Phenotype vs.

Genotype

 Genotype: genetic makeup of an organism (alleles present, e.g., BB, Bb, bb)
o Determines potential traits, inherited from parents
o Not always visible; can carry recessive traits (e.g., Bb shows dominant B)
 Phenotype: physical expression of traits (observable characteristics)
o Influenced by genotype + environment
o Examples: eye color, height, leaf shape in plant
o

Role environment plays in natural selection

Selective pressure: environment favors traits that enhance survival/reproduction

Adaptations: beneficial traits become more common (e.g., camouflage in predators/prey)

Environmental changes: shifts selection (e.g., climate change, new predators)

Survival of the fittest: individuals with advantageous traits survive, pass on genes

Genetic diversity: environment maintains variety for adaptation to future changes

Causes of Extinction

 Environmental changes: climate shifts, habitat loss, natural disasters

 Overexploitation: hunting, fishing, resource depletion
 Invasive species: new predators, competitors, or diseases introduced
 Genetic bottlenecks: low genetic diversity, reduced adaptability
 Pollution: toxins, habitat contamination affecting survival/reproduction
 Climate change: shifts too fast for adaptation, loss of suitable habitats

Reasons for Classification

 Organization: helps categorize and organize living things for easier study and
understanding.
 Identification: allows scientists to identify and communicate about organisms
consistently.
 Evolutionary relationships: reveals how organisms are related through shared ancestry.
 Predictive value: knowing characteristics of one group can predict traits in related
organisms.
 Biodiversity conservation: aids in tracking species, assessing conservation needs, and
understanding ecosystems.
Binomial Nomenclature

 Definition: A formal system for naming species using two Latinized names.
 Structure:
o Genus name: first part, capitalized (e.g., Homo)
o Species name: second part, lowercase (e.g., sapiens)
 Example: Homo sapiens refers to humans.
 Purpose: Provides a universal language for scientists, reduces confusion caused by
common names, and indicates relationships between species.

Criteria for Determining Species

1. Biological Species Concept:

o Two organisms are the same species if they can interbreed and produce viable,
fertile offspring in natural conditions.
o This emphasizes reproductive isolation from other groups.
2. Morphological Characteristics:
o Similar physical traits, structures, and features (e.g., size, shape, coloration) can
indicate that two organisms belong to the same species.
o This is often used when reproductive behaviors are difficult to observe.
3. Genetic Analysis:
o Comparing DNA sequences can reveal genetic similarities and differences.
o Organisms with a high degree of genetic similarity (e.g., more than 97% DNA
similarity) are often classified as the same species.
4. Ecological Niche:
o Organisms that occupy the same ecological niche and have similar habitat
requirements and roles in the ecosystem may be the same species.
o This includes behavior, diet, and habitat preferences.
5. Behavioral Traits:
o Mating behaviors, calls, and rituals can indicate whether two organisms belong to
the same species.
o Species often have specific behaviors that attract mates of the same species.
6. Evolutionary Relationships:
o Phylogenetic analysis can help determine if organisms share a common ancestor
and are thus classified as the same species.

Here’s a summary of Homologous vs. Analogous Traits with respect to convergent and
divergent evolution:

Homologous Traits
  Definition: Traits that share a common ancestry but may serve different functions.
 Example: The forelimbs of mammals (e.g., human arm, whale flipper, bat wing) have
similar bone structures despite different functions (grasping, swimming, flying).
 Caused by: Divergent evolution, where related species evolve different traits from a
common ancestor due to adaptations to different environments or lifestyles.

Analogous Traits

 Definition: Traits that serve similar functions but do not share a common ancestry.
 Example: The wings of birds and insects both allow for flight but evolved independently
with different structures.
 Caused by: Convergent evolution, where unrelated species develop similar traits due to
adaptation to similar environmental challenges or ecological niches.

vestigial Traits/Organs

 Definition: Structures or organs that have lost most or all of their original function
through the course of evolution.
 Examples:
o Human appendix: Once thought to aid in digestion of cellulose in ancestors, now
considered to have a minimal role in gut flora maintenance.
o Wisdom teeth: These molars were useful for our ancestors who had a diet
requiring more chewing, but are often impacted or removed in modern humans.
o Pelvic bones in whales and snakes: Remnants of ancestral land-dwelling
vertebrates, now nonfunctional for locomotion.
 Significance:
o Evolutionary evidence: Indicates evolutionary history and adaptations; these
traits show how species have changed over time.
o Natural selection: While vestigial organs may no longer serve their original
purpose, they can persist if they do not negatively impact survival.

1. Archaea

 Cell Type: Prokaryotic (lack a nucleus)

 Cell Structure: Unicellular organisms with unique cell membranes composed of ether-
linked lipids.
 Genetic Material: Circular DNA with no histones (some species have histone-like
proteins).
  Reproduction: Asexual reproduction primarily through binary fission.
 Environment: Often found in extreme environments (e.g., hot springs, salt lakes, deep-
sea vents) but can also inhabit moderate conditions.
 Metabolism: Diverse metabolic pathways; some are methanogens (produce methane),
others are extremophiles (thrive in extreme conditions).

The 3 domains wwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwww

2. Bacteria

 Cell Type: Prokaryotic (lack a nucleus)

 Cell Structure: Unicellular organisms with cell walls containing peptidoglycan.
 Genetic Material: Circular DNA, often with plasmids (small DNA molecules).
 Reproduction: Asexual reproduction primarily through binary fission; some can
exchange genetic material through horizontal gene transfer (e.g., conjugation).
 Environment: Ubiquitous; found in a wide range of environments, including soil, water,
and inside the human body.
 Metabolism: Extremely diverse; can be autotrophic (photosynthetic or chemosynthetic)
or heterotrophic (consume organic matter).

3. Eukaryota

 Cell Type: Eukaryotic (contain a nucleus and organelles)

 Cell Structure: Can be unicellular or multicellular; complex cell structure with
membrane-bound organelles.
 Genetic Material: Linear DNA organized into chromosomes, associated with histones.
 Reproduction: Can reproduce sexually (through gametes) and asexually (mitosis).
 Examples: Includes protists (e.g., algae, amoebas), fungi (e.g., yeasts, molds), plants
(e.g., flowering plants, trees), and animals (e.g., mammals, birds).
 Metabolism: Diverse; includes autotrophic (plants) and heterotrophic (animals, fungi)
organisms

1. Plantae (Plants)

 Cell Type: Eukaryotic

 Cell Structure: Multicellular; cell walls made of cellulose.
 Nutrition: Autotrophic; perform photosynthesis using chlorophyll in chloroplasts.
 Reproduction: Can reproduce sexually (flowers, seeds) and asexually (cuttings, runners).
 Examples: Mosses, ferns, conifers, flowering plants.
 Characteristics:
o Exhibit alternation of generations (life cycle stages).
o Primarily terrestrial, with adaptations for water conservation (e.g., waxy cuticle).
2. Fungi

 Cell Type: Eukaryotic

 Cell Structure: Multicellular (most) or unicellular; cell walls made of chitin.
 Nutrition: Heterotrophic; absorb nutrients through external digestion (decomposers,
parasites, mutualists).
 Reproduction: Can reproduce sexually (spores) and asexually (budding, fragmentation).
 Examples: Mushrooms, molds, yeasts.
 Characteristics:
o Important for nutrient cycling in ecosystems.
o Form symbiotic relationships (e.g., mycorrhizae with plants).

3. Animalia (Animals)

 Cell Type: Eukaryotic

 Cell Structure: Multicellular; lack cell walls.
 Nutrition: Heterotrophic; ingest food through a digestive system.
 Reproduction: Primarily sexual reproduction (some asexual reproduction).
 Examples: Invertebrates (e.g., insects, worms) and vertebrates (e.g., mammals, birds,
reptiles).
 Characteristics:
o Highly diverse in form and function.
o Exhibit complex behaviors and nervous systems in many species.

4. Protista

 Cell Type: Eukaryotic

 Cell Structure: Mostly unicellular; some multicellular or colonial.
 Nutrition: Can be autotrophic (e.g., algae), heterotrophic (e.g., protozoa), or mixotrophic
(e.g., euglena).
 Reproduction: Asexual (binary fission, budding) and sexual reproduction (in some
groups).
 Examples: Amoebas, paramecia, slime molds, algae.
 Characteristics:
o Extremely diverse group with various life forms.
o Often classified based on modes of nutrition or movement.

Taxonomic Hierarchy
Here's a detailed summary of the Taxonomic Hierarchy and the organization of organisms into
different taxonomical levels:

Taxonomic Hierarchy

The taxonomic hierarchy is a system for classifying and organizing living organisms into
increasingly specific categories. Each level of this hierarchy is referred to as a taxon (plural:
taxa). The hierarchy is structured from the broadest category to the most specific:

1. Domain: The highest taxonomic rank. Organisms are classified into three domains:
Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya.
o Example: Eukarya (includes all eukaryotic organisms)
2. Kingdom: The second highest rank within a domain, grouping together organisms with
similar fundamental traits.
o Example: Plantae (plants), Fungi (fungi), Animalia (animals), Protista (protists)
3. Phylum: Groups organisms based on major body plans or organizational features within
a kingdom.
o Example: Angiosperms (flowering plants) belong to the phylum Angiosperms.
4. Class: A subdivision of a phylum, grouping together related orders.
o Example: Class Mammalia (mammals) within the phylum Chordata.
5. Order: A grouping of related families within a class.
o Example: Order Carnivora (carnivores) within the class Mammalia.
6. Family: A group of related genera (plural of genus) within an order.
o Example: Family Felidae (cats) within the order Carnivora.
7. Genus: A group of closely related species; the first part of the scientific name in binomial
nomenclature.
o Example: Genus Panthera (big cats, such as lions and tigers) within the family
Felidae.
8. Species: The most specific rank, representing individuals that can interbreed and produce
fertile offspring. It is the second part of the scientific name.
o Example: Species Panthera leo (lion), where Panthera is the genus and leo is the
specific epithet.

Hierarchy Example:

 Domain: Eukarya
o Kingdom: Animalia
 Phylum: Chordata
 Class: Mammalia
 Order: Carnivora
  Family: Felidae
 Genus: Panthera
 Species: Panthera leo (lion)

Here’s a summary of Speciation, its definition, and the factors that contribute to it:

What is Speciation?

 Definition: Speciation is the evolutionary process by which populations evolve to

become distinct species. It occurs when groups within a species become isolated and
diverge genetically over time due to various factors, leading to the inability to interbreed.

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Factors Contributing to Speciation

Here’s the text for A, B, C, and D:

**a. Behavioural Isolation**

- *Definition:* Calls or mating rituals to attract a mate are not recognized by other species

- *Examples:* many birds, especially song birds & birds of paradise

**b. Geographic Isolation**

- *Definition:* Physical barrier separates populations

- *Examples:* glaciation, canyons, rivers, islands

**c. Temporal Isolation**

- *Definition:* Timing of sexual maturity or mating season is different

- *Examples:* cicadas
**d. Mechanical Isolation**

- *Definition:* Physical difference in structure of reproductive organs prevents interbreeding

- *Examples:* ducks, snails, flowering plants

Types of Speciation

 Allopatric Speciation: Speciation that occurs due to geographic isolation.

 Sympatric Speciation: Speciation occurring without physical barriers, often due to
behavioral or ecological factors.

Genetic Drift

 Definition: Random changes in allele frequencies in a population over time, often having
a larger impact in small populations.
 Causes:
o Chance events (e.g., natural disasters, random mating).
o Can lead to loss of genetic variation.
 Impact: Can result in certain traits becoming more or less common, regardless of their
adaptive value.

Founder Effect

 Definition: A specific type of genetic drift that occurs when a small group from a larger
population establishes a new population.
 Definition: Natural selection is the process where individuals with advantageous traits are more
likely to survive and reproduce. Over generations, these traits become more common in the
population, as they provide a better chance of survival in a specific environment.

During the Industrial Revolution in England, pollution darkened tree bark. Dark-colored peppered
moths, which were once rare, became more common because they were better camouflaged against
predators on soot-covered trees, unlike the light-colored moths, which were easier for predators to
spot. Over time, the moth population shifted predominantly to the dark form, demonstrating natural
selection in response to environmental change.

As pollution from factories darkened tree bark with soot, the previously common light-colored peppered
moths stood out against the darkened background, making them easier for birds to spot and prey upon.
Meanwhile, dark-colored moths, which had once been rare, blended in with the dark bark, protecting
them from predators. Over generations, this selective pressure caused an increase in the dark moth
population, as they had a survival advantage and were more likely to reproduce. This shift is a clear
example of natural selection in response to environmental change.

Divergent Evolution

Divergent evolution occurs when closely related species evolve different traits due to
adaptation to distinct environments, even though they share a common ancestor.

Example: Darwin's Finches

On the Galápagos Islands, a single ancestor species of finch spread across different islands
with varying food sources. Over generations, these finches developed distinct beak shapes
adapted to their specific diets—some evolved long, thin beaks to access insects, while others
developed short, strong beaks to crack seeds. This divergence in beak structure allowed
each finch population to thrive in its unique environment, illustrating how divergent
evolution can lead to diverse adaptations from a shared lineage.
**Snowshoe Hare**

1. **Seasonal Fur Color Change**: White in winter, brown in summer. Helps with
camouflage against snow or dirt, reducing predation.

2. **Large Feet**: Acts like snowshoes to move easily on snow. Prevents sinking, allowing
quick escape from predators.

**Common Adaptations**:

1. **Camouflage**: Blending into surroundings to avoid predators.

2. **Mimicry**: Imitating other organisms to deter predators.

3. **Hibernation**: Dormant state to survive winter with limited resources.

4. **Migration**: Moving to new areas for better resources or climate.

5. **Sharp Claws or Teeth**: Helps in hunting, defense, or food gathering.

6. **Thick Fur or Blubber**: Insulation for cold environments.

7. **Efficient Respiration**: Adaptations like gills or enhanced lung capacity for specific
environments (e.g., water or high altitudes).

8. **Specialized Beaks**: Different shapes for specific food sources (e.g., seeds, insects).

9. **Coloration for Attraction**: Bright colors to attract mates.

10. **Enhanced Senses**: Improved sight, smell, or hearing for hunting or detecting
danger.

Evidence of evolution

Fossil Record: Shows gradual changes in species over time, revealing transitional forms between ancient
and modern organisms.
Genetic Evidence: DNA similarities between species (like humans and chimpanzees) reveal evolutionary
relationships.

### **Key Genetic Terms**

1. **Homozygous**:

- **Definition**: An organism with two identical alleles for a particular gene (e.g., AA or aa).

- **Importance**: Can express a trait consistently.

2. **Heterozygous**:

- **Definition**: An organism with two different alleles for a particular gene (e.g., Aa).

- **Importance**: May exhibit dominant traits while carrying recessive alleles.

3. **Allele Frequency**:

- **Definition**: The proportion of a specific allele within a population's gene pool.

- **Importance**: Indicates genetic diversity and can influence evolutionary changes.

4. **Phenotype**:

- **Definition**: The observable traits or characteristics of an organism (e.g., flower color, height).

- **Importance**: Results from the interaction of genotype with the environment.

5. **Genotype**:

- **Definition**: The genetic makeup of an organism, represented by the alleles it carries (e.g., AA, Aa,
aa).

- **Importance**: Determines the potential for phenotypic expression.

6. **Polygenic**:

- **Definition**: Traits controlled by multiple genes, each contributing to the overall phenotype (e.g.,
skin color, height).

- **Importance**: Results in continuous variation rather than discrete categories.

7. **Pasteur’s Test of Spontaneous Generation**:

- **Definition**: Louis Pasteur's experiment that disproved the idea that life could arise spontaneously
from non-living matter.

- **Method**: Used swan-necked flasks to show that microorganisms came from existing microbes in
the air, not spontaneously generated.

- **Importance**: Paved the way for modern microbiology and the understanding of germ theory.

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