FIRST TERM SCHEME OF WORK

PHYSICS SS2

WEEK TOPIC CONTENT INSTRUCTIONAL

MATERIAL

1 EQUILIBRIUM OF Concept of equilibrium, resultant Sea-saw, spring,

FORCES & equilibrant of forces, masses,
equilibrant of three forces acting balances etc
at a point and problem solving
2 EQUILIBRIUM OF Moment of force, conditions of Levering bottle
FORCES equilibrium under the action of cap, class room
parallel coplanar & non-parallel door or water
coplanar forces and problem tap
solving
3 EQUILIBRIUM OF Centre of gravity (Centre of Sea-saw, metre
FORCES mass), stability of objects, rule, solid
equilibrium of bodies in liquids, shapes such as
floatation and problem solving cones, cuboids,
cubes, cylinder
etc
4 EQUILIBRIUM OF Density & relative density, Density bottle,
FORCES hydrometer and problem solving measuring
cylinder,
balances,
hydrometer
5 SIMPLE Definition of SHM, SHM from Mass
HARMONIC circular motion and problem suspended
MOTION (SHM) solving from a spring,
loaded test
tube in a liquid,
simple
pendulum

6 SIMPLE Speed of SHM, acceleration of Simple

HARMONIC SHM, energy of SHM and problem pendulum,
MOTION (SHM) solving loaded test
tube etc
7 MID-TERM MID-TERM BREAK
BREAK
 8 SIMPLE Forced vibration, resonance and Tuning fork,
HARMONIC problem solving simple
MOTION (SHM) pendulum,
guitar etc
9 THE GAS LAWS Measurement of gas pressure,
Boyle’s law & its applications,
Charles’ law & its applications and
problem solving
10 THE GAS LAWS Pressure law, the General gas law,
kinetic molecular theory of gas
and its explanation of the gas
laws
11 REVISION AND REVISION AND EXAMINATION
EXAM
12 EXAMINATION EXAMINATION AND CLOSING

EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCES

INTRODUCTION:

Equilibrium is a state of an object at rest or moving with a constant velocity.

The object may move with a constant velocity on a straight line or rotate with
a constant angular speed or not moving at all.

DEFINITION:

A body is said to be in equilibrium when:

(i) The body as a whole either remains at rest or moves with a constant speed
in a straight line

(ii) The body is either not rotating at all or is rotating at a constant angular
speed.

A body at rest or not rotating at all is said to be in STATIC equilibrium while

the body moving with a constant speed or constant angular speed is at
DYNAMIC or KINETIC equilibrium.

RESULTANT AND EQUILIBRANT FORCES

 The resultant force is that single force which acting alone will have the same
effect in magnitude and direction as two or more forces acting together.
However, the equilibrant of two or more forces is that single force which will
balance all the other forces taken together. It is equal in magnitude but
opposite in direction to the resultant force. For example, if two forces T1 and T2
acting at a point P are in equilibrium, using parallelogram method as shown
below, the resultant and equilibrant forces are R and E respectively.

R = E in magnitude but opposite in

R direction

T1 T2
Ɵ

Using cosine rule,

R2= T12 + T22 + 2T1T2COSƟ

Where R = resultant force

T1 and T2 = two forces at equilibrium

Ɵ = angle between the two forces

Worked Examples

(1) Two forces 10N and 15N acting in the direction N300E and easterly direction
respectively act at a point. Calculate:

(a) the resultant force

(b) the equilibrant force

Solution

10N R

Ɵ β 1200
P 15N
E
From the diagram above,

Ɵ = 90 0 – 30 0 = 60 0

R 2 =102 + 152 + 2 × 10× 15C0SƟ

R2 = 100 + 225 + 2 × 10 × 15 × COS600

R2 = 100 + 225 + 300 × 0.5

R2 = 325 + 150

R2 = 475

R = √ 475

R = 21.79N

Using sine rule,

10 R
=
sinβ sin 120

Where β is the angle the resultant force make with the bigger force

Cross multiply
10 sin120
Sinβ = 21.79
= 0.3974

.β = 23.420

(a) the resultant force, R is 21.8N, 23.40 to the direction of the bigger force

(b) the equilibrant force, E = R = 21.8N directed opposite the resultant force.

(2) Two forces 18N and 20N are inclined at 1300 to each other. Calculate a
single force that will:

(a) Replace the given system

(b) Balance the given force system.

 Solution

R
18N
18N

From the diagram above, using

130 the parallelogram method,
β
E 20N
R2 = 182 + 202 + 2 × 18 × 20 × C0SƟ

Ɵ = 1300

R2 = 324 + 400 + 720 × COS1300

R2 = 724 + 720 × -0.6428

R 2= 724 – 462.81

R2 = 261.19

R2 = √ 261.19

R = 16.16N

Using sine rule,

18 R
=
sinβ sin 50

18 sin50
Sinβ = 16.16 = 0.8512

.β = 58.340

(a) The single force or resultant, R is 16.16N, 58.340 to the direction of 20N
force

(b) The force that will balance the system or equilibrant, E = R is 16.16N
opposite the direction of the resultant.

ASSIGNMENT

Find the magnitude and direction of:

 (a) the resultant (b) the equilibrant of two forces 15N acting in the
direction N450East and 25N acting in the direction S650East, if both
forces act at a point

EQUILIBRIUM OF THREE FORCES ACTING AT A POINT

INTRODUCTION:

The resultant R of the two forces P and Q of the figure below is

counterbalanced by the equilibrant force E. The three forces P, Q and E keep
the point O in equilibrium.

B
P

E O R C

Q
A

The three forces that keep a body in equilibrium can be represented in

magnitude and direction by the three sides of a triangle as shown below

E
P

O
Q A

Worked Examples

1. A mass of 5.0kg is supported by two cords which make angles of 40 0 and

600 with the vertical. Calculate the tension in the two cords.
Solution
Note that a mass of 5.0kg = 50N (i.e. F = mg = 5.0kg × 10m/s2 = 50N)
S
 600
40 0 400
P

T1 800
Q
600
T2 S

O
400 T1

E
50N
800
Q

600 T2

O
50N

SCALE DRAWING METHOD OR GRAPHICAL METHOD

Using a scale of 1cm to represent 5N (1cm = 5N), then 50N = 10cm

Draw line OS = 10cm to represent 50N force. From O, draw line OQ at an angle
600 to line OS to represent T2 in direction. Also, draw line SQ from S at an angle
400 to line OS to represent T1 in direction. Let lines OQ and SQ intersect at Q.
Triangle SOQ represent the triangle of forces. Measure T1 and T2 with a ruler
+and convert back to Newton (force) using your scale.

ANALYTICAL METHOD
Using sine rule,
50 T1
sin 80
= sin 60
Cross multiply
T1sin800 = 50sin600
50 sin60
T1 = sin 80
50× 0.8660 43.30
T1 = 0.9849
= 0.9848
= 43.97N

Also,
 50 T2
=
sin 80 sin 40

Cross multiply,

T2sin800 = 50sin400
50 sin 40 50× 0.6428 32.14
T2 = sin 80 = 0.9848
= 0.9848
= 32.64N

Hence, the tensions on the cords are 43.97N and 32.64N

2. An object of weight W is suspended by two ropes from a beam as

shown below

50.0N 600 300 86.6N

The tensions in the ropes are 50.0N and 86.6N as shown. Calculate (a) the
value of the resultant and its direction (b) the value of W and its direction.

Solution

MOMENT OF A FORCE

The moment of a force about a point or axis is the turning effect of the force
about that point. It is equal to the product of the force and the perpendicular
distance of its line of action from the point. Mathematically,

Moment = force × perpendicular distance from the pivot to the point of the
force.
The S.I unit of moment is Nm

In the diagrams below

d pivot

Pivot

F Ɵ d

Moment = F × d

Moment = F × dsinƟ

Worked Examples

1. Using the diagram below, calculate the moment of the force of 10N
about the point P.

P
12m

O 300 Q

10N
Solution
From the diagram,

OQ is the perpendicular distance to the force.

OQ = (12cos300) m and F = 10N

Moment = F × perpendicular distance

= (10 × 12 × cos300) Nm

= (10 × 12 × 0.8660) Nm = 103.9Nm

 2. Weights of 30N and 40N are hung on a light beam as shown below. Find
the moments of the forces about O if the beam is balance.

x y

anti-clockwise 30N 40N

clockwise

Solution

Moment of 30N force about O = (30 × x) Nm = 30x Nm

Moment of 40N force about O = (40 × y) Nm = 40y Nm

CLOCKWISE AND ANTI-CLOCKWISE MOMENTS

From example (2) above, the 30N force will tend to turn the beam in an
anticlockwise direction and exert a turning effect of 30x Nm while the 40N
force exert a turning effect of 40y Nm about O in a clockwise direction. They
are respectively called anticlockwise moment and clockwise moment.

Worked Examples

1. Chikwado has a mass of 20kg. He sits at a distance of 2.0m from the

pivot of a sea-saw. If Chigozie of mass 25kg sits at a distance 1.5m from
the pivot, will the sea-saw balance horizontally? What additional force
will be needed to balance it? (Take g = 10m/s2)
Solution
Chikwado Chigozie

2.0m 1.5m
Pivot

20kg 25kg

Force Chikwado exerted = mg = 20kg × 10m/s2 = 200N

Force Chigozie exerted = mg = 25kg × 10m/s2 = 250N

Moment of Chikwado about the pivot = 200N × 2.0m = 400Nm (anticlockwise
moment)

Moment of Chigozie about the pivot = 250N × 1.5m = 375Nm (clockwise

moment)

For the sea-saw to balance horizontally, clockwise moment must be equal to

anticlockwise moment. It will not balance in this case but tilt down where
200N or 20kg or Chikwado sits because its moment is bigger.

Additional moment that will balance the sea-saw = 400Nm – 375Nm = 25Nm
25
Additional force that will balance it = 1.5 N = 16.67N

2. A uniform metre rule has its weight acts through the centre of gravity
(i.e. middle or mid-point of the ruler). A vertical force of 35N hangs 18cm
from the midpoint. At what distance must a 15N force hang to balance
the metre rule horizontally?
Solution

ASSIGNMENT
1. Two forces A and B act at a point at right angles. If their resultant is
50N and their sum is 70N, find their magnitudes (show working).
2. A horizontal string attached to the body pulls it until the wire is at 30 0
to the vertical. Find the tensions in both the string and the wire.
3. State the principle of moment and define couple.

CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM UNDER THE ACTION OF PARALLEL COPLANAR

AND NON-PARALLEL COPLANAR FORCES

INTRODUCTION

R
F5

x5

x1 x4
 x2 x3

F1 F2 F3 F4

Note that moment of a force is a vector quantity (i.e. it has magnitude and
direction)

From the figure above,

Clockwise moment about O = (F3 × x3) + (F4 × x4) = F3x3 + F4x4

Anticlockwise moment about O = (F1 × x1) + (F2 × x2) + (F5 × x5) = F1x1 + F2x2 + F5x5

Hence, F3x3 + F4x4 = F1x1 + F2x2 + F5x5

CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM UNDER THE ACTION OF PARALLEL COPLANAR

FORCES

Coplanar forces are forces that lie in the same plane. Parallel forces are forces
whose lines of action are all parallel to each other.

Two conditions for equilibrium of parallel coplanar forces can be stated as

follows:

(i) FORCES: The algebraic sum of the forces acting on the body in any
given direction must be zero. That is, the sum of the upward forces
must be equal to the sum of the downward forces or the sum of the
forces acting in one direction must be equal to the sum of the forces
acting in opposite direction.
(ii) MOMENTS: The algebraic sum of the moments of all forces about any
point on the body must be zero or the total clockwise moments of
the forces about any point on the body must be equal to the total
anticlockwise moments of the forces about the same point.

The second condition above is called the principle of moment.

The principle of moments states that if a body is in equilibrium, then the

sum of the clockwise moments about any point on the body is equal to the
sum of the anticlockwise moments about the same point.
 Worked Examples

1. A uniform rod 8m long weighing 5kg is supported horizontally by two

vertical parallel strings at P and Q, and at distances 2m and 6m from one
end. Weights of 1kg, 1.5kg and 2kg are attached at distances of 1m, 5m
and 7m respectively from the same end. Find the tension in each vertical
string.
Solution
2. A light beam AB sits on two pivots C and D. A load of 20N hangs at P 3m
from the support at C. find the value of the reaction forces F 1 and F2 at C
and D. Take the distances as shown below

F1 F2

6m 3m P 8m

A B

C 20N D

Solution

Since the beam is light, the weight can be neglected.

From the first condition of equilibrium,

F1 + F2 = 20N (i.e. total upward forces = total downward forces)

COUPLES

A couple is two equal but oppositely directed parallel forces not acting in a
straight line. This causes a body to rotate and not to move linearly. Examples
are shown diagrammatically below

P F

(i) Wheel (ii) Lever

d
A
B
 P
F

From the above, the resultants of the forces are zero since they are equal,
parallel and opposite in direction. Couples have moment.

The moment of a couple is the product of one of the forces and the
perpendicular distance between the lines of action of the two forces.

Hence, the moments of the couples above are:

(i) Moment = P × d = Pd
(ii) Moment = F × x = Fx

Examples of couples in everyday life include:

(1) To turn a tap on or off

(2) To turn a steering wheel of a vehicle

NOTE: The moment of a couple is called TORQUE

CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM UNDER THE ACTION OF NON-PARALLEL

COPLANAR FORCES

Non-parallel forces can be kept in equilibrium by resolving them into

horizontal and vertical components.

Two conditions of non-parallel coplanar forces are as follows:

(i) FORCES: The vector sum of all the forces acting on the body must be
zero. In other words, the algebraic sum of the forces or components
of the forces acting on the body in any direction must be zero.
Hence, ΣFx = 0 and ΣFy = 0
(ii) MOMENTS: The algebraic sum of the moments of all the forces about
any axis perpendicular to the plane of the forces must be zero. In
other words, the sum of the clockwise moments about any such axis
equals the sum of the anticlockwise moments about the same axis.
 SPECIAL CASE: Equilibrium under the action of three non-parallel forces

(1) The three forces must lie in a plane

(2) Their lines of action must intersect in a common point
(3) The vectors representing the three forces can be arranged to form a
closed triangle with sides respectively parallel to the directions and
proportional in length to the magnitude of the forces.
Worked Examples
(1) A body of mass 15kg is kept in equilibrium by two ropes as shown below.
If one rope pulls the body in a horizontal direction and the other in a
direction of 300 with the vertical, calculate the tension in each rope.

T2

300

T1 600

15kg = (15 × 10)N = 150N

Solution

Resolving the forces horizontally (i.e. horizontal component)

Σfx = T2cos600 – T1

Note: Σfx = 0 (condition of equilibrium for non-parallel forces)

T2cos600 – T1 = 0

T1 = T2cos600………………..eqn(1)

Resolving vertically (i.e. vertical component)

Σfy = T2sin600 – 150N

Also, Σfy = 0 (condition of equilibrium for non-parallel forces)

T2sin600 – 150 = 0

T2sin600 = 150
150 150
T2 = sin 60 = 0.8660 = 173.2N

From eqn (1),

T1 = T2cos600

T1 = (173.2 × 0.5) N = 86.6N

(2) A non-uniform rod XY of mass 40kg and length 5.0m lies on the
horizontal ground. Its centre of gravity is 2.0m from the end X. Calculate
the vertical force P that will just be sufficient to lift the end Y from the
ground. Why would the force P, if applied at the end X not sufficient to
lift the end X from the ground? ( g = 10m/s2)
Solution

CENTRE OF GRAVITY OR CENTRE OF MASS

Centre of gravity (C.G) of a body is the point through which the line of action
of the weight of the body always passes irrespective of the position of the
body. It is also the point at which the entire weight of the body appears to be
concentrated. Similarly, centre of mass of a body is the point at which the total
mass of the body appears to be concentrated. For small objects, the centre of
mass coincides with the centre of gravity.

POSITIONS OF C.G FOR SOME REGULAR UNIFORM BODIES OR OBJECTS

 Every object has a centre of gravity

(i) A uniform rod has its centre of gravity at the mid-point of the length
of the rod. So the weight of the rod acts through C.G
(ii) The centre of gravity of a uniform square or rectangular sheet is at
the point of intersection of its diagonals
(iii) The centre of gravity of a uniform circular plate is at its centre
(iv) The centre of gravity of a uniform triangular plate is at the
intersection of the medians
Worked Example

A man carries a load of mass 3.6kg from one end of a uniform pole 100cm
long which has a mass 0.4kg. The pole rests on his shoulder at a point 60.0cm
from the load and he holds it by the other end. What vertical force must be
applied by his hand and what is the force on his shoulder?

Solution

STABILITY OF OBJECTS

There are three types of equilibrium. They are (1) stable equilibrium (2)
unstable equilibrium and (3) neutral equilibrium.

(1) STABLE EQUILIBRIUM: A body is said to be in stable equilibrium if it

tends to return to its original position when slightly displaced. Generally,
a low centre of gravity (C.G) and a wide base will usually help to put
objects in stable equilibrium. Examples are:
(a) A ball or a sphere in the middle of a bowl
(b) A cone resting on its base
(c) A racing car with low centre of gravity and wide base
(2) UNSTABLE EQUILIBRIUM: A body is said to be in an unstable equilibrium
if when slightly displaced it tends to move further away from its original
position. High centre of gravity and narrow base make for unstable
equilibrium. Examples are:
(a) A cone or an egg resting on its apex or pointed end
(b) A ball or a sphere resting on an inverted bowl
(c) A tight-rope walker
 (3) NEUTRAL EQUILIBRIUM: A body is said to be in neutral equilibrium if
when slightly displaced, it tends to come to rest in its new position.
Examples are:
(a) A cone or cylinder or an egg resting on its side
(b) A ball or sphere on a smooth horizontal table

EFFECT OF THE HEIGHT OF CENTRE OF GRAVITY ON THE STABILITY OF AN

OBJECT

The height of the centre of gravity of a body above the ground level and the
width of the base of the object affect the stability of the object. A wide base
and a low centre of gravity make for the stability of a body. It is for this reason
that:

(i) Racing cars are built low and with a wide wheel base to prevent them
from overturning while travelling at high speed round bends
(ii) Car engines are always located at the bottom of the car and not on the
roof
(iii) A tight rope walker often carries a weighted pole or an umbrella
(iv) Lorries loaded with bags of foodstuff stacked some metres high above
the roof overturn when rounding corners. The high centre of gravity
makes the lorry unstable. The lorry can be stable if the heavy loads are
placed on the floor, thus lowering the centre of gravity of the system.

EQUILIBRIUM OF BODIES IN LIQUIDS

When an object is immersed partially or completely in a liquid or water, there

is an apparent loss in the weight of such object due to upward force in the
liquid called upthrust. If the true weight of the object in air is W a and the
apparent weight in a liquid is Wl, the upthrust is given by

U = Wa - W l

Thus, apparent weight, Wl = Wa – U

The magnitude of the upthrust is given by the Archimedes principle.

Archimedes principle states that when a body is totally or partially immersed

in a fluid (liquid or gas), it experiences an upthrust which is equal to the weight
of fluid displaced.
 Any object completely immersed in a liquid displaces a volume of liquid
equal to the volume of the object. The upthrust is the weight of this volume of
liquid and is given by:

Upthrust (force) = volume of object × density of liquid × g

Where g = acceleration due to gravity

FLOATATION

When an object is completely immersed in a liquid, there is a greater upthrust

from the liquid on the object since more liquid will be displaced. If the
upthrust is equal to the weight of the object, the object floats in the liquid.
Because of upthrust, a swimmer floats in water, a balloon floats in air and ice
cubes float in water.

The Principle of floatation states that an object will float in a fluid (liquid or
gas) when the upthrust exerted by the fluid equals the weight of the object.

Thus a floating body displaces its own weight of the liquid in which it floats.

FACTORS AFFECTING FLOATATION

A body will float in a liquid if its density is less than that of the liquid.
However, a body denser than the liquid can still float in the liquid if it is shaped
in such a way that its volume can displace its own weight of the liquid. Thus for
a body to float, its density and shape are important factors to consider.

A ship floats in water because its large volume displaces a large volume of
water whose weight counterbalances the weight of the ship.

Worked Examples

(1) What volume of alcohol with a density of 8.4 × 102kg/m3 will have the same
mass as 4.2m3 of petrol whose density is 7.2 × 102kg/m3?
Solution
Let volume of alcohol be taken as Va =
Let density of alcohol be taken as ρa =
Mass of alcohol = Ma
mass
Density = volume
 Ma
ρa =
Va
M = ρaVa…………………..eqn (1)

(2) A block of material of volume 20cm3 and density 2.5g/cm3 is suspended

from a spring balance with half the volume of the block immersed in water.
What is the reading of the spring balance? ( density of water = 1.0g/cm 3)
Solution
Mass of block in air =
Volume of block =
Density of block =
M=ρ×V=

Mass of block lost in water =

Volume of block immersed in water=
Density of water =
M=ρ×V=

DENSITY AND RELATIVE DENSITY

Equal volumes of different substances have different masses or weights.
This is due to the differences known as density.
Density ρ is defined as the mass per unit volume of the material.
Mathematically,
mass
Density = volume
The S.I unit of density is kg/m3 but in laboratory work, the smaller unit of
g/cm3 may be used. The table below gives the density values of some solids
and liquids.

Material Density ( kg/m3)

Aluminium 2.7 × 103
Copper 8.9 × 103
Bamboo wood 0.4 × 103
Gold 19.3 × 103
 Glass 2.6 × 103
Lead 11.3 × 103
Platinum 21.5 × 103
Iron 7.9 × 103
Steel (variable) 7.8 × 103
Ice (00C) 0.92 × 103
Water 1.0 × 103
Mercury 13.6 × 103
Sand (variable) 2.6 × 103
Methylated spirit 0.8 × 103
Paraffin wax 0.9 × 103
Zinc 7.1 × 103

Relative density (R.D) is defined as:

density of substance
R.D = density of water
or
mass∨weight of a substance
R.D = mass∨weight of equal volume of water

Hence,

Density of substance = Relative density of substance × density of water

Worked Examples

(1) A body weighs 0.45N in air, 0.38N when fully immersed in water and
0.42N when fully immersed in a liquid. Calculate:
a. Its loss in weight in water
b. Its relative density
c. The relative density of the liquid

Solution

a. Loss in weight in water = (0.45 – 0.38)N =

weight∈ air
b. Relative density of solid = weight of equal volume of water
Weight of equal volume of water = upthrust of water on solid =
Weight in air = 0.45N
0.45 N
Relative density of solid = 0.07 N =
 upthrust ∈liquid 0.45 N−0.42 N 0.03 N
c. Relative density of liquid = upthrust ∈water = 0.45 N −0.38 N = 0.07 N =

(2) A metal block of density 9000kg/m3 weighs 75N in air. Find its weight
when it is immersed in paraffin wax of density 800kg/m3. Take g =
10m/s2.
Solution
Weight of block in air = 75N
w 75
Mass of block, m = g = 10 kg = 7.5kg
mass 7.5 kg
Volume of block = density = 9000 kg /m3 = 0.00083m3

From Archimedes’ principle,

Loss in weight = weight of paraffin displaced

= volume × density of paraffin × g = 0.00083m3 × 800kg/m3
× 10m/s2 = 6.64N
Weight of block when immersed in paraffin = 75N – 6.64N = 68.36N

(3) A relative density bottle weighs 18g when empty, 92g when filled with
water and 100g when filled with a liquid. Find the relative density of the
liquid.
Solution
weight of liquid
Relative density of liquid = weight of equal volume of water =

THE HYDROMETER
The hydrometer is an instrument used to measure the relative density of
liquids.
Worked Example
A hydrometer of mass 3.5kg and volume 6.0 × 10-5m3 floats in a liquid
2
with 3 of its volume immersed in the liquid. Calculate the density of the
liquid.
Solution
Mass of hydrometer =
Mass of liquid, m =
 From the principle of floatation,
Mass of hydrometer = upthrust of liquid (mass of liquid)
Volume of liquid =
Density of liquid =

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM)

INTRODUCTION

A vibration or oscillation is in general any motion which repeats itself at

regular intervals. Examples are:

(i) The motion of a simple pendulum

(ii) The motion of the strings in a musical instrument e.g.
guitar
(iii) The motion of the balance wheel of a watch
(iv) The motion of the pendulum of a clock
(v) The motion of the pistons in a gasoline engine
(vi) The motion of the prongs of a sounding tuning fork
(vii) The motion of a child’s swing
(viii) The motion of the diving board in a swimming pool
(ix) The beating of the heart
(x) The motion of a body suspended from a spiral spring
(xi) The motion of a loaded test tube oscillating vertically in
a liquid

DEFINITION:

Simple harmonic motion (SHM) is the periodic motion of a body or particle

along a straight line such that the acceleration of the body is directed towards
a fixed point (or centre of motion) and is also proportional to its displacement
from that point.

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION FROM CIRCULAR MOTION

 If a particle moves with a uniform speed, v round a circle of radius, A, the
angular velocity, Ѡ of the radius vector is related to the linear speed, v by the
equation

v = ѠA

If x is the horizontal distance from the centre, then,

x = AcosƟ

The maximum value of x has the value A and is called the amplitude of the
motion.

Amplitude (A) of a SHM is the maximum displacement of the body performing

simple harmonic motion from its equilibrium or central position.

Period (T) is defined as the total time taken by a vibrating body to make one
complete revolution or cycle or oscillation about a reference point.
Mathematically,
t
l., T= n

Where n = number of revolutions or cycles or oscillations or beats

t = time taken for the oscillations

Frequency (f) is the number of complete revolutions per second made by a

vibrating body. Mathematically,
n
f= t

1 1
Hence, f = T or T = f

The S.I unit of frequency is the Hertz (Hz).

SPEED AND ACCELERATION OF SHM

As a particle moves round a circle once, it covers an angle Ɵ = 360 0 or 2π

radians in a period of motion, T. the rate of change of angle (Ɵ) with time (t) is
called angular velocity (Ѡ)
 angle turned(Ɵ)
Angular velocity (Ѡ) = time taken(t)

i.e. Ѡ =

Ɵ = Ѡt

This is similar to the equation for motion in a straight line below

S
v= t

S = vt

Since Ɵ is measured in radians, then

Ѡ is measured in radians per second (rad/s)

S
Recall, Ɵ = r and

S = Ɵr

Where r = A (i.e. radius of the circular path.

The angular velocity (Ѡ) is given as

S
Ɵ
Ѡ= t = r
t

S t S 1 S 1
Ѡ = r ÷ 1 or r × t or t × r

S
Since t = v (where v is linear velocity)

1 1 v
Ѡ = v × r or Ѡ = v × A or Ѡ = A

v = ѠA

Hence the linear speed is the product of angular speed and amplitude of
motion (radius of motion).

Worked Examples
 (1) A boy ties a stone to the end of a string which he then whirls above his
head round a circular path of radius 2.5m. If the stone makes 12
oscillations in 7seconds, calculate the angular speed and linear speed.
Solution
0
Note: 360 = 2π radians = 1 revolution or 1 oscillation or 1 cycle or 1 beat
1 oscillation = 2π radians
12 oscillations = 12 × 2π radians
Thus Ɵ = 24π radians
Time taken, t = 7seconds
Radius or amplitude, A = 2.5m
Ɵ
Angular speed, Ѡ = t
Ѡ=

Linear speed, v = ѠA
v=

(2) A simple pendulum makes 20 oscillations in 8seconds. Calculate the

period and the frequency of the oscillation.
Solution
Number of oscillation, n =
Time taken, t =
Period, T =

Frequency, f =

The linear velocity (v) at any point whose distance from the centre is x is given
by

v = Ѡ √ A 2−x 2

The maximum velocity vm corresponds to the velocity at x = 0. This is the

velocity at the centre of motion. Hence

vm = ѠA

The minimum velocity occurs at the extreme position of motion at x = A

 To obtain an expression relating linear acceleration and angular velocity,
we use differential calcus.

Recall,

x = AcosƟ

But Ɵ = Ѡt, then

x = AcosѠt

Where x = displacement and

t = time
δx
δt
= -ѠAsinѠt

δx
But δt = the rate of change of displacement with time (t) = linear velocity (v)

v = -ѠAsinѠt
δv
δt
= -Ѡ2AcosѠt

δv
Where δt = a (acceleration)

a = -Ѡ2AcosѠt

a = -Ѡ2x

The negative sign indicates acceleration (a) is directed towards the centre of
motion while displacement (x) is measured from that point outwards.

When t = T of SHM,
Ɵ
Ѡ= T

Where Ɵ = 3600 = 2π radians

2π 2π
Ѡ = T or T = ⍵
 1 2π
Also, f = T = ⍵

⍵
f = 2π

⍵ = 2πf

Worked Examples

A body vibrates in simple harmonic motion with a frequency of 40Hz and

amplitude of 6cm. Find

(i) The period of the body

(ii) (a) the acceleration at the middle of oscillation

(b)the acceleration at the end of the path of oscillation

(iii) (a)The velocity at the middle of oscillation

(b)The velocity at the end of the path of oscillation

(iv) (a)the velocity at a distance of 4cm from the centre of oscillation

(b)the acceleration at a distance of 4cm from the centre of

oscillation

Solution
1
1. Period, T = f
Where f = 40Hz
1
T = ( 40 ) seconds = 0.025seconds

2. (a) acceleration of SHM, a = -Ѡ2x

Where x = distance from the centre
x = 0 (at the middle of oscillation)
Ѡ = 2πf (f = 40Hz and π = 3.14)
a = (2 × 3.14 × 40Hz)2 × 0 = 0
(b)x = A = 6cm (at the end x = amplitude)
 6
x = 100 m = 0.06m
a = -Ѡ2x = (-2πf)2x
a = {(2 × 40Hz)2 × 0.06}m/s2 = 3790.9m/s2

3. (a) v = Ѡ √ A 2−x 2
Where Ѡ = 2πf =2 × 40Hz = 80π rad/s
A = 0.06m
X = 0 (distance at the middle of oscillation)
v = {80π√(0.06)2 −02} m/s = (80 × 3.14 × 0.06) m/s = 15.08m/s

(b)v = Ѡ √ A 2−x 2

Ѡ = 2πf = 80π rad/s

A = 0.06m

v = 80π√(0.06)2 −¿ ¿ = 80π × 0 = 0
x = A 0.06m (distance at the end, x = A)

4. (a) v = Ѡ √ A 2−x 2
Where Ѡ = 80π rad/s
A = 0.06m
x = 0.04m (i.e 4cm from the centre or middle)
v=

(b)a = -Ѡ2x

Where Ѡ = 80π rad/s

x = 0.04m
a=

ANGULAR ACCELERATION

Angular acceleration (α) of a body is the time rate of change of its angular
velocity (Ѡ).

It is expressed in radians per second per second (rad/s2).

If the angular velocity of a body changes uniformly from Ѡ0 to Ѡ1 in t

seconds, then angular acceleration (α) is given by
 change ∈angular velocity
α = timerequired for the change

α = Ѡ 1 - Ѡ0
t
v
Recall, Ѡ = r or v = Ѡr

1 a
Hence, α = r (vt – v0) = r

Where “a” is the linear acceleration of the body and

a = αr

Linear acceleration (a) equals the product of angular acceleration (α) and the
radius (r) or displacement of the particle from its central position.

NOTE: The period (T) of a simple pendulum is given by

T = 2π L
√ g

Where L = length of pendulum

g = acceleration due to gravity

Hence, the period of a simple pendulum at a place (g = constant) depends only

on the length, L of the pendulum. The period of a pendulum will vary from
place to place because “g” varies from place to place.

ENERGY OF SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION, FORCED VIBRATION AND

RESONANCE

INTRODUCTION

When the motion of an object is simple harmonic, there is always a restoring

force tending to return the object to its central position. Since force and displa
cements are involved, it follows that work and energy are involved in SHM.
P.E = mgh (P.E = maximum) P.E = mgh (P.E = maximum)

V = 0, K.E = 0 V = 0, K.E = 0

1 2
K.E = mv (K.E = maximum)
2
h = 0, P.E = 0
At every point of the motion above, the total energy is conserved.

From the conservation of energy principle, the total energy in the system
must be constant. Hence, maximum P.E = maximum K.E (i.e. P.E = K.E) at any
instant.

Thus,
1
mghm = 2 mvm2

Where h = maximum height

v = maximum velocity

d vm = √ 2 gh

At any instant of motion of simple pendulum,

1 1
Total energy = mgh + 2 mv2 = mghm = 2 mvm2

ENERGY OF SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

When a mass (m) suspended from a spiral spring of spring constant (K) is
stretched vertically downwards and released, it oscillates in SHM. During this
motion, the force tending to restore the spring to its equilibrium position is
given by

F = -kx (this is also the elastic restoring force)

Where k = force constant of the spring

x = extension or distance the spring is stretched

The work done is given by

 W = average force × displacement
1 1
W = 2 kx × x = 2 kx2

Thus the maximum total energy stored in the spring is given by

1
W = 2 kA2

Where A = amplitude of motion or maximum displacement

At any instant of the motion or oscillation, the total energy is given as

(K.E) + (P.E)

1 1 1
W = 2 kA2 = 2 mv2 + 2 kx2

Where v = velocity of the suspended mass at a point x

K
v2 = m (A2 – x2)

K
v = m (A2 – x2)

The constant K is obtained from Hooke’s law in which

F = Ke

Where “e” = the extension and

m = mass

But v = Ѡ √ A 2−x 2

Comparing the two equations,

K
Ѡ √ A 2−x 2 = m (A2 – x2)

Ѡ= K
√ m

Hence, the period T is given by

 2π
T= ⍵

T = 2π
√ m
K

The period T depends only on the mass and the force constant
of the spring K

Worked Examples

A body of mass 50g is suspended from the end of a spiral

spring whose force constant is 0.5N/m. The body is set into a
simple harmonic motion with amplitude 0.2m. Calculate:

a The period of the motion

b The frequency of the motion

c The angular speed

d The total energy

e The maximum velocity of the motion

f The maximum acceleration

Solution

√
(a) Period, T = 2π m
K
Where m =

(b) Frequency, f =

(c) Angular speed, Ѡ =

1
(d) Total energy, E = 2 KA2
 (e) Let the maximum velocity = vm
1 2 1 2
2
mv m = KA
2
mvm2 = KA2
2
KA
vm2 =
m
vm =
(f) Maximum acceleration, a = -Ѡ2A

FORCED VIBRATION AND RESONANCE

A system performing SHM gradually loses its energy due to friction within its
parts and air resistance. The amplitude of such a motion gradually becomes
smaller and smaller with time until it decreases eventually to zero. Such a
motion is said to be damped. Without damping the motion is said to be free
and the amplitude remains constant with time.

In order to maintain the free oscillation of a vibrating body for a long time, an
external periodic force will be found necessary to cause the body to continue
its free oscillation.

DEFINITION: A forced vibration is a vibration resulting from the action of an

external periodic force on an oscillating body.

Every object capable of vibrating possesses a natural frequency f0 of

vibration. This is the frequency with which the object will oscillate when it is
left undisturbed after being set into vibration. When the object is subjected to
an external periodic force the frequency of such an external force is called the
forcing frequency, f.

The effect of forced vibration is clearly seen when a vibrating tuning fork is
pressed against a table top.

Whenever the frequency of vibrating body acting on a system coincides with

the natural frequency of the system, the system is set into vibration with
relatively large amplitude. This is resonance.
DEFINITION: Resonance is said to occur when the forcing frequency (f) of an
external periodic force coincides with the natural frequency (f 0) of a body with
which it is in contact, causing the body to vibrate with large amplitude. At
resonance, maximum energy is transferred from the periodic external force to
the natural vibrations of a system.

LINEAR MOMENTUM

INTRODUCTION