Operational Amplifier and Applications

Module-1: Operational Amplifier

Operational Amplifiers, or Op-amps as they are usually called, are one of the basic building
blocks of Analogue Electronic Circuits. Op-Amps are one of the widely used ICs (Integrated
Circuits) in electronics. The very name Operational Amplifier comes from the fact that they
are used to build circuits to perform variety of mathematical operations such as addition,
subtraction, integration, differentiation etc., Operational amplifiers exhibit properties of
nearly ideal DC amplifier and are therefore employed in a wide range of applications.

The integrated operational amplifier has gained wide acceptance as a versatile, predictable,
and economic system building block because of its small size, high reliability, and reduced
cost.

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this module, students will be able to:

1. Draw the internal block diagram of an OP-AMP and briefly describe the functions
2. List and define key parameters of an OP-AMP.
3. Discuss OP-AMP based amplifier topologies.
4. Design OP-AMP based circuits for simple mathematical operations.

3.1.1 Introduction

An operational amplifier is a high gain direct coupled amplifier which can amplify signals
over a wide range of frequencies. The circuit symbol of op-amp is shown in Fig. 3.1, which
has two inputs and a single output. The input terminal that is marked as positive is called non-
inverting terminal and that marked as negative is known as inverting terminal. The output
signal of an Operational Amplifier is the amplified version of the difference between the two
signals being applied to the two inputs. One of the common IC versions of op-amp is µA741.

Fig 3.1 OPAMP symbol

Figure 3.2 shows the pin diagrams of different op-amp available ICS.
 Figure 3.2 A: LF353N, B: LF351N, C: CA5130E, C-2: NE531N, D:
[source: http://www.talkingelectronics.com/ChipDataEbook-1d/html/OpAmpList.html#C]

3.1.2Internal Block Diagram of op-amp:

The internal block schematic of op-amp is shown in Figure.3.3

Figure.3.3 Internal block diagram of op-amp

Input stage: It is a dual input, dual output differential amplifier. Its function is to amplify the
difference between the two input signals. It provides high differential gain, high input
impedance and low output impedance. The differential amplifier mainly helps to minimize
the effect of noise.
Intermediate stage: The overall gain requirement of an op-amp is very high. Since the input
stage alone cannot provide such a high gain, an intermediate stage is used to provide the
required additional voltage gain.
Buffer and Level shifting stage: The dc quiescent voltage level of previous stages may get
amplified and applied to the next stage causing distortion at the output. Hence the level
shifting stage is used to eliminate the dc level. Buffer is a unity voltage gain amplifier usually
used for impedance matching.
Output stage: This stage contributes to the overall gain of the op-amp and also provides low
output impedance.
The pin diagram for a typical µA741 op-amp with 8 pin DIP (Dual In-line Package) is shown
in Figure. 3.4.

Offset null No connection

Inverting i/p +Vcc

Non inverting i/p Output

-Vcc Offset null

Figure. 3.4 Pin diagram of a typical µA741 op-amp

Differential Amplifier
The circuit shown in Figure 3.5 shows a generalized form of a differential amplifier with two
inputs marked V1 and V2. The two identical transistors TR1 and TR2 are both biased at the
same operating point with their emitters connected together and returned to the common rail,
-Vee by way of resistor RE.

Figure 3.5 Differential amplifier circuit diagram

The circuit operates from a dual supply +Vcc and -Vee which ensures a constant supply. The
voltage that appears at the output, Vout of the amplifier is the difference between the two
input signals as the two base inputs are anti-phase with each other.
When the forward bias voltage of transistor, TR1 is increased, the forward bias voltage of
transistor TR2 is reduced and vice versa. Then if the two transistors are perfectly matched,
the current flowing through the common emitter resistor, Re will remain constant.
Like the input signal, the output signal is also balanced and since the collector voltages either
swings in opposite directions (anti-phase) or in the same direction (in-phase) the output
voltage signal, taken between the two collectors is, (assuming a perfectly balanced circuit)
the zero difference between the two collector voltages.
This is known as the Common Mode of Operation with the common mode gain of the
amplifier being the output gain when the input is zero.
Ideal Operational Amplifiers also have one output (although there are ones with an additional
differential output) of low impedance that is referenced to a common ground terminal. The
op-amp rejects any common mode signals that are appearing at the inputs. That means, if an
identical signal is applied to both the inverting and non-inverting inputs then the voltage at
the output terminals due to such inputs should be zero.
However, in practical amplifiers there is always some variation and the ratio of the change to
the output voltage with respect to the change in the common mode input voltage at the input
is called the Common Mode Rejection Ratio or CMRR.
Operational Amplifiers have a very high open loop DC gain and by applying some form of
Negative Feedback to an operational amplifier circuit, we can get a very precise gain
characteristics that is dependent on the feedback used.
An operational amplifier only responds to the difference between the voltages applied at its
two input terminals, known commonly as the “Differential Input Voltage”. If the same
voltage is applied to both the input terminals the resultant output will be zero. An Operational
Amplifiers gain is commonly known as the Open Loop Differential Gain, and is represented
as (Ao).
Op-amp specifications:

Output offset voltage (Voo): The output voltage, when both the inputs are zero is called the
output offset voltage. It is due to input offset voltage and input bias current.

Input bias current (Ib): It is the average of the current that flows into the inverting and non-
inverting input terminals when both of the two inputs are grounded.

Input offset current (Iio): It is the algebraic difference between the currents flowing into non-
inverting and inverting terminals of balanced op-amp.

Input resistance (Ri): It is the equivalent resistance that can be measured at either the
inverting or non-inverting terminal with the other terminal connected to ground.

Slew Rate: It is defined as the maximum rate of change of output voltage per unit time .
Supply Voltage Rejection Ratio (SVRR): The change in op-amp input offset voltage caused by
variations in supply voltage is called SVRR.
Output resistance (Ro): The equivalent resistance observed between the output terminal and
the ground.

Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR): This is a figure of merit for an op-amp. It is defined
as the ratio of the magnitude of differential gain to the common mode gain.

The CMRR in deciBels is given by

dB (3.1.1.1)

Where, Ad is the differential gain,

Ac is the common-mode gain, . Where A1(A2) is the voltage amplification
from input 1(2) to the output under the condition that input 2(1) is grounded. This is an
important specification, as it indicates how much of the common-mode signal Vc gets
rejected from the input. A high CMRR is desirable.
The output of a differential amplifier is given by
Vo = Ad Vd + Ac Vc. (3.1.1.2)
Where, Vd = (V1 – V2) and Vc = (V1 + V2) / 2 are differential and common mode inputs
respectively. Note: V1 and V2 are the non-inverting and inverting input voltages respectively.

3.1.3 Op-Amp characteristics

The characteristics of an ideal op-amp are given in the Table 3.1. However, it cannot be
realised in practice. As an example, an op-amp IC, μA 741 has typical values of the
parameters as given in the table.

Table 3.1.1 Values of an ideal and practical op-amp.

Sl. No. Characteristics Ideal Practical

1 Open loop voltage gain, Avo ∞ 2*105
2 Unity gain BW ∞ 1MHz
3 Input resistance, Ri ∞ 2MΩ
4 Output resistance. Ro zero 75Ω
5 CMRR ∞ 90dB
6 Slew rate high 0.5 V/μs
7 SVRR zero 150µV/V
8 Input offset voltage 0 6mv (max)
9 Input offset current 0 200 nA (max)
10 Differential mode output voltage gain Ad ∞ 50000
11 Common mode output voltage gain Ac 0 10

For ideal op-amp, the characteristic do not change with temperature. Ideally, the op-amp is
perfectly balanced, if Vo = 0, when V1 = V2
Concept of Virtual ground:

The input impedance of an ideal op-amp is infinite (Ri =∞), that means there is no current
flowing into the op-amp. As the differential voltage gain of an ideal op-amp is infinite, V1-V2
tends to zero. This is equivalent to virtual short between two input terminals and hence if one
of the terminals is grounded the other terminal also experiences the same potential even
though they are not electrically connected. Therefore, it is called virtual ground.

Transfer Characteristics of a typical op-amp:

The transfer characteristics of op-amp is as shown in Figure 3.6. In the linear region, any
change in the input difference voltage, ±Vid produces a proportional output voltage. The
range of input difference voltage to operate the op-amp in linear region is approximately
equal to 100 mV. Beyond 100mV of ±Vid, the output becomes ±Vsat because of very high
gain offered by the op-amp. The output will be at +Vsat if it is used in non- inverting mode or
-Vsat if it is configured in inverting mode.

Fig.3.6 Transfer Characteristics of a typical op-amp

In linear applications, the op-amp is operated as a closed loop amplifier in the active region.
The difference between the input voltages is maintained around 100mV so as to produce a
linear output voltage. In nonlinear applications, the op-amp is driven to saturation either in
open loop or closed loop configuration by applying a difference input voltage exceeding
100mV.

Self test:

1.A linear integrated circuit responds to

a) Analog signal b) Digital signal
c) Neither a) nor b) d) Both a) and b)
2. An op-amp can amplify
Summary:

1. An operational amplifier is a high gain direct coupled amplifier which can

amplify signals over a wide range of frequencies.
2. The amplified output signal of an Operational Amplifier is the difference between
the two signals being applied to the two inputs. Hence it is termed as differential
amplifier.
3. The ratio of the change to the output voltage with respect to the change in the
common mode input voltage is called the Common Mode Rejection Ratio or
CMRR.
4. The input impedance of an ideal op-amp is infinite (Ri =∞), that means there is
no current flowing into the op-amp.
5. In linear applications, the op-amp is operated as a closed loop amplifier in the
active region.
6. In nonlinear applications, the op-amp is driven to saturation either in open loop or
closed loop configuration by applying a difference input voltage exceeding
100mV.

Module-2: Linear Applications of op-amp

Linear applications of op-amps include mathematical operations such as inversion, addition,
subtraction, integration, differentiation and multiplication etc., some of them will be
discussed here.

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this module, students will be able to:

1. Discuss OP-AMP based amplifier topologies.

2. Analyse and design OP-AMP based circuits for simple mathematical operations.

3.2.1 Inverting amplifier: The circuit diagram for an inverting amplifier is as shown in
Figure 3.7.

Figure 3.7. Inverting amplifier

By applying KCL to the inverting input node,

The inverting input terminal is at virtual ground, i.e. Vg = 0. Substituting in the above
expression, we get

The closed loop voltage gain

The negative sign indicates that there is 180° phase difference between input and output
signals. The voltage gain depends only on the resistor values as long as the op-amp is in
linear region.

3.2.2 Non-inverting amplifier:

The circuit diagram for a non-inverting amplifier is shown in Figure 3.8

Figure. 3.8. Non-inverting amplifier

Since there is virtual short between inverting and non-inverting input terminals, Vin appears
across R1.

Applying KCL, Vin / R1 + (Vin - Vout )/Rf = 0

Solving for Vout,

 Rf 
Vout = Vin 1 + 
 R1 
(3.2.5)

The closed loop voltage gain for non-inverting amplifier is given by,

Av = (1+ Rf /R1) (3.2.6)

3.2.3 Voltage follower

Voltage follower is a special case of non-inverting amplifier with unity gain as shown in
Figure 3.2.3 It has high input impedance and very low output impedance and hence it is used
as a buffer amplifier to achieve impedance matching.

Figure.3.9. Voltage follower

Substituting Rf = 0 and R1 = ∞ in Eqn. (3.2.6),

Vout = Vin (3.2.7)

3.2.4 Inverting summing amplifier

The circuit diagram for an inverting summing amplifier is shown in Figure 3.10.

Figure.3.10. Inverting summing amplifier

By applying KCL to the inverting input node and making use of the virtual ground concept,
the output voltage is,

(3.2.8)

Thus, summing amplifier produces an output voltage which is an inverted (in sign), weighted
sum of all inputs.

If R1 = R2 =……….= Rn , then,

(3.2.9)

If R1 = R2 =……….= Rn = Rf then

(3.2.10)

The circuit is therefore acts as an adder or summer. Strictly speaking, this circuit is acting as
an inverting adder.

3.2.5 Difference amplifier

The circuit configuration for a difference amplifier is shown in Figure.3.11. It produces an
output voltage which is proportional to the difference between the two inputs.
 Figure 3.11. Difference Amplifier

Using Superposition theorem

R2
When V2=0, Vout1 = −V1 (3.2.11)
R1

 R  R4  R 
When V1=0, Vout 2 = V+ 1 + 2  = V2 1 + 2  (3.2.12)
 R1  R3 + R4  R1 

R4  R  R
Then, Vout = Vout 2 + Vout1 = V2 1 + 2  − V1 2 (3.2.13)
R3 + R4  R1  R1

R2
If R2 / R1 = R4 / R3 then, Vout = (V2 − V1 ) . (3.2.14)
R1

The circuit is called a difference amplifier and if, R1 = R2 = R3 = R4, the above equation
simplifies to Vout = V2 − V1 and the circuit acts as a subtractor.

3.2.6 Integrator
The circuit for an integrator is shown in Figure. 3.12. It produces an output voltage which is
proportional to the integral of input voltage.

Figure. 3.12. Integrator

Applying KCL at inverting terminal, i1 = i2

Vi n −0 d (0 − Vo ut )
=C (3.2.15)
R dt

Integrating on both sides

 t
1
RC 0
Vout = − Vin dt (3.2.16)

3.2.7 Differentiator
The differentiator circuit is shown in Figure 3.13. It produces an output voltage which is
proportional to the differential of input voltage.

Fig.3.13 Differentiator

Applying KCL at inverting terminal i1 = i2

d (Vin − 0 ) 0 − Vout dVin

C =  Vout = − RC (3.2.17)
dt R dt

Exercises:
1.
Realize each of the following equations using single OPAMP.
Draw the circuit diagram. Derive the input output relation and
determine the component values.
(i) Vo = -5V1
(ii) Vo = +5V1 (iii) Vo = -( 5V1 + 7V2) (iv) Vo = V1 – 0.5V2
2. Realize the equation using OPAMP V0= 3V1- 0.8V2 + 0.5V3
3. Sketch the output waveform for an inverting integrator if the
input signal is square wave with Amplitude is 5V and frequency
1KHz.
4. A 200mV peak to peak sine wave form voltage is applied to an
OPAMP inverting amplifier with Rf/R1 =10. Sketch the output.

Summary:
1. The closed loop voltage gain Av = -(Rf/Ri). The negative sign indicates that
there is 180° phase difference between input and output signals.
2. Voltage follower is a special case of non-inverting amplifier with unity gain.
3. Summing amplifier produces an output voltage which is an inverted (in sign),
weighted sum of all inputs.
4. The circuit of an integrator produces an output voltage which is proportional
to the integral of input voltage.
5. The differentiator circuit produces an output voltage which is proportional to
the differential of input voltage.
Module-3: Non Linear Application

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this module, students will be able to :
1. Discuss different types of OP-AMP based Comparators.
2. Draw the circuit of square wave generator using op-amp.

3.3.1 Voltage Comparator:

A comparator compares the Value of input signal to the reference voltage. If the input voltage
signal is larger than the reference voltage, comparator output will be high. If the input signal
voltage is smaller than the reference voltage, comparator output will be Low. Figure 3.14
shows the comparator circuit using an ideal operational amplifier.

Figure 3.14. Voltage comparator

The output voltage of the circuit / topology is given by,

Vout = +Vsat if Vin > Vref (3.3.18)

Vout = -Vsat if Vin < Vref (3.3.19)

3.3.2 Square Wave Generator

Square wave genereator is also called astable multivibrator and it has no stable. Therefore, an
astable multivibrator is a combination of a Schimitt trigger and an RC circiut. Figure 3.15a
and 3.15b shows the sqaure wave generator circuit and its output waveforms respectively.

Fig.3.15a. Circuit of Square wave generator

 Fig.3.15b. Waveform across capacitor and output

The output of the op-amp will be at either positive or negative saturation voltages (±Vsat)
depending on V1 and V2 i.e.

Vout = +VSat V1  V2
= −VSat V1  V2

Here V1 is the voltage across the capacitor

R1
V2 = Vout =  Vout (3.3.20)
R1 + R2

R1
where β is feedback factor given by  = (3.3.21)
R1 + R2

When Vout = +Vsat, capacitor will charge towards +Vsat. When the voltage across capacitor V1
exceeds Vsat , output makes a transition to –Vsat and capacitor will start discharging towards
–Vsat. When the voltage across capacitor V1 becomes slightly less than (− Vsat ) , output makes
a transition to +Vsat and this action repeats.

Problem: In the OPAMP square wave generator, all resisitors are 1kΩ, C= 0.1µF and ±Vsat
=12V. Determine the frequemcy of oscillation of the output signal. Also plot the voltage
waveform across the capacitor and the output by marking all the timing and voltage levels.

Solution: R1=R2=R= 1kΩ.

R1
= = 0.5, C= 0.1µF, ±Vsat =12V
R1 + R2
T= 0.22mS. f = 1/T=4.55KHz.

Exercises:
1. Design a square wave generator using OP-AMP for the following specifications:
Frequency of oscillation = 1KHz, V0 (p-p) = 12.4V.

2. What should be the TON and TOFF of a square wave signal of frequency 2KHz and
duty cycle of 50% ?

3. Explain the working of OP-AMP as a Comparator.

Summary:

1. An operational amplifier (op-amp) has a well-balanced difference input and a very

high gain. This parallels the characteristics of comparators.

2. The output of the op-amp in a square wave circuit will be at either positive or negative
saturation voltages (±Vsat) depending on V1 and V2