each
𝑥2 −𝑥1 50−10 40
∑𝑙 10+20+30+40+50+60 attached 2cm from the end of the rule. Set the rule oscillating
iv. Mean() = =
𝑛 6 through a small angle about a vertical axis.
∑(𝑙−)2 Determine time for 20 oscillations. Repeat the procedure for
Standard deviation () =√
𝑛−1
L = 70, 60, 50, 40 and 30cm. determine the period, T in each
1525 1525 case.
=√ =√ = 7.13cm
6−1 5
Determine the period T in each case
Assuming the relation between T and L to be 𝑇 = 𝐾𝐿𝑛
where K and n are constants. Transform the equation to
linear form and plot a suitable graph to enable you determine
the values of K and n.
7.13 7.13
Hence, standard error = = = 2.9
√6 2.45
Solution
v. Electric field intensity(strength) 1. Resistant per unit length K for constantan wire SWG 32,
1.26m long = 0.07763Ωcm-1
 P a g e | 415

007763Ω 100𝑐𝑚 A graph of Log T against log L is a straight line with slope,
𝐾 = ×
𝑐𝑚 1.26𝑚 = n and the intercept on the vertical axis, C = log K
𝐾 = 62m−1 𝑜𝑟 0.06Ωcm−1 Table of values
No of application = 20

s/n L(cm) 𝐿−1 (cm−1 ) V(v) 𝑉 −1 (v −1 ) s/n L(cm) L(m) log 𝐿 𝑡1 (𝑠)
1 20.00 0.050 0.64 1.56 1 80.00 0.80 −0.0969 53.30
2 40.00 0.025 0.78 1.28 2 70.00 0.70 −0.1549 50.10
3 60.00 0.017 0.84 1.19 3 60.00 0.60 −0.2218 46.10
4 80.00 0.013 0.88 1.14 4 50.00 0.50 −0.3010 42.30
5 100.00 0.010 0.90 1.11 5 40.00 0.40 −0.3979 37.70
6 120.00 0.008 0.92 1.09 6 30.00 0.30 −0.5229 33.8-

Graph of 𝑉 −1 (v −1 ) against 𝐿−1 (cm−1 )

∆v−1 s/n 𝑡2 (𝑠) 𝑡1 + 𝑡2 𝑡 log 𝑇
Slope, S, = 𝑡= (𝑠) 𝑇= (𝑠)
∆L−1 2 20
𝑉2 −1 − 𝑉1 −1 1 53.50 53.40 2.67 0.4265
𝑆 =
𝐿2 −1 − 𝐿1 −1 2 49.50 50.00 2.50 0.3979
3 46.30 46.20 2.31 0.3636
Intercept on the v −1 axis, I = 1v −1 4 42.10 42.20 2.11 0.3243
Given that 5 37.90 37.80 1.89 0.2765
1 𝑅 𝑅+𝑟 6 31.80 32.80 1.64 0.2148
= +
𝑉 𝐸𝐾𝐿 𝐸𝑟
1 𝑅 1 𝑅+𝑟 Graph of Log T against Log L
= ( )+ Graph
𝑉 𝐸𝐾 𝐿 𝐸𝑟
𝑅 −1 𝑅 + 𝑟 Δ𝑖𝑜𝑔𝑇 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑇2 −𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑇1
−1
v = 𝐿 + (i) 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒, 𝑆 = =
Δ𝑖𝑜𝑔𝐿 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐿2 −𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐿1
𝐸𝐾 𝐸𝑟
Compared with the equation of the form (ii). The intercept on the log T -axis
1
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝐶 𝑁 = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝑘 = 𝐶
A graph of v −1 against 𝐿−1 is a straight line with 2
𝑅 𝑅+𝑟 𝐾 = 10𝑐
slope, 𝑆 = 𝑚 = and intercept on v −1 axis, 𝐼 = 𝐶 =
𝐸𝐾 𝐸𝑟
𝑅+𝑟
(iii) 𝐼 =
𝐸𝑟
2+𝑟
𝐼=
3𝑟
3𝑟 = 2 + 𝑟
3− 𝑟 = 2
2
𝑟 = = 1Ω (internal resistance of the cell)
2
𝑅
iv) 𝑆 =
𝐸𝐾

16𝜋2 𝐼𝐿
2. Using Bifilar relation, 𝑇 = √
𝑀𝑔𝐷2
16𝜋𝑑
Where 𝐾 = √
𝑀𝑔𝐷2
Given that 𝑇 = 𝐾𝐿𝑛
Take log of both sides
𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑇 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝐾𝐿𝑛
𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝑇 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝐾 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐿𝑛
𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝑇 = 𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝐾 + 𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐿 = 𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐿 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝐾
Compared with the equation of the form
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝐶
 P a g e | 416

SCIENTIFIC TOOLS OH- Na, K, Ba, Ca and NH4

C2O42- Na, K, Ba, Ca and NH4
REACTIVITY/ACTIVITY/ELECTROCHEMICAL
SERIES SOLUBLE EXCEPT
Cl-, Br- and I- Ag+, Hg+ and Pb+
ACTIVITY Oxidation states
F- Mg+2,Ca+2, Sr+2, Ba+2, Pb+2
SERIES
K +1 NO3- None
Na +1 ClO3- None
Ca +2 CH3COO- None
Mg +2 HCO3- None
Al +3 SO4- Ca+2, Sr+2, Ba+2, Pb+2
Mn +2, +3, +4, +6 or +7 CLO4- None
Zn +2
Cr +2 , +1 or -2
Fe +2 or +3
Cd +2 or +1
Co +2, +3
Ni +2, +1, +3, +4 or -1
Sn +2 or +4
Pb +2 or +4 THERMAL DECOMPOSITION OF SOME
H +1 or -1 METALLIC COMPOUNDS
Sb +5, +4,+3,+2,+1,-1,-2,-3
Bi +3 or +5 Metal Nitrate Carbonate Hydroxide
As +3, +5 or -3 ∆ (N𝑂3− ) (𝐶𝑂3− ) (𝑂𝐻 − )
Cu +2 or +1 K+ Metal No decomposition
Hg +1 or +2 and nitrate→
Ag +1, +2 or +3 Na+ 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒 +
Pt +1 , +2, +4, or +3 +𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛
Au +1 or +3 e.g.
2NaNO3(S)
→2NaNO2(s
BOND ENERGIES OF SOME COMMON BONDS ) + O2(g)
Mg+2, Metal Metal Metal
Bond Bond Energy
Ca+2, nitrate→ carbonate → hydroxide
𝐻−𝐻 426.8 Al+3, →
𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒
𝐶−𝐻 410.5 Zn+2, + nitrogen + carbon 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒
𝐶−𝐶 336.0 Pb+2, dioxide + dioxide + water
𝐶=𝐶 606.1 Cu+2, oxygen e.g. MgCO3 →
𝐶≡𝐶 834.6 Fe+2 e.g. MgO(s) + CO2(g)
𝐶 − 𝐶𝑙 326 2Mg(NO3)2
𝐶𝑙 − 𝐶𝑙 238.7 →2MgO(s) +
𝐻 − 𝐶𝑙 426.8 4NO2(g) +
𝑂−𝑂 146 O2(g)
𝑂=𝑂 496.6 Ag+, Metal Metal Do not
𝐶=𝑂 738.6 Au+ nitrate→ carbonate→ exist
𝐶−𝑂 358.9 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙
+ nitrogen + carbon +
dioxide + oxygen dioxide
SOLUBILITIES OF COMMON COMPOUNDS
oxygen e.g.
INSOLUBLE EXCEPT e.g. AgCO3(s)→
CO32- Na, K and NH4 compounds Ag(s) + CO2(g)
PO42- Na, K and NH4 compounds +O2(g)
PO32- Na, K and NH4 compounds
S2- Na, K, Ba, Ca and NH4
 P a g e | 417

Conductivity, K
thermal
Coefficient of e
restitution
Coefficient of 𝑑𝑦⁄ Dee y / dee x
differentiation 𝑑𝑥
Coefficient of  Eta
viscosity
PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND THEIR SYMBOLS Cubic expansion  Gamma
coefficient
Name of quantity Symbol Symbol Current I Iota
Pronunciation Current density J
Absolute T Debye length D
temperature Decay constant  Lambda
Absorptance  Alpha Decibel dB
Acceleration A Declination  Theta
Activity A Degeneracy of an G
Admittance Y energy level
Amount of N Density  Rho
Substance
Diffusion D
Ampere turn At coefficient
Angstrom A0 angstrom Diameter D
Angular  ALPHA Displacement S
acceleration
Efficiency  ETA
Angular  Theta
Electric charge Q
displacement
Electric D
Angular  Omega
displacement
frequency
Electric field E
Angular L
strength
momentum
Electric flux  Phi
Angular velocity  Omega
Electric potential V
Area A
Electrochemical Z
Atomic mass unit U
equivalent
Avogadro’s N
Electromotive E
constant
force
Becquerel Bq
Electron volt Ev
Boltzmann K Kappa
Emissivity S
constant
Energy W
Brewster angle I
Enthalpy H
Bulk modulus K Kappa
Entropy S
Calorie Cal
Existence M
Capacitance C
Faraday constant F
Centripetal A
Foot Ft
acceleration
Force F
Centripetal force
Frequency F or v
Characteristics  theta
Temperature Gas constant R
Charge Q Gibbs function G
Gram G
Charge density  lambda
Gravitational G
Coefficient of  Mu
constant
friction
Concentration C
Half life 𝑇1/2
Conductivity,  sigma Heat Q or H
electrical Height H
Hertz Hz
 P a g e | 418

Helmholtz F Relative r
Horizontal B permittivity
intensity Reluctance R
Horse power Hp Resistance R
Illumination E Resistivity  Rho
Impedance Z Coefficient of rest MO M not
Inclination  Phi mass
Internal energy U Reynolds number Re
Ionization energy I Shear modulus  Eta
Irradiance E Solid angle 
Joule’s equivalent J Specific rotator Am
Kilowatt-hour KWh power
Kinematic V Speed of light C
viscosity Stokes S
Kinetic energy T Surface tension  or T Sigma
Light year Ly Susceptibility K
Litre L Temperature T or 
Neper Np Thermal capacity C
Neutron number N Thermodynamic T
Nit Nt temperature
Nucleon number A Time T
Oersted Oe Torque 
Optical path D Velocity V
Parsec Pc Voltage V
Period T Volume V
Permeability  Mu Wavelength  Lambda
permeance P Epsilon Wave number V V bar
Permittivity  Weight W
Photon P Work W
Planck constant H Young modulus Y Upsilon
Poisson ratio V
Potential V
difference SCIENTIFIC CONSTANTS
Potential energy V
Poundal Pdl QUANTITY UNIT
Power P MAGNITUDE
Poynting vector S Mass of proton ( 𝟏𝟏𝑷) 1.673x𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟕 kg
Pressure P Mass of electron ( −𝟏𝟎𝒆 ) 9.1x𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟏 Kg
Proton number Z Mass of neutron ( 𝟏𝟎𝒏) 1.675x𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟕 kg
Radiance Le Charge of proton (p+) 1.602x𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 C
Radiant flux e Omega e Charge of electron (e-) 1.602x𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 C
Radiant intensity Le Charge of neutron 0C
Radius R Universal gravitational 6.67x𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏
Radioactivity A constant (G) Nm2Kg-2
Radius of R Gas constant (R) 8.314Jmol-1K-1
curvature =0.0821atmdm3
Radius of K K-1mol-1
gyration Permittivity of vacuum 8.854x𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 fm-1
Reactance  Chi (free space) ,o
Reflectance P Permeability of vacuum 4 𝜋 x𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 Hm-1
Refractive index N (free space),o
Reflective atomic Ar Speed of light (c) 3x𝟏𝟎−𝟖 ms-1
mass Mass of the earth 5.98x𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒 Kg
 P a g e | 419

Mass of the sun 1.99x1030 kg One electron volt(eV) 1.602x10-19C

Molar volume of an ideal 22.4 dm3 Density of diamond 3.5X103Kg/m3
gas at STP Temperature coefficient of 0.000005
Faraday’s constant 96500C resistance of constantan.
Avogadro’s constant 6.023x𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 mol-1 Compton’s wavelength 2.326x10-12
Boltzmann constant 1.34x𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟑 JK-1 Deuteron mass 3.3x10-27Kg
Rydberg’s constant 1097X𝟏𝟎𝟕 m-1 Magnetic flux quantum 2.1x10-15 T.M2
Stephan’s constant 5.67x𝟏𝟎𝟖 Wm-2K- Nuclear magneton 5.1x10-27 J/T
1 Atomic mass unit (amu) 1.66x10-27kg
Distance from sun to earth 1.52X106Km
Radius of the earth 6.37X106m
UNITS CONVERSION
Age of the earth 5.0x109yrs
Pie (𝜋) 3.142 LENGTH:
Euler constant 2.71828
Bohr’S radius 0.53A M Ft In km
Bohr’s magneto 9.3X10-24J/T 1 metre 1 3 3.37 10-3
Pressure of an ideal gas at 1atm=760mmHg 1 yard 0.9144 3 36 0.000914
STP =1.01325Pa (yd)
Vapour density of air 14.4 1 foot (ft) 0.3048 1 12 0.000305
Acceleration due to gravity 9.8ms-2 1 inch 0.0254 1
on earth (in)
Acceleration due to gravity 1.63ms-2 1 mile 1609.3 5280 63360 1.609
on moon (mi) 44
Humble constant 16x10-6Kms-1ly-1 1 centi- 0.01 0 0.394 10-5
Light year 9.4x1012Km metre
Coulomb’s constant 9x109Nm2C-2 (cm)
Temperature of a healthy 37oC =98.6 0F NOTE: 1 nautical mile = 1.1508mile =1.958x10 -13 light
human being year= 6.002x10-14 parsec…also, 1m =103 mm=102cm
Electron charge to mass 1.76X1011 CKg-1 =109nm…….1 angstrom (A0) = 10-10m
ratio(e/me)
Wien’s constant 2.89x10-3M.K AREA:
Solar constant 1370Wm-2
m2 mm2 Ft2 Km2
Normal atmospheric 1.0129x105N/m2
1 square- 1 106 10.76 10-6
pressure
metre 4
Mohr’s value of diamond 10 (hardest
1 square- 10-6 1 1.076 10-12
substance)
millimetr x10-5
Mohr’s value of talc 1 (softest
e
substance)
1 square 0.00064 645.16 0.006 6.452x10-10
Refractive index of 1.33
inch 5 94
water(w)
1 square 0.0001 100 0.001 10-10
Refractive index of glass 1.5 centi- 08
(g) metre
Dielectric constant for 1 1 square 0.836 8.3x10-5 9 8.36x10-7
vacuum yard
Dielectric constant for 1.0006 1 square 0.0929 92903.04 1 0.29x10-8
air(at 1atm) foot
Planck constant 6.64x10-34J.s NOTE: Hectare= 10000m2 =15 plots, 1 acre=
Density of mercury(STP) 13.594x103Kg/m3 4046.856m2 =0.1 US furlong =10 square chain
Ice point 273.15K
Mechanical equivalent 4.184 J/Cal VOLUME
Alpha particle mass 6.645x10-27Kg
Rest energy of one atom 931.5Mev m3 Cm3 Gal(UK
mass unit )
One day 84600s
 P a g e | 420

1 cubic 1 106 219.969 1 Pascal (pa) 1 9.87x10-6 0.0075

3 5
metre(m ) 1 barometric 10 0.987 750.06 1
1 cubic 10-6 1 pressure( bar)
3
centimeter(cm ) 1 atmospheric 10132 1 760 1.013
1 cubic inch 1.63871x10-5 (atm) 5
1 cubic foot NOTE: 1 Pound per square inch (psi) =6.89x10 3
Gallon (UK) 4.54609x10-3 4546.09 1 pa…also, 1 kg/cm2 =980.665N/m2
NOTE: 1 gallon (US) =0.83268 gallon (UK) =3785.412
millilitres….also, 1 Litre= 1 dm-3 = 1000 cm3 TEMPERATURE:
0 0
C K f
0
1 Celsius( C) 1 273 -30.2
MASS 1 Kelvin (k) -273 1 -521.6
1 Fahrenheit (0f) 18.333 291.33 1
kg G lb
1 1 2.205 1 Reaumur(0Re) 1.25 274.4 2.25
kilogramme(kg) NOTE: 1 Rankine (0R) =0.556K = -272.594
1 pounds(lb) 0.454 453.592 1
1 ounce(oz) 0.0283 28.35 0.0625 TIME:
1 gram(g) 0.001 1 0.0022
NOTE: 1 slug= kilograms= 32.174 pound mass...Also, Years days seconds
long ton= 1016.05kg. 1 myriad 10000 1 year 365 1 3.1x107
year
WORK AND ENERGY 1 1000 1  30 1 86400
millennium month day
J Cal KW-hr 1 century 100 1 leap 366 1 3600
1 joule 1 0.238846 2.77778 year hour
1 calorie 4.1868 1 1.163 1 decade 10
1 3.6x10-6 8.59848x10-5 1
NOTE: 1 hour= 60mins, 1mins =60secs,1 day= 24hrs
kilowatt-
hour ANGLE:
British 1055.06 251.997 1.0197x10-6
0
thermal rad grad
unit 1 degree( )0
1 𝛑⁄𝟏𝟖𝟎 1.11
(B.t.u) 1 radian(rad) 180/ π 1 200/ π
NOTE: 1 joule = newton-metre =1 watt/second = 1 1 gradian(grad) 0.9 𝛑⁄𝟐𝟎𝟎 1
kgms-1=107 erg =0.73756 ft-lb….Also, 1 foot-pound= NOTE: 1 revolution= 2𝜋 rad= 3600
1.356 J

POWER

W Btu/h Hp
1 watt 1 3.4129692 1.34x10-3
1 Btu/h 0.293 1 3.93x10-3
1 horse-power 746 2593.8506 1
NOTE: Watt =joule-second =kgm2s-3 =10-7 ergs-1….also,
1 ton of refrigeration= 12000Btu/h =3.517 kW

PRESSURE

N/m2 Atm mmHg Bar

1 newton per 1 9.87x10-6 0.0075 10-5
square
metre(N/m2)
1 Torricelli 133.3 0.00132 1 0.00133
(torr) 22
 P a g e | 421

GREEKS LETTERS: capital and small letter NEWTON’S 2nd LAW OF MOTION: The rate of
change of momentum of a body is proportional to the net
external force acting upon the body.

NEWTON’S 3rd LAW OF MOTION: To every force

applied by a body A on body B, there is an equal and
opposite force applied by body B on body A.

NEWTON’S LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION:

The laws states that the force of attraction between two
particles in the earth surfaces is directly proportional to the
product of the masses and inversely proportional to the
square of the separation distance.

Kepler’s first law of planetary bodies: all planets move

about the sun in elliptical orbits, having the sun as one of
the foci.

Kepler’s second law of planetary bodies: states that a

radius vector any planets to the sun sweeps out equals areas
in equal lengths of time.

Kepler’s third law of planetary bodies: states that the

squares of the sidereal periods of the planets are directly
proportional to the cube of their mean distances from the
sun.

Archimedes principle: It states that when a body is

immersed completely or partially in a liquid, it experiences
an upthrust which is equal to the weight of the liquid
displaced.

Pascal’s principle: It state that the pressure exerted

anywhere in confined liquid is transmitted equally and
undiminished on all directions throughout the liquid.

Hooke’s law: State that the force needed in compressing or

extended a body is proportional to the extension provided
that the elastic limit is not exceeded.

Coulomb’s law: states that the force of attraction or

repulsion between two point charges is directly
proportional to the product of their charge magnitude and
inversely proportional to the square otff the separation
SCIENTIFIC LAWS IN PHYSICS distance.

NEWTON’S 1St LAW OF MOTION: a body at rest Gauss law: states that the net flux of an electric field
continues in its state of rest and a body in uniform motion through a closed surface is proportional to the enclosed
continues in its state of uniform motion in a straight line electric charge.
unless a net external force acts on it.
Ampere’s circuital law: states that the integral of magnetic
This law is also called the law of inertia (Reluctance field density (B) along an imaginary closed path is equal to
for a body to change its state of rest or uniform motion.) the product of current enclosed by the path and
permeability of the medium
 P a g e | 422

Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction: states that Zeroeth law: states that if two systems are each in thermal
the magnitude of induced emf is equal to the rate of change equilibrium with a third one, then they are in thermal
of flux linkages with the coil. equilibrium with each other.

Lenz’s law: states that an electric current, induced by a Snell’s law of refraction: states the ratio of sine of angle
source such as a changing magnetic field, always creates a of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is always
counterforce opposing the force inducing it. constant

Fleming’s left hand rule: states that when the thumb, OHM’S Law: states that the current passing through a
forefinger, and middle finger of the left hand are extended metallic conductor is directly proportional its potential
at right angles to each other so that the thumb indicates the difference provide temperature is kept constant.
direction of movement of the conductor in the magnetic
field, and the forefinger points in the direction of the flux Bernoulli’s principle: it states that as the speed of a
lines, the middle finger shows the direction of induced emf moving fluid increases, the pressure within the fluid
in the conductor. decreases.

Stefan Boltzmann law: states that the total radiant heat SCIENTIFIC LAWS IN CHEMISTRY
power emitted from a surface is proportional to the fourth
power of its absolute temperature. Avogadro's Law
Equal volumes of gases under identical temperature and
Newton’s law of cooling bodies: states that the rate of heat pressure will contain equal numbers of particles (atoms,
loss of a body is directly proportional to the difference in ions, molecules, electrons, etc.).
the temperature between the body and its surrounding.
Boyle's Law
NEWTON’S LAW OF VISCOSITY: states that the shear At a constant temperature, the volume of a confined gas is
stress between adjacent fluid layers is proportional to the inversely proportional to the pressure to which the gas is
velocity gradients between the two layers. subjected: PV = k

NEWTON’S LAW OF RESTITUTION: states that when

Charles' Law
two objects collide, their speeds after the collision depend At a constant pressure, the volume of a confined gas is
on the material from which they are made. directly proportional to the absolute temperature in Kelvin:
V = kT
Kirchhoff’s current law: states that for a parallel path the
total current entering a circuit’s junction is exactly equal to
the total current leaving the same junction. Conservation of Energy
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed; the energy of
Kirchhoff’s voltage law: states that for a close loop series the universe is constant. This is the First Law of
path the algebraic sum of all the voltages around any closed Thermodynamics.
loop in a circuit is equal to zero
Conservation of Mass
De-Broglie’s hypothesis: says that all matter has both Matter can neither be created nor destroyed, though it can
particle and wave nature be rearranged. Mass remains constant in an ordinary
chemical change. This principle is also known as
Heisenberg’s principle: states that it is uncertain to Conservation of Matter.
determine the position and momentum of an electron

Bragg’s law: states that when x-ray is incident onto a Dalton's Law
The pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of
crystal surface, its angle of incidence,, will reflect back
the partial pressures of the component gases.
with a same angle of scattering, .

Thermodynamic 1st law: states that the change in the Definite Composition
internal energy U of a closed system is equal to the A compound is composed of two or more elements
chemically combined in a defined ratio by weight.
amount of heat Q supplied to the system, minus the amount
of work W done by the system on its surroundings.
Faraday's First Law of Electrolysis
The weight of any element liberated during electrolysis is
 P a g e | 423

proportional to the quantity of electricity passing through Symbolically, 𝑛 = 𝐶𝑉

the cell and also to the equivalent weight of the element. Note: molar concentration = molarity
And also, 1𝑑𝑚3 = 1000𝑐𝑚3
First Law of Thermodynamics 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒(𝑑𝑚3 )
5. 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 =
The total energy of the universe is constant and can neither 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒(𝑑𝑚3 /𝑚𝑜𝑙)
𝑉
be created nor destroyed. This law is also known as Symbolically, 𝑛 =
𝑉𝑚
Conservation of Energy.
Molar volume of a gas at s.t.p = 22.4 𝑑𝑚3 /𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑃𝑉 𝑛𝑅𝑇
Gay-Lussac's Law if , 𝑛 = ,𝑉=
𝑅𝑇 𝑃
The ratio between the combining volumes of gases and the Molar volume at s.t.p : 𝑛 = 1, 𝑃 = 1𝑎𝑡𝑚 ,
product (if gaseous) can be expressed in small whole 𝑇 = 273𝐾, 𝑅 = 0.082𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑑𝑚3 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 𝐾 −1
numbers. 1 × 0.082 × 273
𝑉𝑚 = = 22.4𝑑𝑚3 /𝑚𝑜𝑙
1
𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦(𝐶)
Graham's Law 6. 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 =
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 (𝐶/𝑚𝑜𝑙)
The rate of diffusion or effusion of a gas is inversely 𝑄
proportional to the square root of its molecular mass. Symbolically, 𝑛 =
𝑒
Where, 1 faraday = 96500C
Henry's Law Charge of electron = 1.602 × 10−19 𝐶/𝑚𝑜𝑙
The solubility of a gas (unless it is highly soluble) is 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐺𝑖𝑏𝑏 ′𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 −∆𝐺
7. 𝑛= =
directly proportional to the pressure applied to the gas. 𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑎𝑦 ′ 𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 × 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝐹𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
Where, faraday’s constant = 96500C
Ideal Gas Law 𝑛1
Mole fraction: 𝑋𝑛1 =
The state of an ideal gas is determined by its pressure, 𝑛1 +𝑛2 +⋯.𝑛𝑛
volume, and temperature according to the equation: PV =
nRT , where P is the absolute pressure, V is the volume of Gas law’s
the vessel, n is the number of moles of gas, R is the ideal 𝑉1 𝑉2
gas constant, and T is the absolute temperature in Kelvin. Charle’s law: =
𝑇1 𝑇2

Periodic Law Boyle’s law: 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2

The chemical properties of the elements vary periodically 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2
according to their atomic numbers. General gas law: =
𝑇1 𝑇2

Rate of gas (A) √𝜌𝐵 √𝑀𝐵

FORMULA DESK IN CHEMISTRY Graham’s law : = =
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 (𝐵) √𝜌𝐴 √𝑀𝐴

Mole and its formula relationships

Note: sometimes,
Mole is expressed in terms of the following formulas: 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = or
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠(𝑔)
1. 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 =
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠(𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙) 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠
𝑚
Symbolically, 𝑛 = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑀𝑚 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
Molar mass can atomic mass or relative molecular mass.
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 Henderson hasselbalch equation:
2. 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 =
𝐴𝑣𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑜′ 𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑁 𝑁 [𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡]
Symbolically, 𝑛 = or 𝑛 = pH = pka + log ⁄[𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑]
𝑁𝐴 𝐿
Where, Avogadro’s constant (L) = 6.02 × 1023 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 and Formula for pH = log[𝐻 + ]
also
Number of particles can atoms or molecules or ions Formula for pOH = log[𝑂𝐻 − ]
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
3. 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 = [𝐻 + ][𝑂𝐻 − ] = 10−14 ; 𝑝𝐻 + 𝑝𝑂𝐻 = 14
𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 × 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑃𝑉
Symbolically, 𝑛 = 𝑅𝑇 [𝑀(𝑠) ]
𝑅𝑇 0
Nernst’s equation: 𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 − ln
Where, gas constant = 𝑛𝐹 [𝑀𝑛+]
8.314𝐽𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 𝐾 −1 𝑜𝑟 0.082𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑑𝑚3 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 𝐾 −1
Gibb’s energy: ∆𝐺 = ∆𝐺 0 + 𝑅𝑇 ln 𝑄
4. 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
 P a g e | 424

Or ∆𝐺 = −𝑛𝐹𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 Micrometer View microscopic objects

Telescope View distant objects
Emf of the cell: 𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑑 − 𝐸𝑜𝑥 or Prism To fragment Colours of light
𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 𝐸𝑐𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑒 − 𝐸𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 Periscope To view overhead objects
Wind vain Direction of wind
Compass For angular directions
Pipette Transport Measured volume
of liquid
Burette Measure volume of liquid or
gas
INSTRUMENTS AND IT’S MEASURABLE Centrifuge in separation of fluids
QUANTITIES

Instrument Quantity measured/uses FORMULA DESK IN PHYSICS

Ammeter Measures electric current Physical quantities Formulae
Anemometer Wind speed Velocity 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Accelerometer Acceleration Velocity =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
Barometer Atmospheric pressure
Momentum 𝑃 = 𝑚𝑣
Bolometer Radiant energy
Caliper Distance Impulse I = Ft or m( v – u)
calorimeter Heat(in chemical rxn) Frictional force Fr = 𝜇R
crescograph Growth in plant
Kinetic energy
electrometer Electric charge 1
Fathometer Depth 𝑚𝑣 2
K. E =
2
Galvanometer Electric current Gravitational force 𝐺𝑀1 𝑀2
Hydrophones Sound wave under water 𝐹=
𝑟2
Hygrometer Relative humidity Gravitational field 𝐺𝑀
hydrometer Specific gravity/relative intensity 𝑔= 2
𝑟
density Gravitational 𝐺𝑀𝑚
Inclinometer Angle of slope GPE = (− )
potential energy 𝑅
Interferometer Infrared light spectra Gravitational kinetic GMm
Lactometer Purity of milk 𝐺𝐾𝐸 =
energy 2r
Manometer Pressure of gas
Ohmmeter Electric resistance Angular frequency 2𝜋 𝑉
Odometer Distance travelled by 𝜔= =
𝑇 𝑟
wheeled vehicle Power 𝑾
𝒑=
Photometer Intensity of light 𝒕
Pyrometer Temperature of surface Density 𝒎
 =
Radiometer Intensity of radiation 𝑽
Radar Detects distance object on Pressure 𝑭
𝐏=
air e.g. aircraft 𝑨
Sonar Detects distance object in Surface tension 𝑭
𝐓=
water e.g. sharks 𝑳
Viscous force 𝐴ʋ
Sextant Angular distance between 𝑓 = 𝜂
𝐿
objects Young modulus 𝐹𝐿
Secchi disc Depth of water 𝐸=
𝐴∆𝐿
Spectrometer Recording spectral lines 𝒗
Wavelength = or cT
Stalagmometer Surface tension 𝒇
Thermometer Temperature Heat energy 𝑸 = 𝒎𝒄
Thermopile Small radiant energy Entropy  𝑯 =  𝑼 + 𝑻 𝑺
𝑸
Udometer Thickness of rain fall Enthalpy S =
𝑻
Viscometer Viscosity Electric force 𝑲𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
Voltmeter Voltage 𝒓𝟐
Venturimeter Flow rate
 P a g e | 425

Electric field intensity 𝑭 𝑽 𝑲𝒒 Facts in physics

𝑬= or or
𝒒 𝒅 𝒓𝟐

Electric potential 𝑽=
𝑾
or
𝑲𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
or Er  The term specific represents/relates to mass e.g
𝑸 𝒓
specific gravity (relative density)=
Electric charge Q=It or q=ne 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
Capacitance of a 𝑸 also, specific heat
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒐𝒍 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝑪= 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚
capacitor 𝑽 capacity = and also specific
Electromagnetic 𝑵𝒅 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔×𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑

induction 𝑬= volume e.t.c

𝑨
Magnetic field 𝒐 𝑰𝑵  The prefix iso represents the meaning same. E.g
intensity 𝑩= isotropy, isotope, isoelectronic e.t.c
𝒅
Inductive reactance 𝒍 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒍  Inverse square laws are usually inversely
Impedance 𝒁= √𝑹𝟐 + 𝟐 proportional to the square of distance of
Half life 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑 separation e.g newton’s law of gravitation,
𝑻𝟏⁄ = coulomb’s law of electrostatics e.t.c
𝟐 
𝑽 𝒍  Field intensity is is calculated as force per
Resistance 𝑹= or 𝑭
𝑰 𝑨 quantity e.g electric field intensity, E=
𝒒
 A quantity’s gradient is calculated as change in
∆𝜽 ∆𝜽
the quantity per length e.g. 𝐐 = 𝑲𝑨 here
𝑳 𝑳
is said to be temperature gradient. Also,
REPRESENTATION FORMULAE ʋ ʋ
Simple pendulum 𝑓= 𝜂𝐴 where, is known to be velocity
𝐿 𝐿
𝒍 gradient.
𝐓 = 𝟐𝛑√
𝒈
Banking angle
Mirror formula 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝒇 𝒖 𝒗
Power of lens 𝟏 Common mistakes students make during post-utme
𝒇𝒐𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 exam
Wave equation
1. 𝒄𝒎 = 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝒎, yes because c is called centi but
Ideal equation 𝑷𝑽 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻
Einstein’s equation 𝐄 = 𝐦𝒄𝟐 𝒄𝒎𝟐 = (𝒄𝒎)𝟐 = 𝒄𝟐 𝒎𝟐 = (𝟏𝟎−𝟐 )𝟐 𝒎𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝒎𝟐
Maximum height of a 𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
projectile ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 = Correct
2𝑔

𝑢2 sin 2 𝜃
𝒄𝒎𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝒎𝟐 Wrong
Range of a projectile 𝑅=
𝑔
2. 𝛑 is misused sometimes
Time of flight of a 2𝑢 sin𝜃
𝑇= 𝛑 in form geometry
𝑔
projectile
𝐿
1st equation of motion 𝑉 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 e.g examine the formula 𝑻 = 𝟐π√ 𝑜𝑟 𝐴 = π𝑟 2
𝑔
2nd equation of motion 𝑆 = 𝑢𝑡 + ½ 𝑎𝑡 2
3rd equation of motion 𝑉 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠 Here, 𝛑 is
22
because trigonometric function is not involved
4th equation of motion 𝑢+𝑣 7
𝑆=( )𝑡
2
5th equation of motion 𝑎
Sn = u + (2n − 1) 𝛑 in form trigonometry
2
Stokes formula 𝐹 = 6𝜋𝑟𝜂𝑣 π
sin = 𝑆𝑖𝑛900
Bernoulli’s equation 𝟏
𝑷𝟏 + 𝒗𝟐𝟏 +g𝒉𝟏 =constant 2
𝟐
Planck’s equation E= hf Here π is 1800 because a trig function is involved
Compton’s equation 𝒉
-′ = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
𝒎𝒄 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑥
3. ≠ 𝑆𝑖𝑛 . the 𝑥 with a trigonometric function cannot
Heisenberg’s equation x.p≈
𝒉 𝑥
𝟐𝝅 be cancelled externally by any like times
 P a g e | 426

𝒏 𝒏
4. √2 + √3 = √2 + 3 Not possible 𝑪𝒓 𝑪𝒏−𝒓
𝒏
𝒑𝒓 𝒏!
√2 × √3 = √2 × 3 Possible (𝒏 − 𝒓)!
5. log 2 + log 3 = log(2 × 3) Possible

log 2 × log 3 = log(2 + 3) Not possible

DIFFERENTIATION
6. Temperature is sometimes misinterpreted
Functions f(x) 𝒅𝐟(𝐱)
θ is temperature of heat i.e 𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝜃 derivatives
𝒅𝒙
𝒙𝒏 n𝒙𝒏−𝟏
Here the unit of temp should not be converted 𝟏
𝐥𝐧 𝒙
Hence, 10C(Celsius) = 10F = K(kelvin) 𝒙
𝒆𝒙 𝒆𝒙
T is temperature of gases i.e 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 U+v 𝒅𝒖 𝒅𝒗
+
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
Here the unit of temp must be converted Uv 𝒅𝒖 𝒅𝒗
𝒖 +𝒗
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
Hence, T(K) = T0C+273 𝒖 𝒅𝒖 𝒅𝒗
𝒗 − 𝒖
𝒗 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
5
T(0C) = (𝐹 − 32) 𝒗𝟐
9
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙
−𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 −𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 x
Secx 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒙𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒙
Cosecx −𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒙𝑪𝒐𝒕𝒙
MATHEMATICAL IDENTITIES Cotx −𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 x
𝒙 𝟏
Algebra EQUAL TO 𝑺𝒊𝒏−𝟏 ( )
𝒂
(∝ +𝛽)2 ∝2 + 2 ∝ 𝛽 + 𝛽 2 √𝒂𝟐 − 𝒙𝟐
𝒙
(∝ −𝛽)2 ∝2 − 2 ∝ 𝛽 + 𝛽 2 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 ( )
−𝟏
𝒂
(∝ +𝛽)3 ∝3 + 3 ∝ 𝛽(∝ +𝛽) + 𝛽3
(∝ −𝛽)3 ∝3 + 3 ∝ 𝛽(∝ +𝛽) + 𝛽3 √𝒂𝟐 − 𝒙𝟐
𝒙 𝟏
2 − 2 ( + )( − ) 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 ( )
𝒂 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒂 𝟐
trigonometry −𝟏
𝒙 −𝟏
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉 ( )
𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝐴 + 𝐵) 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝐴𝐶𝑜𝑠𝐵 + 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑆𝑖𝑛𝐵 𝒂 √𝒙𝟐 + 𝒂𝟐
𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝐴 + 𝐵) 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝐴𝐶𝑜𝑠𝐵 – 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑆𝑖𝑛𝐵 𝒙 𝟏
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐵 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒉−𝟏 ( )
tan(𝐴 + 𝐵) 𝒂 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐
1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐵 𝐥𝐨𝐠𝒂 𝒙 𝟏
𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝒂
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜽 𝟐𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝒂 𝒙
𝒂𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝒙
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝜽 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜽 - 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜽 1
1 + 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 𝜽 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝜽
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝜽 𝟏 + 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝟐 𝜽
INTEGRATION
Permutation/com
𝒏
𝒑𝒓 r!( 𝒏 𝑪𝒓 ) Functions f(x) Integrals ∫ 𝐟(𝐱)
𝒏
𝒑𝒏 n! 𝒙 𝒏
𝒙𝒏+𝟏
𝒏 1 +𝑪
𝑪𝒏 𝒏+𝟏
𝒏+𝟏
𝑪𝒓+𝟏 𝒏
𝑪𝒓 + 𝒏
𝑪𝒓+𝟏 𝟏 𝐥𝐧 𝒙 + C
𝒏 n
𝑪𝟏 𝒙
 P a g e | 427

𝒆𝒙 𝒆𝒙 + 𝑪 Conclusion pages
𝒆𝒂𝒙 𝒆𝒂𝒙
+𝑪
𝒂
𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒙
+𝑪
𝐥𝐧 𝒂
𝐥𝐨𝐠𝒂 𝒙 𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝒙 − 𝒙
𝐥𝐧 𝒂
𝐥𝐧 𝒂𝒙 x𝐥𝐧 𝒂𝒙 − 𝒙
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 + C
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 + 𝑪
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 −𝐥𝐧 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 or 𝐥𝐧 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 + C
𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 + C
𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 −𝐥𝐧 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 + 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙 + C
𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 + C
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒙 + C
𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒙 + C
𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡 𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒙 + C
𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐡 𝒙 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒉−𝟏 (𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒙) + C
𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐡 𝒙 𝒙
𝐥𝐧 |𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒉 | + C
𝟐
𝐜𝐨𝐭𝐡 𝒙 𝐥𝐧|𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉𝒙| +C
𝟏 𝒙
𝑺𝒊𝒏−𝟏 ( )
√𝒂𝟐 − 𝒙𝟐 𝒂
−𝟏 𝒙
𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 ( )
√𝒂𝟐 − 𝒙𝟐 𝒂
𝟏 𝟏 𝒙
𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 ( ) +C
𝒂 𝒂
𝒙𝟐 + 𝒂𝟐
−𝟏 𝒙
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉−𝟏 ( ) + 𝑪
√𝒙𝟐 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒂
𝒅𝒙 𝟏 𝒙−𝒂
𝐥𝐧 ( )+C
𝟐𝒂 𝒙+𝒂
𝒙𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐
𝒅𝒙 𝟏 𝒂−𝒙
𝐥𝐧 ( )+C
𝟐𝒂 𝒂+𝒙
𝒂𝟐 − 𝒙𝟐
P a g e | 428
 P a g e | 429

JUPEB CALENDAR PREDICTED FOR THE YEAR

DATE EVENT
September 18 – 25 Request for item writers from centres.
September 30 Teaching commences in all centres.
November 13 - 14 Workshop for chief examiners/moderator
January 22 Monitoring of lectures in centres
February 2 Workshop with tutors on subjects content to be on zonal basis
February 11 Request for lists of candidates from JUPEB centres for the current
year examinations
Workshops on teaching difficult subjects
March 30
February 19 Workshop for moderation of current year JUPEB test items and
development of test forms.
February 25
Training of panel secretaries.
March 26 – April 6
monitoring of lectures in centres
April 2 – April 13
request for nomination of invigilators and markers
April 27
Deadline for the submission of candidates continuous assessment
scores.
June 11 Training of invigilators at centres by supervisors
June 12 – June 22 Current year examinations in all centres
July 9 – august 3 Processing of results
August 8 Academic board meeting for consideration of results
August 9 Governing board meeting for the approval of results
August 15 Release of results
 P a g e | 430

My Journey as a JUPEB Student

My name is Daniel Eshikalam, currently a 300-level student in the Department of Mechatronics Engineering at the
Federal University of Technology Owerri (FUTO). However, my journey began as a JUPEB (Joint Universities
Preliminary Examinations Board) student with the goal of gaining admission into a prestigious university and
pursuing my passion for Mechatronics Engineering. This path tested my perseverance, resilience, and dedication in
ways I had never experienced before.
As a JUPEB student, I faced challenges right from the start. I had to engage in intense studying, attend classes, and
complete assignments. The curriculum was demanding, covering a wide range of subjects to prepare us for university
education. At times, I felt overwhelmed and doubted my knowledge. However, I remained focused on my ultimate
goal and persevered.
To cope with the challenges, I formed study groups with fellow JUPEB students. We exchanged ideas, discussed
concepts, and supported each other throughout our academic journey. Collaboration became crucial in tackling
difficult subjects and gaining different perspectives.
During this journey, I made mistakes, particularly in managing my time. Procrastination seemed tempting, but it only
increased stress. From these mistakes, I learned the importance of discipline, planning, and organization.

As the program neared its end, fear of failure and not meeting expectations began to haunt me. However, I realized that these
fears were part of the journey. Instead of succumbing to fear, I used it as motivation to push beyond my limits and excel. The
ultimate challenge awaited—the JUPEB final examinations. These exams tested not only our knowledge but also our ability
to manage time effectively and stay composed under pressure.
In the weeks leading up to the exams, I immersed myself in a rigorous study routine. I created a detailed study
schedule, prioritizing subjects and seeking guidance from my tutorial master. I reviewed my notes, solved past
questions, and attended tutorial classes diligently.
On the day of the exams, excitement and nervousness filled me as I entered the examination hall. I poured my heart
and soul into answering each question, drawing upon the knowledge and skills acquired during my time as a JUPEB
student. Time flew by, and before I knew it, the last paper was done.
The waiting period for the results was filled with anticipation and anxiety. Finally, when the results were published, I
scanned the list, searching for my name. I was overjoyed and relieved to discover that my hard work had paid off. I
had passed the JUPEB exams with exceptional grades, exceeding my expectations. It was a moment of pure elation,
knowing that I had overcome challenges and emerged victorious.
However, amidst my joy, I felt pain knowing that many of my friends did not receive admission or were placed in
lower levels or different courses. Their failures were heart-breaking after years of preparation.
My success as a JUPEB student opened doors to numerous opportunities. I secured admission into FUTO, my dream
university, where I continued pursuing my passion for Engineering. The journey was far from over, but the
experience as a JUPEB student equipped me with the skills and determination to excel in future endeavors.
Looking back, I realized that being a JUPEB student was not just about passing exams; it was a transformative phase
that shaped my character and instilled in me a lifelong love for learning. It taught me the importance of discipline,
perseverance, and collaboration. Most importantly, it taught me that with dedication and belief in oneself, any goal
can be achieved.
As I closed that chapter of my life, I embarked on the next phase of my academic journey, grateful for the
opportunities ahead and confident in my ability to overcome challenges.
For newcomers entering the JUPEB program, I offer some advice:

 Embrace challenges as opportunities for growth.

 Seek support from lecturers, fellow students, and tutorial masters.
 P a g e | 431

 Practice self-care to maintain physical and mental well-being.

 Learn from mistakes and use setbacks as stepping stones to success.
 Stay motivated by keeping long-term goals in mind and celebrating small victories.
Remember, JUPEB is not just an academic program; it is a transformative journey that shapes individuals into
resilient and knowledgeable beings. Embrace challenges, learn from mistakes, and stay determined. With dedication
and perseverance, dreams can be achieved.
Finally, I express my gratitude to Almighty God for granting me admission, my parents for providing the opportunity
to test my knowledge, my tutorial master for his significant contribution to my success, and my friends for their
support and encouragement. God bless you all.

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF STUDENT’S BEHAVIOR TO LEARNING

Here are some psychological facts that are applicable to students, schools, and education:

Growth mindset: Having a growth mindset, the belief that intelligence and abilities can be developed through effort and
practice, is associated with better academic performance. Students who believe they can improve their abilities are more likely to
embrace challenges, persevere through difficulties, and achieve higher levels of success.

Retrieval practice: Retrieval practice is a learning strategy where students actively recall information from memory. Research
shows that practicing retrieval, such as through quizzes or self-testing, enhances long-term retention and promotes deeper
understanding compared to passive review or re-reading.

Spaced repetition: Spaced repetition involves reviewing information at intervals over time rather than cramming it all at once.
This technique promotes better long-term retention and helps prevent forgetting. Regularly spaced study sessions are more
effective than massed studying sessions.

Multisensory learning: Engaging multiple senses during learning enhances memory and comprehension. Incorporating visual
aids, hands-on activities, and auditory elements into lessons can improve students' engagement and learning outcomes.

Primacy and recency effects: The primacy effect suggests that information presented at the beginning of a learning session is
better remembered, while the recency effect suggests that information presented at the end is also well-remembered. Teachers
can structure lessons to highlight key points at the beginning and end to optimize retention.

Cognitive load theory: Cognitive load theory suggests that learners have limited capacity for processing information, and
cognitive overload can impede learning. Teachers can reduce cognitive load by breaking complex tasks into smaller, manageable
parts, providing clear instructions, and using visual aids to support understanding.

Social facilitation: Social facilitation refers to the tendency for individuals to perform better on simple or well-practiced tasks in
the presence of others. Group study sessions or collaborative learning activities can capitalize on this effect, providing
opportunities for peer support and motivation.

Intrinsic motivation: Intrinsic motivation, the internal desire to engage in an activity for its own sake, leads to greater
enjoyment and deeper learning. Teachers can foster intrinsic motivation by providing meaningful and relevant learning
experiences, offering autonomy and choice, and acknowledging students' achievements.

Mindfulness and stress reduction: Mindfulness practices, such as deep breathing exercises or meditation, can help reduce
stress and enhance concentration and overall well-being. Incorporating mindfulness techniques into the school day can support
students' emotional regulation and academic performance.

Positive teacher-student relationships: Positive relationships between teachers and students have a significant impact on
students' motivation, engagement, and achievement. Cultivating a supportive and caring classroom environment can foster a
sense of belonging and enhance students' overall educational experience.

Neuroplasticity: The brain has the ability to change and reorganize itself throughout life in response to experiences, learning,
and environmental factors. This phenomenon is known as neuroplasticity.
 P a g e | 432

Mirror neurons: Mirror neurons are a type of brain cell that fires both when an individual performs an action and when they
observe someone else performing the same action. They are believed to play a role in empathy, imitation, and understanding the
actions and intentions of others.

Cognitive biases: Cognitive biases are systematic errors in thinking and decision-making that can affect our judgment and
perception. Examples include confirmation bias (favoring information that confirms our existing beliefs) and availability bias
(judging the likelihood of an event based on how easily examples come to mind).

The Stroop effect: The Stroop effect demonstrates the interference caused by conflicting information. In a classic example,
individuals are asked to name the color of the ink in which words are written, but when the word and the ink color are
incongruent (e.g., the word "red" written in blue ink), it takes longer to name the ink color due to interference from reading the
word.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs: Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a psychological theory that categorizes human needs into a
hierarchical structure. It suggests that people must fulfill basic physiological and safety needs before pursuing higher-level needs
such as belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization.

Cognitive dissonance: Cognitive dissonance occurs when there is a conflict between a person's beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors.
This discomfort motivates individuals to reduce the dissonance by either changing their beliefs or justifying their actions.

THE STUDENT’S SYNDROME

In psychology, the student syndrome refers to a phenomenon where individuals studying a particular topic or subject tend to
develop symptoms associated with that subject. It is most commonly observed among students, hence the name "student
syndrome." This phenomenon is also known as the "law of the instrument" or "regression to the mean."

The student syndrome can be explained using the following factors:

 Hypersensitivity: When students begin studying a specific subject intensively, they become hypersensitive to the concepts and
details related to that subject. As a result, they may start to perceive or experience symptoms associated with the subject matter.
For example, a medical student studying neurological disorders may begin to notice minor symptoms that they might otherwise
overlook.
 Increased Awareness: The intense focus on a subject leads to an increased awareness of the particular symptoms associated
with that subject. Students may become more attuned to their own experiences or behaviors, attributing them to the subject they
are studying. This heightened awareness can sometimes create a perception of experiencing symptoms that may not be clinically
significant.
 Self-Diagnosis: As students gain knowledge about a subject, they may start applying that knowledge to themselves and attempt
to diagnose their own symptoms. This self-diagnosis can lead to a heightened perception of having the condition they are
studying, even if the symptoms are mild or unrelated.
 Anxiety and Stress: The pressure of studying a complex subject can lead to anxiety and stress. These emotional factors can
further contribute to the perception of symptoms or exacerbate existing symptoms. Stress can also affect physical health, leading
to real symptoms that may be associated with the subject being studied.

It is important to note that the student syndrome does not imply that the symptoms experienced by students are entirely imagined
or unreal. Sometimes, the symptoms may be genuine, but they may be unrelated to the subject being studied or may not meet the
clinical criteria for a specific disorder. The student syndrome highlights the influence of psychological factors on the perception
and interpretation of symptoms.

In summary, the student syndrome refers to a phenomenon where students studying a particular subject may develop symptoms
associated with that subject due to hypersensitivity, increased awareness, self-diagnosis, anxiety, and stress. It emphasizes the
complex interaction between psychological factors, knowledge acquisition, and the perception of symptoms.
 P a g e | 433

These psychological facts offer insights into effective learning strategies, motivation, and the importance of creating a positive
educational environment. Applying these principles in schools and supporting students with evidence-based practices can
promote academic success and overall well-being.

PARKINSON’S LAW
Parkinson's Law is an observation that work expands to fill the time available for its completion. While originally formulated in
the context of work and bureaucracy, the principle can also be applied to students and their learning perspective. Here's an
explanation of Parkinson's Law from a student's learning perspective:

 Time Management: Parkinson's Law suggests that if students have a significant amount of time to complete a task or study
for an exam, they may tend to procrastinate or engage in less focused and efficient studying. For example, if a student is given
a week to complete an assignment, they might delay starting the task until closer to the deadline, resulting in inefficiency and
potentially lower-quality work.

 Focus and Concentration: When students have limited time to complete a task, Parkinson's Law suggests that they tend to
prioritize and concentrate better. The pressure of a looming deadline can enhance focus and help students allocate their time
and attention more effectively. As a result, they may accomplish more in a shorter period, leading to better learning outcomes.
 Efficiency and Productivity: Parkinson's Law implies that when students have less time available to complete a task, they
may find ways to work more efficiently and maximize their productivity. The need to meet a deadline can inspire them to
streamline their study strategies, prioritize essential concepts, and avoid unnecessary distractions, ultimately leading to better
learning outcomes.
 Setting Realistic Deadlines: Understanding Parkinson's Law can help students set more realistic deadlines for their learning
objectives. By recognizing that work expands to fill the available time, students can allocate time according to the complexity
of the task or the amount of material they need to learn. This approach helps prevent overestimating the time required and
ensures a balanced study schedule.
 Avoiding Procrastination: Parkinson's Law highlights the tendency to procrastinate when ample time is available. Students
can use this understanding to combat procrastination tendencies by setting shorter, more focused deadlines for themselves.
Breaking down larger tasks into smaller, manageable chunks and establishing specific deadlines for each part can help
maintain consistent progress and minimize the risk of leaving everything to the last minute.
 Time Constraints and Motivation: Parkinson's Law suggests that the pressure of limited time can serve as a motivator for
students. By creating a sense of urgency, students may experience increased motivation to learn and complete tasks efficiently.
This motivation can lead to a more engaged and focused approach to studying, resulting in better retention of information and
improved learning outcomes.

EMPTY WORKSHEET:
P a g e | 434
P a g e | 435
 P a g e | 436

WHAT THIS BOOK OFFERS YOU

 Explained solution to JUPEB past question from 2014 to 2023 for
all sciences
 Detail solutions of JUPEB practicals with graphs
 Reveals what JUPEB programme is all about
 How to register JUPEB
 How to check JUPEB results
 How to calculate to calculate scores, grades and points
 Jupeb current syllabus
 Relevant data and statistics related to the jupeb question
 Questions and arranged based on topics
 Scientific basic tools used in easy learning
 Motivational speeches
 Relevant JUPEB news
 JUPEB coaching centres close to you

WHAT BENEFITS THIS BOOK OFFERS YOU

 ADMISSION GUIDANCE
 SCORE ‘A’ ALL THROUGH
 BBC
 SCIENTIFIC TOOLS
 TIME TABLE
 EMPTY GRAPH SHEET AND WORK SHEET