Introduction to Electronics
and Semiconductor
1
Chapter Objectives
• To study and understand basic electronics.
electronics
• To study and understand semiconductor principles.
2
Definition
Electronics is the branch of science and technology
that deals with electrical circuits involving active
electrical components such as vacuum tubes,
t
transistors,
i t diodes
di d and d iintegrated
t t d circuits.
i it
Nowadays,
N d mostt electronic
l t i d devices
i use
semiconductor components to perform electron
control The study of semiconductor devices and
control.
related technology is considered a branch of solid
state physics, whereas the design and construction
off electronic
l t i circuits
i it tto solve
l practical
ti l problems
bl
come under electronics engineering.
3
History
• 1899 Discovery of the Electron
• 1901 Radio
• 1906 Vacuum Tube
• 1943 Fi t Computer
First C t
• 1947 Transistor
• 1958 Integrated Circuit
• 1971 Microprocessor
• 1982 Single Chip DSP
4
Analog vs Digital
• The world of electronics can be divided into digital or analog
analog.
• Analog
g signals
g come from nature and from p
physical
y systems.
y
• Analog signals have an infinite variety of levels.
• Digital signals usually have only two levels.
• Digital signals are often represented as binary numbers.
• A/D and D/A conversions are commonplace.
5
An infinite number of levels
ANALOG
6
2 levels
DIGITAL
7
Binary numbers
Analog
g in … digital
g out 01101110
11001000
11000010
01101110
A/D
00001110
converter
00001001
01101110
8
Digital
g in … analog
g out
01101110
11001000
11000010
01101110 D/A
00001110 converter
00001001
01101110
9
Analog Electronics Function
Oscillator Controller Divider
Adder
Clipper Switch
Amplifier
Mixer Detector
Comparator
Subtractor Filter
Regulator Converter
Attenuator Rectifier Multiplier
10
Concept Preview
• Many circuits and signals have both ac and dc components.
components
• Capacitors can couple ac signals from one point to another.
• Coupling capacitors have low reactance at the signal
y
frequency.
• Capacitors block dc since they have infinite reactance at 0 Hz.
• Bypass capacitors remove the ac component.
• Bypass capacitors have one lead grounded.
11
Many circuits are a mix of ac and dc.
10 V
10 V
10 kΩ 0V
3.3 kΩ 1 μF 1 μF
10 VP-P 10 kΩ 10 kΩ
10 kHz
12
+5 V
0V
10 V -5 V
10 kΩ
3.3 kΩ 1 μF 1 μF
10 VP-P 10 kΩ 10 kΩ
10 kHz
13
Note the loss in ac
amplitude due to
the drop across
the 3.3
3 3 kΩ resistor.
resistor
0V
10 V
10 kΩ
3.3 kΩ 1 μF 1 μF
10 VP-P 10 kΩ 10 kΩ
10 kHz
14
Note the combined +5 V
dc and ac. 0V
10 V
10 kΩ
3.3 kΩ 1 μF 1 μF
10 VP-P 10 kΩ 10 kΩ
10 kHz
15
Note that the dc signal is blocked
by the capacitor
capacitor.
0V
10 V
10 kΩ
3.3 kΩ 1 μF 1 μF
10 VP-P 10 kΩ 10 kΩ
10 kHz
16
Bypass capacitors are used to eliminate the
ac component
component.
+5 V
0V
10 V
10 kΩ
3.3 kΩ 1 μF
10 VP-P 10 kΩ 1 μF
10 kHz
B
Bypass capacitor
it
17
Through-hole soldering
Device leads pass through holes in the circuit board.
Solder
18
Surface mouth soldering(1)
Solder
SOT-223
Chip resistor
Devices placed by automatic equipment
Circuit boards cost less ((fewer holes))
Higher connection density
Smaller and less expensive products
Difficult to repair
19
Surface mouth soldering(2)
20
Equipments
21
Be careful!!
Probing fine-pitch
fine pitch ICs is difficult without the right tools!
22
Semiconductor
• A semiconductor is a material with electrical
conductivity due to electron flow (as opposed to
ionic conductivity)
y) intermediate in magnitude
g
between that of a conductor and an insulator.
• Semiconductor materials are the foundation of
modern electronics, including radio, computers,
telephones, and many other devices.
• Such devices include transistors, solar cells, many
kinds of diodes including the light-emitting diode,
th silicon
the ili controlled
t ll d rectifier,
tifi andd di
digital
it l and
d
analog integrated circuits.
23
Contents
• Conductors and Insulators
• Semiconductors
• N-type
N type Semiconductors
• P-type
yp Semiconductors
• Majority and Minority Carriers
24
Bohr model of an atom
As seen in this
model,
d l electrons
l t
circle the nucleus.
Atomic
to c structure
st uctu e
of a material
determines its
ability
bilit tto conduct
d t
or insulate.
25
Two simple atoms, hydrogen and helium.
26
Energy vs Distance
Energy
gy increases as the distance from the nucleus increases.
27
Energy Diagram
28
Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors
The ability of a material to conduct current is
based on its atomic structure.
The orbit paths of the electrons surrounding
the nucleus are called shells.
Each shell has a defined number of electrons it
will hold. This is a fact of nature and can be
determined by the formula, 2n2.
The outer shell is called the valence shell.
The less complete a shell is filled to capacity the
more conductive the material is.
29
Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors
The valence shell determines the ability of material to conduct current.
A Copper atom has only 1 A Silicon atom has 4 electrons
electron in its valence ring. This in its valence ring. This makes
makes it a good conductor.
conductor It semiconductor It takes 2n2
it a semiconductor.
takes 2n2 electrons or in this electrons or in this case or 18
case 32 electrons to fill the electrons to fill the valence
valence
l shell.
h ll shell
shell.
30
Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors
Conductor: Number of valence electron =1-3
Semiconductor: Number of valence electron = 4
Insulator : Number of valence electron = 5-8
(a) Copper atom(atomic number 29) (b) Argon atom(atomic number 18) (c) carbon atom(atomic number 6)
31
Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors
(d) Aluminum atom(atomic number 13) (e) Phosphorus atom(atomic number 15) (f) Germanium atom(atomic number 32)
32
NN
N N
Most A nucleus
Theatoms
center Negative
have
of also
anneutrons
atom is has protons
electrons
which
called have
the no charge
charge.
nucleus
nucleus.
and they have
orbit theanucleus.
positive charge.
Valence electron
It has 29 protons
NN
N N
It has 29 electrons
Itsisnet
This charge
a copper = 0.
atom.
Valence electron
NN
N N
The valence electron
Its attraction is the important
to the nucleus feature.
is relatively weak.
35
A simple model of the copper atom looks like this:
The valence electron
The nucleus plus the inner electron orbits
Copper wire is used
to conduct electricity
because the valence
electrons move freely
through its structure.
So far,, we know that copper’s
pp single
g valence
electron makes it a good conductor.
The rule of eight states that a material like this
would be stable since its valence orbit is full.
No Vacancy
It acts as an electrical insulator.
insulator
Concept
p Review
• The nucleus of any atom is positively charged.
charged
• Negatively charged electrons orbit the nucleus.
• The net charge on any atom is zero because the
protons and electrons are equal in number.
• The valence orbit is the outermost orbit.
• Copper has only one valence electron and is an
excellent conductor.
• Materials
M t i l withith a full
f ll valence
l orbit
bit actt as
insulators.
• Materials with 8 electrons in the valence orbit act
as insulators.
39
Concept
p Preview
• Silicon has 4 valence electrons.
• Silicon atoms can form covalent bonds with each
other.
• Covalent silicon satisfies the rule of 8 and acts as
an insulator at room temperature.
• Donor impurities have 5 valence electrons.
• N-type
N type silicon has been doped with a donor
impurity to make it semiconduct.
• Acceptor
p impurities
p have 3 valence electrons.
• P-type silicon has been doped with an acceptor
impurity to make it semiconduct.
40
Atoms of the same type can join
together and form covalent bonds.
This is an electron sharing process.
process
Silicon atoms have four valence electrons.
41
Covalent Bonding
Covalent bonding is a bonding of two or more atoms by the
interaction of their valence electrons.
42
The covalent sharing satisfies the rule of eight.
In this structure, one bond is formed with each neighbor.
This is a silicon crystal.
Itt does not
ot conduct
co duct because its
ts valence
a e ce
electrons are captured by covalent bonds.
Covalent bonds can be broken by heating a silicon crystal.
Hole
Free electron
Thermal carriers
The thermal carriers support the flow of current.
Heating silicon crystals to make them conduct is not practical!
Silicon
• Silicon is used to create most semiconductors.
semiconductors
• A pure semiconductor is often called an “intrinsic”
semiconductor.
• The electronic properties and the conductivity of a
semiconductor can be changed in a controlled manner by
adding very small quantities of other elements, called
“dopants” to the intrinsic material.
• In semiconductor production, doping intentionally introduces
impurities into an extremely pure (also referred to as intrinsic)
semiconductor for the purpose of modulating its electrical
properties.
48
A silicon crystal can be doped with a donor impurity.
Free
F 5electron
l t
1 4
Each donor
This is an arsenic atom. atom that enters the
crystal adds a2 free 3electron.
49
Silicon that has been doped with arsenic is called N-type.
The free electrons in N-type silicon support the flow of current.
50
A silicon crystal can be doped with an acceptor impurity.
1 Hole
This Each
is a acceptor
boron atom
atom.
that enters the
crystal creates a hole.
2 3
51
Silicon that has been doped with boron is called P-type.
The holes in P-type silicon support the flow of current.
52
What are two practical methods
of making silicon semiconduct?
Free electron Hole
(N t
(N-type)
) (P t
(P-type)
)
N-P
Add a p
pentavalent Add a trivalent
impurity. impurity.
53
N-type and P-type Semiconductors
The process of creating N- and P-type
materials is called doping.
Other atoms
Oth t with
ith 5 electrons
l t such
h as Other atoms with 3 electrons such as
Antimony(Sb) are added to Silicon to Boron(B) are added to Silicon to create
increase the free electrons. a deficiency of electrons or hole
charges.
N-type P-type
Boron(3e), arsenic(5e), phosphorus(5e), and gallium(3e) are normally used to dope silicon and 54
germanium.
This is a P-type crystal.
Due to heat, it could have a few free electrons.
Th
These are called
ll d minority
i it carriers.
i
55
This is an N-type crystal.
Due to heat, it could have a few free holes.
These are called minority carriers.
carriers
56
Other Semiconductors
Silicon is the workhorse of the
semiconductor industry but
compound semiconductors help
out in key areas.
• Gallium arsenide
• Indium phosphide
• Mercury cadmium telluride
• Silicon carbide
• Cadmium sulfphide
• Cadmium telluride
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