Unit 2: Biochemical Molecules

 Our body is made up of two types of biochemical molecules: organic and inorganic
molecules.
Inorganic biochemical molecules

 Are molecules which may contain carbon or hydrogen or neither of them but not both.
Many inorganic compounds, such as water (H2O) , the hydrochloric acid
(HCl),Salts(table salt or sodium chloride, NaCl), metals, substances made from single
elements and any other compounds that do not contain carbon bonded to hydrogen are
examples of inorganic biochemical molecules.
 Carbon can be found in some inorganic molecules such as carbon dioxide, CO2,
diamond (pure carbon), CO,CaCO3.
Organic biochemical molecules

 Are molecules made up of both carbon and hydrogen atoms. Covalent bonds are used to
make organic biochemical compounds in living creatures, including the human body.
 Carbon(18.5%) and hydrogen(9.5%), respectively, are the second and third most
abundant elements in our body

2.1. Inorganic molecule

2.1.1.Water

2.1.1.1 The properties of water

 Water is an inorganic molecule composed of two elements: hydrogen and oxygen

 Each water molecule is composed of two hydrogen atoms linked to a single oxygen atom,
H2O with its chemical formula.
  Life would not exist on our planet if it did not have access to water. It is significant for
two reasons: it is a key component of cells, accounting for 70 to 95 percent of the cells
mass. You are around 60% water.
Water, although being a simple molecule, has some surprising qualities.

 In a water molecule, each hydrogen atom shares an electron pair with the oxygen atom.
In the O-H bonds in water, oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen. Thus, the
sharing of electrons between H and O is unequal; the electrons are more often in the
vicinity of the oxygen atom than hydrogen. This unequal electron sharing creates two
electric dipoles in the water molecule with oxygen-bearing a partial negative charge and
hydrogen bearing a partial positive charge. This makes water a polar molecule.
 The polarity of water has important chemical implications conferring its typical
properties. Another important consequence of the polarity of the water molecule is that
water molecules attract one another. The partially positively charged hydrogen atom of
one water molecule can interact with the partially negatively charged oxygen atoms of
another molecule of water. This interaction is called a hydrogen bond.
 The hydrogen bond network of water molecules confers several unique properties on
water that are important for sustaining life.
Some typical properties of water
1. Water as a solvent
Water is an effective solvent for ionic solids and polar molecules (molecules with an unequal
charge distribution, such as sugars and glycerol) because the water molecules are attracted to the
ions and polar molecules, causing them to congregate and separate.

Figure 2.1 Distribution of water molecules around

ions in a solution

Figure 2.1 shows what happens when a chemical dissolves in water. Once a chemical is in
solution, it is free to move about and react with other chemicals. However, non-polar molecules
such as lipids are insoluble in water and, if surrounded by water, tend to be pushed together by
the water, since the water molecules are attracted to each other.
 2. High specific heat capacity
A substance's heat capacity is the amount of heat required to raise its temperature by a particular
amounti.e 1gm of subs by 1oC. The specific heat capacity of water is the amount of heat energy
necessary to raise the temperature of one gram of water by one degree Celsius. The heat
capacity of water is rather high. To raise the temperature of a liquid, the molecules must obtain
energy and so move more quickly. The hydrogen bonds that cause water molecules to adhere
together make it difficult for the molecules to move freely; the ties must be broken to allow free
mobility. This explains why more energy is required to raise the temperature of water than would
be required if hydrogen bonds did not exist. In effect, hydrogen bonding permits water to store
more energy than would otherwise be feasible for a given temperature increase.

Water‟s high heat capacity has crucial biological results since it makes the water more resistant
to temperature changes (heats up and cools down slowly).

3. High latent heat of vaporization

The latent heat of vaporization is a measure of the thermal energy required to vaporize a liquid,
converting it from a liquid to a gas. In the case of water, it entails the transformation of liquid
water into water vapour. Water has a comparatively high latent heat of vaporization. This is due
to its high heat capacity. Because water molecules tend to stick together via hydrogen bonds,
very significant quantities of energy are required for vaporization to occur because hydrogen
bonds must be broken before molecules can escape as gas. This property of water makes the
evaporation of sweat an effective means of cooling organisms.

NB.To remove every gram of H2O that evaporates from the body 540cal/2259jouls are required.

4. Density and freezing properties

Water is a unique molecule in that its solid form, ice, is less dense than its liquid form. Water
density begins to fall below 4ºC. As a result, ice floats on liquid water and insulates (protect it
from freezing) the water beneath it. This minimizes the likelihood of big amounts of water
freezing entirely and increases the likelihood of life surviving under cold temperatures. Changes
in water density as a result of temperature generate currents, which aid in the circulation of
nutrients in the oceans.

5. High Surface tension and Cohesion

Water molecules have very high cohesion; in other words, they tend to stick to each other. These
cohesive forces are connected to water‟s adhesion property, or the attraction of water molecules
to other molecules. This attraction can be stronger than water‟s cohesive forces, especially
when the water is exposed to charged surfaces like those found on the interior of thin glass tubes
known as capillary tubes .

Water “climbs” up the tube placed in a glass of water, causing the water to look higher on the
sides of the tube than in the middle. This is due to the fact that water molecules are more
attracted to the charged glass walls of the capillary than to each other and hence adhere to it.
Capillary action is the name given to this sort of adhesion. cohesive and adhesive forces are
crucial for the transport of water from the roots to the leaves in plants.

High cohesion also results in high surface tension at the surface of the water. This allows certain
small organisms, such as raft spiders, to exploit the surface of the water as a habitat, allowing
them to settle on or skate over its surface.

6. Boiling and Freezing Points

The ability of water molecules to form hydrogen bonds is responsible for many of water‟s
unique properties. Despite its low molecular weight, it has a very high boiling point (100ºC).
This is due to the fact that water requires more energy to break its hydrogen bonds before it can
begin to boil. The same concept is used to calculate the freezing point.

The boiling and freezing points of water is important for aquatic ecosystems. If water is easily
frozen or boiled, drastic changes in the environment would affect bodies of water such as oceans
or lakes, killing all organisms that live in water. This is also why sweat can keep our bodies cool.
Consider how water differs from most other compounds in terms of its boiling and freezing
points.

Table 2.1 Boiling and freezing points of water

Compound Boiling Point Freezing Point

Ethanol 78.40C -114.6ºC
Acetic acid 117.9ºC 16.6ºC
Hydrogen Sulfide -62ºC -84ºC
Water 100ºC 0ºC
Choose the best answer from the given alternatives

1. Adhesion leads to ________________, which is the characteristic of water in which explains

the molecular absorption of water into a root or stem of a plant.

A. Adhesion B. Surface tension C. Polarity D. Capillary action

2. The polarity of water allows water to have a high _________________________, which

allows us to maintain homeostasis and survive as we are today.

A. Heat of fusion B. Specific heat C. Cohesive force D. Surface tension

3. Water molecules bond in a crystalline form as the temperature of water drops. This creates
more space between water molecules. What characteristic of water does this change describe?

A. Specific heat B. Density C. Adhesion D. Surface tension

4. Which of the following statements does not accurately describe water molecules?

A. Each of the hydrogen atoms is linked to the oxygen atom by a covalent bond.

B. Hydrogen bonds link hydrogen atoms in one water molecule to oxygen atoms in another
molecule.

C. Oxygen atoms in a water molecule are negatively charged and hydrogen atoms are positively
charged.

D. The water molecule has a linear arrangement of atoms

5. Which of the following statements does not correctly describe water properties?

A. Cohesion reflects the ability of hydrogen bonds to hold water molecules together.

B. Cohesion is visible in the water's surface tension.

C. Increasing the temperature of water increases the surface tension.

D. Viscosity increases with the addition of salt.

6. Select the statement that does not correctly describe the effect of temperature on water density.

A. Warm water has lower density than cold water.

B. Water decreases its volume when it freezes.

C. Water molecules move apart slightly as temperatures cool below 4oC.

D. Water vapor is less dense than dry air alone.

7. What word describes when water is attracted to other substances?

A. cohesion B. adhesion C. capillary action D. surface tension

8. Which property of water allows the insect called Raft Spider to walk on the surface of water?

A. specific heat B. surface tension C. adhesion D. capillary action

9. Which of the following intermolecular forces is responsible for the high boiling point of
water?

A. Dipole-dipole forces C. London dispersion forces

B. Hydrogen bonding D. Van der Waals forces

10. What property of water allows sweat to cool the body & coastal cities to have more moderate
temperatures than inland cities?

A. High heat capacity C. Surface tension

B. Capillarity action D. Universal solvent

11. Ice floats on water because:

A. liquid water is less dense than ice

B. water's surface tension is strong enough to support the ice

C. there is oxygen dissolved in liquid water

D. the molecules in ice are farther apart than the molecules in liquid water

12. Oxygen can dissolve in water because:

A. polar water molecules induce a temporary dipole in oxygen molecules

B. oxygen gas is made of polar molecules

C. water is a bipolar molecule

D. both water and oxygen gas are small molecules, so there is sufficient space for one to dissolve
in the other

13. What does it mean when we say that water acts as a “heat buffer”?

A. It keeps the temperature of an organism relatively constant as the temperature of the

surroundings fluctuates

B. It increases the temperature of an organism as the temperature of the surroundings increases

C. It decreases the temperature of an organism as the temperature of the surroundings increases

D. It increases the temperature of an organism as the temperature of the surroundings decreases

14. Which of these statements about hydrogen bonds is not true?

A. Hydrogen bonds account for the anomalously high boiling point of water.

B. Individual hydrogen bonds are much weaker than covalent bonds.

C. Individual hydrogen bonds in liquid water exist for many seconds and sometimes for
minutes.

D. The strength of a hydrogen bond depends on the linearity of the three atoms involved in the
bond.

15. Which of the following properties of water does not contribute to the fitness of the aqueous
environment for living organisms?

A. Cohesion of liquid water due to hydrogen bonding

B. High heat of vaporization

C. The density of water is greater than the density of ice

D. The very low molecular weight of water

16. Water makes up __________ % of the body's weight in a healthy human adult

A.50 B.60 C.80 D.95

17. Which property of water makes biochemical processes operate over a small Temperature
range?

A. High cohesive force C. High specific heat capacity

B. High heat of fusion D. High surface tension

18.Why does ice float on water ?

A. As water freezes, it contract and its density increase

B. As water freezes its volume decrease

C. As water freezes, air become trapped between hydrogen bonds of water molecule

D. As water freezes it expands and its density decrease

19. Water has high specific heat capacity means

A. Heats up and cools down quickly C. Heats up and cools down slowly

B. Heats up quickly and cools down slowly D. Heats up slowly and cools down quickly

20.Sweating is a means for

A. Removal of excess water C Removal of waste

B. Removal of excess salt D. Regulation of body temperature

2.1.2. Inorganic ion

Inorganic ions are charged entities because they are atoms with unshared electrons in their outer
shell. They are either positively or negatively charged. They are virtually usually coupled with an
oppositely charged ion.

Inorganic ions are found in living bodies in two forms: free and dissolved in the cytoplasm and
associated with complex organic substances. They participate in a variety of critical functions in
living things. Although they are only found in trace amounts in our bodies, their significance
cannot be overstated. Any variations in their concentrations inside the human body can have
catastrophic implications.

Based on their requirement in the daily diet of a normal individual, inorganic ions or minerals in
the human body are divided into two categories; Macro-nutrients & Micro-nutrients.

Table 2.2 Macro and micro-nutrients in living systems

Macro-nutrients: required in Micro-nutrients/trace

bigger quantities in the daily elements: required in small
diet amounts
Sodium, Phosphorus, Iron, Copper,
Magnesium, Potassium, Sulfur, Iodine,
Chloride Manganese, etc

a. Hydrogen ions
These are the most important ions to maintain balance and equilibrium in living systems. They
are released in the cells during various metabolic processes. They are found in the cytoplasm of
cells as well as in the inter-cellular fluid, blood, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and other body fluids.
The concentration of hydrogen ions is expressed as pH. The pH scale ranges from 1 to 14. The
pH value has an inverse relationship with the concentration of hydrogen ions; that is, the higher
the pH, the lower and the concentration of hydrogen ions.
 b. Sodium ions
The sodium ion is the body‟s second most important positively charged ion. The concentration of
sodium ions in extracellular fluids is higher than in cell cytoplasm. It is a critical nutrient that
must be consumed in order for the human body to function normally.

The average person‟s salt need is between 3 and 6 grams per day. It is commonly consumed in
the form of common salt found in our foods. The average daily sodium intake exceeds the body‟s
requirements. The urines of the body eliminate excess salt. To maintain normal blood pressure in
patients with high blood pressure, lesser salt intakes are required. It is an extracellular cation that
is common in body fluids but is present in lower concentrations within cells.

c. Potassium ions
These are also positively charged ions abundantly present in our bodies. Contrary to sodium ions,
potassium ions are the major intracellular cations, being in higher concentration within the
cytoplasm of the cells. Potassium ions must be taken in daily diet. An average human being must
intake 3 to 4 grams of potassium daily. It is abundantly present in fruits like bananas, oranges,
vegetables like potatoes, and meat like that of chicken and liver.

Potassium is one of the body‟s electrolytes that carry an electric charge when dissolved in body
fluids such as blood. Most of the body‟s potassium is located inside the cells. Potassium is
necessary for the normal functioning of cells, nerves, and muscles. The body can use the large
reservoir of potassium stored within cells to help maintain a constant level of potassium in blood.
Its concentration in plasma is much raised during hemolysis (destruction) of red blood cells.

d. Calcium ion
Calcium is the most abundant inorganic ion present in our body having great importance. It is a
positively charged ion mainly present in the cytoplasm of cells. Bones and teeth are the major
organs having a lot of calcium. The calcium requirements of a healthy human are around 800
mg/ day. Milk and milk products are the ideal sources of calcium in our diet. Besides, leafy
vegetables, egg yolk, fish, and beans, etc. also contain a lot of calcium.

Calcium makes around 1 to 1.5 kg of our body weight. Although 99% of calcium is present in
bones and teeth, around 1% of calcium is in the cytoplasm of other cells and extracellular fluid
performs several important functions in our body. Calcium concentration in the plasma is around
9-11 mg/dl.

e. Phosphate ions
These are the negatively charged inorganic ions abundantly present in our bodies. The body of an
average man contains around 1 Kg of phosphate ions. Most of the phosphate ions are presently
combined with calcium in bones and teeth.

Its requirements are equivalent to calcium. An adult male needs to take 800 mg of phosphate
ions daily in his diet. Milk, cereals, meat, and eggs are rich sources of phosphate ions. The
plasma concentration of phosphate ions is around 3-4 mg/dl. It is more abundantly present in the
cells.

f. Chloride ions
These are the negatively charged inorganic ions present in extracellular fluids. Its concentration
in the body is almost similar to that of sodium ions, the major extracellular cations. Its average
daily requirement is 5 to 10 grams. It is usually taken along with sodium in the form of NaCl
present in cooked food. Chloride ions perform their role in combination with sodium ions. They
are involved in maintaining the osmotic pressure, fluid balance, and acid-base balance in our
body, just like sodium. They are required to make Hydrochloric acid (HCl) present in gastric
juice, which is necessary to digest proteins in the stomach. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) in return
kills bacteria and other pathogens in food when it enters the stomach. Salivary amylase is an
enzyme to digest starch that is activated by chloride ions.

g. Iron ions
These are the positively charged ions present in or body. Around 70% of iron ions in our body
are present in haemoglobin within the red blood cells. Source of iron: legumes such as beans, red
meat, liver, spinach, pumpkin seeds, fish, etc.

As a component of haemoglobin and myoglobin, iron is needed for the transport of oxygen and
carbon dioxide in our bodies. It is an essential component of cytochromes that are a component
of the electron transport chain. Iron is a component of the peroxidase enzyme, a lysosomal
enzyme necessary for bacteria and other phagocytosed particles in the white blood cells.

h. Copper ions
Copper ions are the positively charged inorganic ions that are present in our bodies. Source of
copper ions include: shellfish, seeds and nuts, organ meats, wheat, whole-grain, chocolate, etc. It
is an essential component of several important proteins and enzymes. They are needed for the
synthesis of haemoglobin, collagen, and elastin. Also, it is required for the normal development
of the nervous system. Wilson disease is a rare clinical condition caused by abnormal copper
metabolism in our body. It is characterized by abnormal copper deposition in the liver and brain
causing hepatic cirrhosis and brain damage. The copper deposition in kidneys can cause renal
failure.

i. Iodine ions
Iodine is a type of mineral found naturally in the earth's soil and ocean waters. Many salt water
and plant-based foods contain iodine, and this mineral is most-widely available in iodized salt.
Iodine plays a vital role in the thyroid health. Thyroid gland, which is located at the base of the
front of the neck, helps regulate hormone production. These hormones control metabolism, heart
health, etc.

To make thyroid hormones, thyroid gland takes up iodine in small amounts. Without iodine,
thyroid hormone production can decrease. A “low” or under active thyroid gland can lead to a
condition called hypothyroidism. You can get enough iodine from your diet by eating dairy
products, fortified foods, and salty water fish. Iodine is also available in plant foods that grow in
naturally iodine-rich soil. You can also get the mineral by adding iodized salt in your food.

Goiter is an enlarged thyroid gland. Your thyroid may become enlarged as a result from either
hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism. Hyperthyroidism is an over-active thyroid gland. Amount of
iodine ions required for the normal body function in adolescents and adults is 150 µg/day.

Choose the best answer from the given alternatives

1. Match the following items of column A with column B and choose the correct answer:

Column A (inorganic ions) Column B (Uses)

1) Chlorine a) thyroid health
2) Copper b) haemoglobin
3) Calcium c) Water disinfection
4) Iodine d) Required for strong bones
2. Which of the following is an inorganic molecule?

A.CH2CH B.LiHO2 C.C6H12O6 D.NH2CHCH3COOH

3. The predominant intracellular cation is

A. potassium. B. sodium. C. calcium. D. chloride.

4. The predominant extracellular cation is

A. hydrogen ion. B. sodium. C. chloride. D. potassium.

5. The distribution of sodium and potassium ions between intracellular and extracellular
compartments is

A. potassium mainly intracellular; sodium mainly in extracellular.

B. sodium mainly intracellular; potassium mainly in extracellular.

C. little of either intracellular but large amounts of both extracellular.

D. equal amounts of both ions, in both intracellular and extracellular fluids.

6. The cation that plays a major role in determining the osmotic pressure of the plasma is

A. sodium. B. potassium. C. chloride. D. phosphate.

7. Decreased extracellular potassium levels cause

A. cells to become more excitable. C. hyperpolarization of cell membranes.

B. more action potentials to be generated. D. increased permeability of cell membranes.

8. Hyperkalemia is defined as

A. decrease in plasma potassium level C. reduction of plasma calcium level

B. increase in plasma potassium level D. increase in plasma sodium level

9. Most of the phosphate ion in the body is in the

A. bones. B. plasma. C. kidneys. D. GI tract

10. Calcium's roles in the body include all except

A. synthesis of collagen. C. muscle contraction.

B. blood clotting. D. action potentials in heart muscle

11. Which of the following substances releases hydrogen ions into a solution?

A. acids B. bases C. salts D. glucose

12. Iodine is specifically taken up by

A. Liver B. Kidneys C. Lungs D. Thyroid gland

13. Iodine deficiency can lead to the development of

A. Rickets B. Goitre C. Scurvy D. Beriberi

14. A deficiency disease caused by lack of iron in our food is

A. Rickets B. Goitre C. Anemia D. Beriberi

15.Which of the following is a function of calcium?

A.formation of Bone and teeth C. development of muscle cells

B.formation of ligaments D. all of them are not functions

2.1.3. Organic molecules
An organic molecule is a compound that contains carbon and is found in living things. Carbon
forms the basis of organic life due to its ability to form large and complex molecules via covalent
bonding. Four principal groups of organic compounds contribute to much of the structure and
function of living things. These are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Organic
molecules are those that are associated with living organisms. Nucleic acids, fats, sugars,
proteins, enzymes, and hydrocarbon fuels are examples of these. Carbon is present in all organic
molecules, as is hydrogen in nearly all of them, and oxygen in many of them. table sugar or
sucrose, C12H22O11,benzene, C6H6,methane, CH4,ethanol or grain alcohol, C2H6O, etc are all
organic.

Organic molecules including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are made up of
small, single molecular units (monomers). Monomers are connected by strong covalent bonds to
create polymers. Polymers are long chains of molecules formed of many single units bonded one
after the other. Table 2.3 lists the basic monomers that combine to produce organic molecules.

Table 2.3 Elements and monomers forming organic molecules

Organic molecules Elements forming Monomer

the molecule
Proteins C, H, O and N Amino acids
Lipids C, H, O Glycerol and fatty acid
Carbohydrates C, H, O Monosaccharides
Glucose
Galactose
Fructose
Nucleic acids C, H, O, N and P Nucleotides

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are poly hydroxyl aldehydes or poly hydroxyl ketones and compounds which
yield them on hydrolysis. Carbohydrates having aldehyde group called Aldoses and with ketos
group are called Ketoses.

Carbohydrates are made of three major elements; Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen. In carbohydrates, the
ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is 2:1. Mostly carbohydrates contain hydrogen and oxygen in the same
ratio as in water, hence it is also called as “hydrates of carbon” or “carbon-hydrates”.
Carbohydrates can be represented by general formula Cx(H2O)y
 Classification of Carbohydrates
Based on the number of sugar or saccharide units they possess Carbohydrates can be

A. Monosaccharides

 Monosaccharides are molecules that contain only one /simple sugar unit(the term “mono”
refers to one).
 Monosaccharides are single poly hydroxyl aldehyde or ketone . These are simple sugars
which cannot be hydrolyzed further in a simpler form.
 Monosaccharides contain elements C,H,O. the ratio of carbon to hydrogen to oxygen is
1:2:1.
 Monosaccharides dissolve quickly in water, forming sweet-tasting solutions.
 Monosaccharides have the general formula (CH2O)n where „n‟ refers to the number of
carbon. (trioses (3C),tetrose (4C), pentoses (5C), hexoses (6C), and heptose (7C).
 For example C6H12O6 is the chemical formula for hexose sugar. This is referred to as the
molecular formula. It is also useful to show how the atoms are arranged, which can be
done with a diagram known as the structural formula. The structural formula of the most
common monosacchirdes; glucose, galactose and fructose are shown below. Despite
having the identical chemical formula (C6H12O6), glucose(aldose), galactose(aldose) and
fructose(ketose) differ structurally and chemically (and are known as isomers) due to
different atom positions in the carbon chain.

Glucose Galactose Fructose

Roles of monosaccharaides in living organisms

Monosaccharaides are the simplest forms of sugar and the most basic units (monomers) from
which all carbohydrates are built. They also play very important roles in living organisms. Major
functions of monosaccharide in include:

1. as a source of energy in respiration: this is due to a large number of carbon-hydrogen bonds.

These bonds can be broken to release a lot of energy, which is transferred to help make ATP
(Adenosine triphosphate) from ADP (Adenosine diphosphate) and phosphate. The most
important monosaccharide in energy metabolism is glucose.
2. as building blocks for larger molecules: for example, glucose is used to make the
polysaccharides starch, glycogen, and cellulose. Ribose (a pentose sugar) is one of the molecules
used to make RNA (ribonucleic acid) and ATP. Deoxyribose (also a pentose sugar) is one of the
molecules used to make DNA.

B. Disaccharides (C12H22O11)

Disaccharides are formed when two monosaccharides are combined together by glycosidic
linkage by elimination of water (Condensation). The bond formed is called glycosidic bond.
once the monosaccharides have been linked, they are called residues

The most common disaccharides are:

1. Maltose/Malt sugar
Contains two glucose residues with α(1-4) linkage ,which is composed of glucose + glucose.

Maltose(Glu α(1-4)Glu)

Is a reducing disaccharide because the anomeric (reducing) end of the glucose residue is not
involved in the glycosidic linkage. Maltose or malt sugar is the product of breakdown of starch
catalyzed by the enzyme amylase.

2. Lactose/Milk sugar
Made up of β Glucose and α Galactose units through β-1,4 glycosidic linkage

Gal α(1-4)Glu

Is a reducing disaccharide hence the anomeric (reducing) end of the glucose residue is not
involved in the glycosidic linkage. Lactose is a sugar found in milk and is thus an important
dietary component.
 3. Sucrose/Cane Sugar
Is made up of α glucose and β fructose sub units i.e Glucose and fructose are joined by α, β
glycosidic linkage. Sucrose is the transport sugar in plants and the sugar that is commonly
purchased in stores. It is a non-reducing sugar b/c anomeric end involved in glycosidic linkage.

Glu(α1- β2)Fru

C.Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are made of polymers of monomer glucose. Because glucose is the primary
source of energy for cells, living organisms must store it in the proper form. If glucose
accumulated in cells, it would dissolve and cause the cell's contents to become overly
concentrated, compromising the cell's osmotic properties. Glucose is a reactive molecule that
would disrupt normal cell chemistry. Condensation reactions convert glucose to a storage
polysaccharide, which is a convenient, compact, inert (un-reactive), and insoluble molecule,
avoiding these issues. The most important polysaccharides are starch, glycogen, and cellulose.
The storage polysaccharide formed is starch in plants and glycogen in animals. Glucose can be
made available again quickly by an enzyme-controlled reaction.

Starch

Starch is the plant‟s stored form of sugar. Plants can produce glucose, and the surplus glucose is
stored as starch in various plant components such as roots and seeds. Animals ingest starch,
which is broken down into smaller molecules such as glucose. The glucose can subsequently be
absorbed by the cells.

Glycogen

Glycogen, which is made up of monomers of glucose, is the storage form of glucose in humans
and other animals. Glycogen, the animal analogue of starch, is a highly branched polymer that is
often stored in liver and muscle cells. Glycogen is broken down to release glucose if glucose
levels fall.
Cellulose

Cellulose is a naturally occurring biopolymer of β-glucose molecules joined by β-1,4 glycosidic

bonds formed by condensation reaction. Plant cell walls are mostly made of cellulose, which
provides structural support to the cell. Wood and paper are examples of cellulosic materials.
Cellulose is made up of glucose monomers that are linked together in the glucose molecule by
carbon atom bonds.

Every other glucose monomer in cellulose is densely packed as long extended unbranched
chains. This is what gives cellulose its rigidity and high strength, which are critical for plant
cells. Dietary fiber is cellulose that passes through our digestive system. While animal digestive
enzymes cannot break down the glucose-glucose linkages in cellulose, herbivores such as cows,
buffaloes, and horses can digest cellulose- rich grass and use it as a food source. Certain bacteria
live in these animals‟ rumens (part of herbivores‟ digestive systems) and secrete the enzyme
cellulase. Cellulases may degrade cellulose into glucose monomers, which the animal can utilize
as an energy source.

A cell wall often comprises numerous layers of fibers that run in different directions to boost
strength. Other molecules aid in the cross-linking of the cellulose fibers, and some form a glue-
like matrix around the fibers, which improves strength even further. The strength of cellulose
fibers is roughly similar to that of steel. This implies that when pulled at both ends, they are
extremely difficult to stretch or break, allowing a cell to endure the tremendous pressures that
build within it due to osmosis.

Without a wall, the cell would explode in a dilute fluid. These pressures help the plant grow by
hardening tissues and stimulating cell expansion. The shape of the cell as it grows is determined
by the arrangement of fibers around it. Despite their strength, cellulose fibers are porous,
allowing water and solutes to pass between the cell surface membrane and the surrounding
environment.

Major functions of carbohydrates

1. They serve as the primary source of energy for most organisms. Glucose in fruit juice, lactose
in milk, starch in wheat, potato, rice etc. is different forms of carbohydrate that we harvest
energy from.

2. They act as a storage form of energy in the body (e.g. Starch and Glycogen).

•Starch stores energy for plants. In animals, it is catalysed by the enzyme amylase (found in
saliva) to fulfil the energy requirement.

•Glycogen is a polysaccharide food reserve of animals, bacteria, and fungi.

•In mammals, glycogen is stored in the liver and muscle as granules or particles (Up to 10% of
liver mass and 1-2% muscle mass). Muscle glycogen supplies energy for muscle contraction
during exercise.

3.They serve as cell membrane components that mediate some forms of inter-cellular
communication.

4.They form the structural component of many organisms, including the cell walls of bacteria,
fungi, and the exoskeleton of many insects. Chitin is involved in the formation of a fungal cell
wall, whereas cellulose is an important component of ruminant diets.

Choose the best answer from the given alternatives

1.Which one of the following monosaccharaides is not grouped under aldose sugar.

A. Fructose B. glactose C. ribose D. glycer aldehydes

2. β1-4 linkage of glucose monomers gives

A.Starch B. cellulose C. glycogen D. peptidoglycan

3. Which one of the following is a milk sugar

A. Maltose B. Sucrose C. Glactose D. lactose

4.Which one of the following is odd in its functional group

A. Gulose B. Dihydroxy acetone C. Gluco heptose D. Xylose

5. What would be the formula if six aldohexose have been linked by condensation reaction

A. C36 H70O30 B. C36 H40O31 C. C36 H62O31 D. C36 H72O36

6. A disaccharide that give two structural ismers monosacchardes on hydrolysis is

A.Sucrose B. xylulose C. Maltose D. Isomaltose

7. Select one which is odd.

a) cellulase b) Amylose c) starch d) glycogen

8. Hepto saccharide has a molecular formula of

A. C42 H40 O36 B. C42 H62 O36 C. C42 H62O40 D. C42 H72 O36

9. Which of the following Biomolecules simply refers to as “Staff of life”?

A. Carbohydrates B. Proteins C. Vitamins D. Lipids

10. Which of the following is the functional groups of carbohydrates?

A. Carboxyl groups C. Alcohol and Carboxyl groups

B. Aldehyde and Ketone groups D. Hydroxyl groups and Hydrogen groups

11. Which of the following monosaccharides is the majority found in the human body?

A. D-type B. L-type C. Beta-types D, Alpha-types

12. Which of the following is the most abundant biomolecule on the earth?

A Lipids B. Proteins C. Carbohydrates D. Nucleic acids.

13. Carbohydrates are also known as___________

a) Hydrates of carbon b) Carbonates c) Glycolipids d) Polysaccharides

14. Polymerization reactions in which polysaccharides are synthesized from monosaccharides

A. require the formation of phosphodiester bonds between the amino acids.

B are hydrolysis reactions.

C. depends upon van der Waals forces to hold the amino acids together.

D. result in the formation of water

15. Which of the following are the major functions of Carbohydrates?

A. Storage C. Structural framework

B. Transport Materials D. Both Storage and structural framework

16. Class of carbohydrate which cannot be hydrolyzed further, is known as?

a) Disaccharides b) Polysaccharides c) Proteoglycan d) Monosaccharide

17. Which class of carbohydrates is considered as non-sugar?

a) Monosaccharides b) Disaccharides c) Polysaccharides d) Oligosaccharides

18. Which of the following glycosidic linkage found in malt sugar?

a) Glu (α-1 – 2β) Fru c) Gal (β1 – 4) Glu

b) Glu (α1 – 4) Glu d) Glu (β1 – 4) Glu

19. Which of the following is also known as invert sugar?

 a) Sucrose b) Fructose c) Dextrose d) Glucose

21. A simple sugar with the formula C5HıoO5 can be classified as a

A.hexose B. polysaccharide C. disaccharide D. pentose

22. Name the major storage form of carbohydrates in animals?

a) Cellulose b) Chitin c) Glycogen d) Starch

23. Which one is NOTtrue of carbohydrates?

A. All are ketones or aldehydes C. All contains element of C , H & O

B. All Contains hydroxyl group (OH) D. All carbohydrates have sweet taste

24. Which of the following is formed by hydrolysis of polysaccharides?

A, glucose B, starch C, Glycogen D, Disaccharides

25. To which groups of sugar can the molecule dihydroxyacetone be classified?

A, Pentose sugars b, Hexose sugars C, Triose sugars D, oligosugars

Lipids
Lipids are diverse groups of biomolecules that are insoluble in water but soluble in non-polar
solvents such as ether, chloroform, and acetone. Lipids are made of elements carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen but much less oxygen than carbohydrates. It includes Triglycerides, phospholipids,
glycolipids, sphingolipids,steroids, waxes, VitA,D,E,K and cholesterols. Fats are solid at room
temperature and oils are liquid at room temperature. Chemically, they are very similar. We could
say those true lipids are organic compounds formed by fatty acids combining with alcohol
(Glycerol). The butter, cooking oil, and the meat we eat are good examples of lipids. Lipids are
polymers of fatty acids and glycerol molecules

Fatty acids [CH3(CH2)nCOOH]

Fatty acids are a series of acids, some of which are found in fats (lipids). CH3(CH2)nCOOH is the
general formula for fatty acids. They contain the acidic group –COOH, known as a carboxyl
group and Hydrocarbonchain (R-group). The larger molecules in the series have long
hydrocarbon tails attached to the acid „head‟ of the molecule. As the name suggests, the
hydrocarbon tails consist of a chain of carbon atoms combined with hydrogen. The chain is often
15 or 17 carbon atoms long.

Classification of Fatty acids

Based on the presence or absence of double bonds (–C=C–) in their structure, there are two types
of fatty acids:

Unsaturated fatty acids

consist of one or more double bonds in their structure so that they do not contain the maximum
possible amount of hydrogen. Double bonds make fatty acids and lipids melt more easily – for
example, most oils are unsaturated. Can be mono-unsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids.

mono-unsaturated contain only one double bond such as Oleic acid(C17H33COOH),Nervonic

acid(C23H45COOH). Plant lipids are often unsaturated and occur as oils, e.g. olive oil and
sunflower oil.

polyunsaturated fatty acids contain two or more double bonds.Examples Linoleic

acid(C18H32O2),Linolenic acid(C18H30O2),Arachidonic acid (C20H32O2 )

Saturated fatty acids

All the C-C bonds in hydrocarbon bond is single. They have no double bonds in their carbon-
carbon chain. All saturated fatty acids are solid at room temperature. Animal lipids are often
saturated and occur as animal fat. examples Butyric acid(C4),Caproic acid(C6), Caprylic
acid(C8), Capric acid(C10),palmitic acid(C16),Stearic acid(C18).
Fat is stored in several places in the human body, particularly just below the dermis of the skin
and around the kidneys. Below the skin, it also acts as an insulator against loss of heat.

Phospholipids

Phospholipids are a subset of lipids. Each molecule has the unusual property of having one
water-soluble end. This is because one of the three fatty acid molecules is replaced by a
phosphate group, which is polar and thus dissolves in water.

The phosphate group is hydrophilic (water-loving) and makes the head of a phospholipid
molecule hydrophilic, although the two remaining tails are still hydrophobic (water-hating). This
allows the molecules to form a membrane around a cell, where the hydrophilic heads lie in the
watery solutions on the outside of the membrane, and the hydrophobic tails form a layer that is
impermeable to hydrophilic substances.

Major of functions of lipids

1. Fatty acids serve as the foundation for other types of lipids and serve as stored energy.

2. Serve as major fuel store and major dietary lipid in plants (oil) and animals (Fat). Fats are
stored in specialized cells called adipose cells (fat cells), serve as poor conductors of heat and
provide insulation at low temperatures.

3. They serve as structural components in cell membranes (e.g., phospholipids, Lipoproteins).

4.As precursors for the synthesis of Vitamin D, Bile acids, hormones of adrenal cortex such as
cortisol, and aldosterone; female sex hormones such as progesterone and estrogen and male sex
hormones such as testosterone (Cholesterol).

5. Some serve as protective coatings on skin, fur and feathers of animals, birds and fruit and
leaves of plants (Example, Wax). The shiny appearance of fruits and leaves is due to waxes.
Waxes also serve as a water barrier for animals, birds and insects; and also protects against cold.

6.Helping absorption of fat soluble vitamins Example: Vit A,D,E&K

Choose the best answer from the given alternatives
1. Find the INCORRECT statement about the biological functions of lipids.

A. Storage form of metabolic fuel C. The structural component of membranes

B. Have a protective function in bacteria, plant, and insects D. Exhibit increased catalytic activity

2. Which of the following is an example of unsaturated fatty acids?

A. Lauric or Dodecanoic C. Myristic or tetradecanoic

B. Linoleic or octadecatrienoic D. Palmitic or hexadecanoic

3. Which of the following form of lipids are also referred as neutral lipids?

A. Triacylglycerol B. Steroid C. Phospholipids D. Wax

4. Which of the following phospholipid is considered as a major constituent of nervous tissue?

A. Glycerophospholipid B. Plasmalogen C. Inositol D. Sphingomyelin

5. Chemically, fats and oils are

A. acids B. alcohols C. Esters D. alkenes

6. Which of the following is false about lipids?

A. They are either strongly hydrophobic or amphipathic

B. They are more soluble in polar solvents

C. Extraction of lipids from tissues require organic solvents

D. They are insoluble in water

7. The fats and oils are respectively rich in

A. Unsaturated fatty acids C. Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids

B. Saturated fatty acids D. None of these

8. the importance of phospholipids as constituent of cell membrane is because they possess

A. Fatty acids B. Glycerol C. Both polar and nonpolar groups D. Phosphoric acid

9. What is a function of phospholipids?

a) Being part of a drug delivery system in some pharmaceuticals

b) Regulating cellular activities such as cell migration

c) Forming the cell membrane and the membranes of other organelles in the cell

d) All of the above

10. which of the following is a storage form of lipid?

a) Glycolipid b) Phospholipid c) Sufolipid d) Triacyl glycerol

11.Which one of the following is polyenoic acid?

A.Nervonic acid B.Stearic acid C.Archidonic acid D.Palmitic acid

12.Which one of the following is most abundant in adipose tissue?

A.Nervonic acid B.Linolenic acid C.Archidonic acid D.Palmitic acid

13. 15. A rachidonate has 20 carbon atoms with

A. 2 double bonds B. 3 double bonds C. 4 double bonds D. 5 double bonds

14 Why is it that neutral fat do not dissolve in water?

A, They form hydrogen bond with water C.Water is non-polar and neutral fat is also non polar

B, Water is polar and neutral fat is also polar D, Water is polar and neutral fats are non-polar.

15. Which of the following is generally expected to give better health benefits when present in
human diet?

A, Animal fat C, Saturated fatty acid

B, Monounsaturated fat acid D, Polyunsaturated fatty acid

16. Which of the following molecule is produced when a lipid molecule is hydrolyzed?

A, Amino acid and water C, Amino acid and glucose

B, Fatty acid and glycerol D, Glucose and glycerol

17. Which one of the following is functional group of fatty acid?

A, Ketone group B, Aldehyde group C, Amino group D, carboxyl group

18, How many molecules of glycerol and fatty acids, respectively, are needed to form 100
molecules of triglyceride ?

A, 50 and 50 B, 100 and 100 C, 100 and 300 D, 150 and 400
Protein
Proteins are biological molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen and
sometimes contain phosphorus and sulphur. Although amino acids may have other formulas,
those in protein invariably have the general formula RCH(NH,)COOH, where C is carbon, H is
hydrogen, N is nitrogen, O is oxygen, and R is a group, varying in composition and structure,
called a side chain.

Proteins are biological molecules made up of amino acids monomers. They are one of the most
abundant organic molecules in living systems and have the widest range of functions of any
macromolecule. Proteins can be structural, regulatory, contractile, or protective. They could be
toxins or enzymes, or they could be used in transportation, storage, or membranes. Each cell in a
living system may contain thousands of proteins, each with a distinct function. Their structures,
like their functions, vary greatly. They are all, however, amino acid polymers arranged in a linear
sequence (also referred to as a “peptide”). They are an extremely important class of
macromolecule in living organisms. More than 50% of the dry mass of most cells is protein.
Protein rich food items include; meat, cheese, milk, fish, beans, vegetables, etc.

Amino acids
Amino acids are the monomers that make up proteins. Amino acids have:

• a central carbon atom which is bonded to an amine group, –NH,,

• a carboxylic acid group, –COOH and

• a hydrogen atom

The only way in which amino acids differ from each other is in the remaining, fourth, group of
atoms bonded to the central carbon. This is called the R group (Figure 3.10). 20 different amino
acids occur in the proteins of living organisms, all with a different R group. Examples of some
amino acids (Alanine, valine, lysine, and asparatic acid) are given in figure 3.11 below. In the
process of protein synthesis amino acids join by covalent linkage forming a peptide bond that
elongates further and form a polypeptide bond.
Figure 3.11 Examples of amino acids

The peptide bond

Each amino acid is attached to another amino acid by a covalent bond. One loses a hydroxyl (–
OH) group from its carboxylic acid group, while the other loses a hydrogen atom from its amine
group. This leaves a carbon atom of the first amino acid-free to bond with the nitrogen atom of
the second. The link is called a peptide bond. The oxygen and two hydrogen atoms removed
from the amino acids form a water molecule.

Figure 3.12 Amino acids link together by the loss of a molecule of water to form a peptide bond
The new molecule which has been formed is made up of two linked amino acids, and is called a
dipeptide. Any number of extra amino acids could be added to the chain in a series of
condensation reactions. A molecule made up of many amino acids linked together by peptide
bonds is called a polypeptide. A complete protein molecule may contain just one polypeptide
chain, or it may have two or more chains that interact with each other.

In living cells, ribosomes are the sites where amino acids are joined together to form
polypeptides. The reaction is controlled by enzymes. Polypeptides can be broken down into
amino acids by breaking the peptide bonds. This is a hydrolysis reaction, involving the addition
of water, and happens naturally in the stomach and small intestine during digestion. Here, protein
molecules in food are hydrolyzed into amino acids before being absorbed into the blood.

According to their shape, proteins can also be classified into:

Globular proteins area protein whose molecules curl up into a „ball‟ shape, such as myoglobin or
haemoglobin. In a living organism, proteins may be found in cells and other aqueous
environments such as blood, tissue fluid, and in the phloem of plants. Globular proteins usually
curl up so that their non-polar, hydrophobic R groups point into the center of the molecule, away
from their watery surroundings. Water molecules are excluded from the center of the folded
protein molecule. Many globular proteins have roles in metabolic reactions. Their precise shape
is the key to their functioning. Enzymes, haemoglobin, antibodies are examples of globular
proteins.

Fibrous proteins are protein molecules that do not coil up into a ball but form long strands.
Fibrous proteins are not usually soluble in water and most have structural roles. For example,
keratin forms hair, nails, and the outer layers of the skin making these structures waterproof.
Another example of a fibrous protein is collagen which is found in skin, tendons, cartilage,
bones, teeth, and the walls of blood vessels.

Major functions of proteins

1. Structural proteins: are fibrous and tough, as well as insoluble in water. They are structural
elements of connective tissues, bones, tendons, cartilages, nails, hair, and horns. Collagen,
elastin, and keratin are examples of structural proteins.

2. Enzymes: are globular proteins that serve as biological catalysts. They catalyse metabolic
reactions by lowering the activation energy, which increases the reaction rate. Protein enzymes
include DNA polymerase, lysozyme, nitrogenase, and lipase.

3. Hormones: are polypeptides that are made up of long chains of linked amino acids. They play
critical roles in the regulation of the body›s physiological processes, which include reproduction,
growth and development, electrolyte balance, sleep, and so on. Growth hormone (GH) and
follicle-stimulating hormone are two examples of these hormones (FSH).
4. Respiratory pigments: are globular protein pigments that are typically water-soluble.
Myoglobin, which provides oxygen to working muscles; and haemoglobin, which transports
blood to all tissues and organs via the blood, is the two examples.

5.Transport proteins: are cell membrane structural components. They create channels in the
plasma membrane to transport specific molecules within the cells. Some of them are also found
in animal blood and lymph. Serum albumin (which transports hemin and fatty acids), channel
proteins, and carrier proteins are examples of transport proteins.

6.Motor proteins: are involved in muscle contraction and relaxation (muscle movement). Actin,
myosin, kinesin, and dynein are all components.

7.Storage proteins: In cells, these proteins serve as a storage reserve for amino acids and metal
ions. They can be found in eggs, seeds, and pulses. Ferritin, ovalbumin, and casein are examples
of storage proteins.

8.Toxins: Bacteria are the most common producers of these proteins. Diphtheria toxin,
Pseudomonas exotoxin, and ribosome- inactivating proteins are among them. By causing
cytotoxicity, they aid bacteria in attacking and killing their host organism.

Choose the best answer from the given alternatives

1.What is the building block of protein?

A, Fatty acid B, Amino acid C, Nucleotides D, Monosaccharaides

2. Which level of a protein structural organization is represented by its amino acid sequence?

A, Primary structure B, Secondary structure C, Tertiary structure d, Quaternary structure

3, Enzymes of plant cells are made of which organic compound?

A, Lipid B, Starch C, Cellulose D, Protein

4. To which groups of compounds do enzymes belong?

A, Beta-protein B, Fibrous protein C, Globular protein D, Primary structure

5. How many different kinds of amino acids are there for protein synthesis?

A, Twenty B, twenty four C, Twenty six D, twenty two

6. In the process of amino acid condensation, which one of the following happens?

A, Oxygen is used up C, CO2 is released

B, water is released as a byproduct D, Protein is broken down into amino aid

7. In which of their structural parts do different molecules of amino acids differ from one
another?

A, In their R group C, In their amino group

B, In their carbonyl group D, In their alpha carbon group

8. Which of the following is true about the substance represented by the chemical formula
C2H5NO2?

A, Simple sugar B, inorganic substance C, Fatty acid D, Amino acids

9. Which level of structural organization do proteins have the alpha helix shape?

A, Primary structure B, Secondary structure C, Tertiary structure D, Quaternary structure

10. The most complex structure of protein is ?

A, Primary structure B, Secondary structure C, Tertiary structure D, Quaternary structure

11. The bond that hold two amino acids to form protein is called:

A) Ester linkage B) Glycosidic bond C) H-bonding D) Peptide bond

12. Which one is the smallest structure from the following molecule?

A) polypeptide B) dipeptide C) amino acid D) protein

13. Which protein has a quaternary structure?

A) Keratin B) hemoglobin C) insulin D)enzyme

14. Which of the following is example of denaturation?

A) water freezing C) egg white forming solid when heated

B) dissolving sugar in water D)butter changed to liquid from solid

15. How many peptide bonds can be formed from 10 amino acids?

A)5 B) 8 C) 9 D) 10
Nucleic acids
Nucleic acids are chemical molecules made up of phosphoric acid, sugars, and organic bases that
exist naturally. Nucleic acids are the cell's principal information-carrying molecules, and they
determine every living thing's inherited features by directing the process of protein synthesis.
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are the two main types of nucleic
acids (RNA).

The structure of DNA and RNA

DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid and RNA for ribonucleic acid. Nucleic acids such as
DNA and RNA, like proteins and polysaccharides, are macromolecules. They are also polymers,
made up of many similar, smaller molecules joined into a long chain. The smaller molecules that
form DNA and RNA are called nucleotides. DNA and RNA are therefore polynucleotides. They
are often referred as nucleic acids.

Most organisms carry their genetic information in the nucleotide sequences of DNA, but a few
viruses carry it in RNA. Along the length of the DNA is a series of chemical structures called
genes. Genes are stretches of DNA that code for RNA and amino acids and, therefore, proteins.

Nucleotides

Figure 3.8 shows the structure of nucleotides. Nucleotides are made up of three smaller
components. These are:

• a nitrogen-containing base

• a pentose sugar

• a phosphate group

There are five different nitrogen containing bases in DNA and RNA. The four nitrogenous bases
in the DNA molecule are adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine. An RNA molecule also
contains four bases, but have Uracil instead of thymine. These bases are often denoted by their
first letters: A, T, C, G, and U. The order and composition of the different nucleotides sequences
determines the hereditary function of the nucleic acids.
Figure 3.13 The components of nucleotides.

The pentose (5-carbon) sugar can be either ribose (C,H,。O,) (in RNA) or deoxyribose (C,H,。
O4) (in DNA) Figure 3.9. As their names suggest, deoxyribose is almost the same as ribose,
except that it has no oxygen atom on its second carbon atom.

Figure 3.14 Structures of deoxyribose and ribose sugars

DNA is a large molecule made up of two strands (made of two chains) of nucleotides wounded
into a double helix. RNA is much smaller and is single-stranded (made of a single chain). There
are three types of RNA: mRNA (messenger RNA), rRNA(ribosomal RNA), and tRNA(transfer
RNA).
Figure 2.15 The structure of nucleic acids

Table 2.4 Similarities and differences in function and structure of the nucleic acids

Features DNA RNA

Nitrogenous Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Thy- Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Uracil
bases mine
Pentose sugar Deoxyribose sugar Ribose sugar
Phosphate Phosphate group Phosphate group
Size Huge-allows the molecule to carry Much smaller-need code for only one
the code for many different proteins protein; small size allows RNA to move
in the genes out of the nucleus
Stability Very stable – ensures that the genes Less stable- is degraded quite quickly so
remain the same over the generation does not carry on coding for a protein
Number of Two strands- allow coding of genes Single-stranded- does not replicate
strands and replication during cell division.
Major functions of Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA
Deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA)

It is the genetic material that stores all the information required to be transferred to the
next generation.
The genetic information is stored in its nucleotide sequences.
DNA has a unique property of replication or production of its copy that can be
transferred to a daughter cell during cell reproduction.
It specifies the biological development of all living organisms and viruses.
It carries the genetic code (instructions for protein synthesis). Information coded in the
nucleotide sequence of DNA for a particular protein is first copied to mRNA (by the
process of transcription). The code in the mRNA is then translated into amino acid
sequences of protein. Proteins are required to build an organism and catalyze all of its
biochemical reactions thereby controlling all of the functions of the cell or organism.
Ribonucleic acids (RNA)
RNA has different roles to play in different organisms.

It acts as genetic material in some viruses and has enzymatic activity in other organisms
(where it is called ribozyme).

Three types of RNA are present among organisms: mRNA, tRNA and rRNA. All three have
essential roles in the development and maintenance of life.

mRNA moves the genetic code (information for protein synthesis) from DNA to
ribosomes (protein-synthesizing machinery in the cell).
tRNA helps the proteins synthesis by providing a source of amino acids (the building
blocks of proteins).
rRNA form a complex with proteins making the structure of the ribosome.
Choose the best answer from the given alternatives

1.Which comparison is correct between RNA & DNA?

RNA DNA
A Has C5H10O5 Sugar Has C5H10O4 Sugar
B Is more stable Less stable
C Has no cytosine Has no Uracil
D Forms base pair Has no base pairing
2. A molecule of DNA contain 400 Thyamine and 300 Guanine How many purine bases are
there in the DNA?

A.1400 B. 700 C. 800 D. 600

3. Which one of the following contain more pyramidine base?

A.UACCGAA B. ATT GCCG C. GCCATTC D. AGAGAU

4. In a DNA strand of 5000 bases, 30% of the base molecules are known to be Thyamine. How
many Guanine bases are present in the DNA?

A.3000 B. 2000 C. 1500 D. 1000

5. If a DNA codon reading from 5‟ end is GAC. What will be the base sequence reading from 5‟
anticodon?

A. CUC B. GAC C. CUG D. CTG

6. What would be the Anticode produced by Transfer RNA from the following sequence of
Nitrogenous base? GATCCAG?

A. CTAGGTC B. CUAGGUC C. CAUGGUC D. CUGGAUC

7. If it is known that the total number of pyrimidine base accounts 50% DNA molecules . What
proportion accounts for Guanine ?

A. 25% B. 50% C. 75 % D. 100%

8. A molecule of DNA contains 800 Adenine and 600 Guanine. How many pyrimidine bases are
there in the DNA?

A. 600 B. 800 C. 1400 D. 2800

9. Select one which contain the least amount purine bases.

A. UACCGAA C. GCCATTC

B. ATTGCCA D. AGAGAUC

10. In a DNA strand of 6000 bases, 20% of the base molecules are known to be Adenine. How
many Cytosine bases are present in the DNA?

A. 1200 B. 1800 C. 3600 D. 6000

11. A molecule of DNA was found to contain 400cytosine. How many nucleotides this DNA
possess?

A. 400 B. 800 C. 1200 D. 1600

12. The anticodon for the Amino Acid is 3‟-AUG-5‟. What was the DNA base sequences ?

A. 3‟-AUG-5‟ C. 5‟-ATG-3‟

B. 5‟UAC-3‟ D. 3‟-ATG-5‟

13. Double stranded DNA molecule has 80 Adenine and 120 Guanine bases what is the total
number of bases found in the DNA molecules

A.160 bases B. 200 bases C. 240 bases D. 400 bases

14. A molecule of DNA was found to contain 300 Adenine and 300 thiamine How many
nucleotides this DNA possess?

A. 1200 B. 900 C. 600 D. 300

15. The tRNA anticodon for the Amino Acid is 51-UAC-31. What was the DNA base sequence?

A.51-TAC-31 B. 51-UAC-31 C.31-TAC-51 D. 31-AUG-51

16. A segment of DNA has 600 Thymine and 400 Cytosine. The total number of purine bases are

A.1000 B. 1200 C.1400 D. 2000

17. The monomers of nucleic acids are:-

A.Nucleoside B. Nucleotides C. N-base D. Phosphate

18. How many carbon atoms are found in the sugar component of nucleotide?

A, Three B, Four C, Five D, six

19 . If a DNA codon reading from 5‟end is GAG what will be the base seguence reading from
5‟end of the corresponding anti codon?

A. 3‟- C U C-5‟ B. 5‟-GA G – 3‟ C. 3‟ – G-AG-5‟ D. 5‟-CUC-3‟

20 .A molecule of DNA contain 200 cytosine and 300 thyamine, How many total purine bases
this DNA posses?

A.1000 B. 800 C. 500 D. 300

21. In DNA 20% of the bases are known to contain Guanine. If there are 900 thyamine. How
many cytosine bases are there in the DNA ?

A.3000 B. 1800 C. 1200 D. 600