ADDI

TIONALNOTESON:
- Opt
icFi
bre

- Laser

- Hol
ogr
ams

- Sat
ell
i
tes

- Rocket

OPTI
CALFI
BRE
OPTI
CALFI
BRECABLEASAWAVEGUI
DE

Theopt i
calfi
brecablesareusedaswav eguidesfortr
ansmitt
ingelectr omagneti
cwav esat
opti
cal f
requenci
es.Thesefrequenciesarein1510t heorderof10Hzhi gherthanthatofradi
o
wavefrequencyof10Hz. Thenumberofi nf
ormationtr
ansmittedisdir
ect l
yproport
ionaltothe
fr
equencyoft hetr
ansmi t
tedsignals.Hence15,000andmor esimultaneoust el
ephone
conversati
onsarepossibl
et otransmital
ongasi ngl
eopticalf
ibrecable.Butinasinglepairof
metall
iccable,onl
y48simul t
aneoust el
ephoneconv er
sati
onscanbet ransmitt
edintheform of
el
ectri
ccur r
ent.

Anopt icalfibr
ecableisacy li
ndri
calcoremadeofsi l
icaglassofr adius0.0002cm to0. 001cm.
Aroundt hiscorecladdingisf ormedbyt headditionofsmal l
amountofbor on,germanium or
phosphor ust oformther arermedi um.Thecladdi ngisnecessar ytoretai
nthel i
ghtwav eswithi
n
thecor eandal sotoprov i
demechani cal
strength.Furtherthecladdingiscoatedwi t
hbuf fer
j
acketmadeofpl ast
ictopr otectthefibr
efrom moi stureandscr atches.Thebuf f
erj
acketi s
alsosur r
oundedbyat hickt ougherli
keKev l
arthatprov i
dest oughnessandt ensil
estrengthto
thef i
bre.Finall
ythecableiscov eredbyblackpol yur
ethaneout erjacketthatprovi
desf l
exibi
li
ty
tot hefibre.
MODEOFOPERATI
ON

Whent heopti
cal si
gnalenter
satoneendoft hefibr
e,iti
sinci
dentonthelayerseparat
ingt
he
coreandcladding.Theangleofincidenceisgr
eaterthanthecri
ti
calangle.Si
ncethecor ei
sa
densermedium andt hecladdi
ngisar ar
ermedium, t
otali
nter
nalref
lect
ionstakeplace
conti
nuouslythroughoutthecoreregionasshowni nthefigur
e.Fi
nallyi
tcomesoutf r
om t
he
otherendofthef i
bre.Hencetheopt i
calfi
brefuncti
onsasawav eguide.

ADVANTAGESOFOPTI
CALFI
BRECABLES(
O.F.
C)

1.Thef ibremat erialismadeofsi licagl asswhi chisavail

abl einsur plusi nthewor l
d
compar edt ocopper
2.oralumi ni um.
3.Sil
i
cai sv erymuchcheapert hancopper .
4.Therei snoel ect r
icaldanger,si
ncenoel ectri
ccur r
entflowst hrought hefibre.I
tcarr
ies
onlyopt ical si gnal.
5.Optical fi
br ecanbehandl edmor eeasi l
ybecauseoft heirlightwei ght ,
smal l
erinsiz
eand
fl
exibili
ty.
6.Theopt i
cal signal transmitt
edt hrought hef ibrecannotbedi sturbedbyt her adi
o
fr
equencyi nt erference.
7.Tappi ng( ov er hearsecr et
s)ofinf or mati
oni si mpossibl
ei nf i
breopt icsy stems.
8.Alargenumberofsi gnalscanbesi multaneouslytransmi tt
edal ongt heopt i
calfi
bre
cablescompar edt othemet al
li
ccabl es.
9.Thel ossofi ntensi t
yofener gyisl essinopt i
cal fi
brecabl escompar edt othemet al
li
c
cables.I nt heopt icalfi
brecablest helossis12. 5dBperkm

LASER
Theterm LASERst andsf orLightAmpl i
fi
cati
onbySt i
mul at
edEmissi
onofRadiat
ion.TheLASER
i
sadev i
cewhi champli
fieslightwav essimil
artothetransi
storwhi
champli
fi
eselectr
iccurr
ent
.
Thelaserisapower ful
sour ceoflight.
CHARACTERI STICSOFLASER
Laserradiat
ionisdif
fer
entf rom normal l
ightr
adiati
on.Thecharact
eri
sti
csofl
aseraregiven
bel
ow:
 1.Laserradiati
oni smonochr omat i
c.Itcont ainsonlyonepar t
icular
wavelength(colour )ofl ight .Thewav elengt hisdeterminedbyt he
amountofener gyr eleased.
2.Laserradiati
oni scoher ent .Inemi t
tedr adiati
onallthephotonsar e
havingthesamephaseandampl i
tude.
3.Laserradiati
oni shi ghlydi recti
onal.Laserbeam ofl i
ghtcant ravelver
y
l
ongdi stance,withoutmuchdi v
ergence.
4.Laserradiati
oni sv eryint ense.Thei ntensi t
yandhencet hebrightness
ofthelaserradiationi shi gh.
5.Ther adiat
ionhav i
ngsi ngl ewav elength, sameampl i
tudeandsame
phasei scall
ed‘coher entr adiati
on’.

PRI NCI PLEOFLASER

Laserwor ksont hepr incipleofquant um t heor yofr adiat i
on.Whenanat om i nt hel owerener gy
E1absor bst hephot onener gyofi nci dentr adiat ion, i
tisexci tedt ot hehi gherener gyl evelof
ener gyE¬2.Thi sprocessi scal ledabsor ption.Thenumberofabsor ptiont ransitiont akepl ace
peruni tt imeperuni tv olumei sdirect lypr opor tional tot henumberofat omsi nt hel owerener gy
l
ev el andt henumberofphot onsi nthei ncidentr adiation.Theener gydi fferenceE2–E1i scalled
exci t
ationener gyandi tisequal tot heener gyoft hephot onabsor bedbyt heat om.I nhi gher
ener gyl ev el(
E¬2) ,t
heat om cannotr emai nl ongt i
me, sincei thasat endencyt odr opener gy .So
theat om j umpst ot hel owerener gyl ev el (
E¬1) .Att hatt ime, theener gydi fferenceE- Eis
emi ttedi nt hef or m ofr adiationasphot on.Theener gyoft hephot onr eleased, E2–E1=hf ,wher e
fi sthef requencyoft her adi ati
onandh, thePl anck'sconst ant .
STI MULATEDEMI SSI ON
Einsteinf oundanewpr ocesscal ledst imul atedemi ssiont oi ncreaset henumberoft ransi
t i
onof
atomsf rom hi gherener gyl ev el
st olowerener gyl evels.St i
mul atedemi ssioni st hepr ocessof
phot onemi ssionst akespl acebyani nducementgi venbyanot herphot oni ncidentont het he
atomsi nhi gherener gyl evels.Theener gyoft hephot onemi ttedi sequal t
ot heener gyoft he
phot oni nci dent .
Consi deranat om i nt hehi gherener gyl ev el (E2) .Whenanext ernal radiat i
onofphot onener gyE2
–E1i si ncidentont heexci t
edat om phot onst imul atest heat om t omaket ransitionf rom hi gher
tolowerener gyl evel.Asar esul tthesamephot onener gyE2–E1i semi ttedi nthef orm of
radiat i
on.Dur ingt hispr ocess, t
hest imul atingphot onandt hephot onemi tt
edbyt heexci ted
atom ar eemi ttedsi mul taneousl yi nthesamedi rection.Hencet heyar ei dentical inphase,
directionandf requencyand
arecoher ent.Thi spr ocessofst imulat edemi ssi oni susedt opr oducel aserbeam.
Thenumberofst i
mul atedt ransition( N)t aki ngpl aceperuni ttimest
perv olumei sdi rectl
yt o
1)t henumberofat omsi nthehi gherener gyl ev el(N)
2)Thenumberofphot onsi nt heinci dentr adi ation( Q)
Thestimul
atedemissi
oncanbemul ti
pli
edt hroughachai nreacti
on.Whenasi nglephotonhit
s
anatom i
nthehigherenergylevel,
twophot onsar eemitt
edbyst i
mul at
edemi ssion.Thenthese
twophotonshitontwoatomsofhi gherlevel,fourphotonsareemi t
ted.Thisprocessis
conti
nuedasachainreactionandt hephotonsar egetti
ngmul t
ipl
ied.Fi
nall
yitleadstothe
emissi
onofthepowerful,
coher ent,monochr omat i
candhi ghl
ydirecti
onalbeam oflaserli
ght.
Thisi
scall
edLightamplif
icati
onbyst imulatedemi ssi
onofradiat
ion.

USESOFLASER:
1.Laserisusedt of indt helongdi stancesbydi rectpulsereflect
ion
met hod.Usi ngt hismet hod,thedi stancebet weent hemoonandear th
wasmeasur edaccur ately.
2.Iti
susedt opr oducehi ght emper atur etomel tandv apourisethemet al
s
i
nav eryshor tper i
od.
3.Iti
susedt obor ehol esinhar dsubst ancesli
ket ungstenanddi amond.
4.Itcanbemodul atedt otransmithundr edmessagesatat i
meonr adi
o,
tel
ev i
sionandt elephone.
5.Thebi gsizeobj ectsl i
keaer opl
anes, missil
eset ccanbedest r
oy edina
fewsecondsbypassi ngapower f
ul laserbeam ont ot hem.Fort his
reason, l
aseri scal leda“ Deathr ay”instrument .
6.Insurgery,al aserbeam i susedi nspot -wel
dingofadet achedr eti
nain
theey eball.Itisal sousedf orpainlessdr i
ll
ingandwel dingthesur f
ace
ofat oothtopr eventi tsdecay .

7.Thelaserbeam i
snoteasi
lyabsor
bedbywater.Soi
tcanbeusedi
n
under-
watercommunicat
ionbetweensubmar
ines.

HOLOGRAMS

Hologramsarethreedimensionali
magesr ecordedonf il
m bylasers.Hol
ogramsareusedfor
amusement ,
decorati
ononnov elt
yitemsandmagazi necovers,securi
tyoncredi
tcardsand
dri
ver’
sli
censes.Hologram i
sat r
uet hr
eedimensional i
magebecauseobj ectchangesrel
ati
ve
posit
ionint
heimagewhenv iewedfrom di
fferentangles.
PRODUCTIONOFHOLOGRAM
Si
ngl
e-wavel
engthofcoher
entl
i
ghtf
rom al
aserpr
oducesawel
ldef
inedi
nter
fer
encepat
ter
n
onapieceoffi
l
m.

Thelaserbeam i ssplitbyapar t
iall
ysil
ver
edmi r
rorwi
thpartoftheli
ghtil
luminat
ingtheobject
andtheremai ndershi ni
ngdirectl
yont hefi
lm.Li
ghtscat
teredfrom t
heobjectinter
ferewit
ht he
ref
erencebeam pr oducingconstructi
veanddestr
ucti
vei
nterfer
ence,theexposedfi
lmi sf
oggy ,
wheretheinterferencewasconst ruct
ivet
hefi
lm wasdarkened.

SATELLI
TES
Abodymov
ingi
nanor
bitar
oundanot
herbi
ggerbodyi
scal
l
edasat
ell
i
te.Abodyt
hatmov
es
aroundapl anetiscal l
edasatel l
ite.
NATURALSATELLI TES:Theobj ect sthatar emov i
ngi norbitbynat ureit
selfaroundapl anetare
callednat ur
alsat ell
ites.Forexampl e,mooni sthenaturalsatelli
tefortheear t
h.Theear thisa
satell
itef orthesun.
ARTI FICIALSATELLI TES:Manal sohaspl acedarti
fi
ciall
ysomesat el
li
testomov einorbit
aroundt hedesi redpl anets.Artif
icialsatelli
tesarecarri
edbyr ocketstothepr edetermined
height, af ewhundr edki l
ometer sabov et hesurfaceoft heear th.Atthisheighttheairi
si na
rarefi
edst ateandhenceai rfr
ictioni snegl i
gibl
e.Aft
err eachingt hepredeterminedheight,the
satell
itei sgivenv er yhighhorizont alvel
oci tysothati
tr emainsmov i
nginanear lycir
cularorbi
t.
CLASSI FI CATIONOFARTI FI
CI ALSATELLI TES
1.Ear thr esourcesat ell
i
tes
2.Met eorological satell
it
es
3.Sat ell
itescar r
y i
ngmi crowav esensor s.

USESOFSATELLI
TES
1.Fort
elecommuni
cat
ion

2.Fori
dent
if
icat
ionofpl
aceont
heear
th

3.Toenhancemi
l
itar
yint
ell
i
gence

4.Tormet
eor
ologi
cal
studi
es

5.Sci
ent
if
icst
udyoft
heear
th

6.Forspacesci
ence

Si
ncethelaunchofthef
ir
star
ti
fi
cial
sat
ell
i
tei
n1957,
thousandsofsat
ell
i
tehadbeen
posi
ti
onedtoorbi
ttheeart
h
Componentofsat
ell
i
tes

Basi
cal
l
y,sat
ell
i
teconsi
stsoft
hef
oll
owi
ng:

1.Powergenerat
ionanddistr
ibuti
onsy st
em:mostsatel
l
iteusessol
arener
gyfr
om
thesun.Theyal
socontainrechargeabl
ebat
ter
iestostoreener
gyduri
ngecl
i
pse.

2.Commandanddat
ahandl
ingsyst
em.Itcontai
nsantennaet
orecei
veand
tr
ansmi
tsi
gnal
andcomputer
stoprocessthesesi
gnals

3.Payl
oad:
thi
scont
ainsmeasur
ingi
nstr
ument sandi
magi
ngdev
icesoranyot
her
i
temsrel
ati
ngt
othemissi
onofthesatel
l
ite.

4.Protecti
veshi
eldi
ng:thi
spr
otectthesat
ell
i
teagai
nstt
hecol
d,i
ntenser
adi
ati
on
formt hesun,
coll
isi
onofspacerocks,
…

5.Rocketthr
ust
erssyst
em:thi
sisnecessarysoastomovet
hesatel
l
itebackto
posi
tionwhenther
eisashif
torwhent heneedar
isest
omovethesatel
li
tet
o
anotherl
ocat
ionar
oundtheeart
h.

NI
GERI
ASATELLI
TES

1.NI
GER-
SATI

Thi
swasl
aunchedin2003.I
twasthefi
rstNigeri
asatel
l
itel
aunchedint
ospace.
I
tisami
cro-
sat
ell
it
eofabout100kgusedfordisast
ermonit
oring,
crossbor
der
 monitor
ing,oil
pipel
i
nemoni t
ori
ng,monitori
far
eaforearl
yindi
cat
ionofcoast
er
erosi
on,desert
ifi
cat
ionandpoll
uti
on.Thesatel
l
itewasschedul
edtostayi
norbit
forfi
veafterwhichi
tistobedeorbi
ted.

Niger-SATI ehadprov i
dedinfor
mat i
ononmappi ngofareasinNiger
ia,
meteor ologi
caldata,geologi
cali
nformat i
on,…Ev ersi
ncethelaunchoft heNiger
-
SATI ,therehadbeenpl anstolaunchot herNigeriasat
elli
tessuchast heNiger
-
SATI Iandt heNiger-SATXt oconsoli
dat etheinformat
ionobtainedfrom the
Niger-SATIbyt hetimei twil
lbedeorbit
ed.Ther ehadalsobeenpr oj
ect i
onthat
bythey ear2025, Nigeri
awi l
ll
aunchitsfirstsatel
li
tepr
oducedbyNi ger i
an
engineersandl aunchf r
om Niger
iasoil.

2.NI
COM SATI
.

Thi
si sacommuni cat
ionsatel
l
iteint
endedtoexpandmobi
lephoneandint
ernal
ser
viceinCentr
alAfri
ca.Howev er
,duetothefai
lur
eofi
tsol
arcell
syst
em,the
sat
elli
tehasceasetofuncti
on.

Rocket
Thesear eselfpropell
eddevicet hatobtainsi
tthr
ustbyej ectingastr
eam offastmovi
ng
fl
uidthroughi tr
earend.Thef orceoft hesehotgasesshoot i
ngoutinonedirect
ion
causest herockettomov eintheopposi t
edir
ecti
on.Ar ocketengineisthemost
powerful engi
neforitsweight.Ot herfor
msofpr opul
sion, suchasjet-
poweredand
propell
er-dri
venengines,
cannotmat chit
spower.

Usesofr
ocket

1.Forf
ir
ewor
ksusedi
nent
ert
ainment

2.Forf
ir
ingmi
ssi
l
es

3.Soundingr
ocketf
orcar
ryi
ngsci
ent
if
ici
nst
rumentt
ohi
ghal
ti
tudef
orsci
ent
if
ic
resear
ch

4.Jet
-Assi
sted-
Take-
Off(
JATO)r
ocketf
orai
rl
if
ti
ngheav
yladenpl
anes

5.Li
fe-
sav
ingr
ocketusedf
orcar
ryi
ngl
i
fel
i
ner
opet
ost
randedshi
ps

6.Sat
urnVr
ocketwhi
chcar
ri
eshumant
othemoon

7.Rocketej
ecti
onseatssafel
yboostpi
l
otsoutofjetpl
anesduri
ngemer
genci
es
8.Si
gnalrocketl
aunchedfr
om shi
psindist
resst
osignalforhel
p.
Component
soft
her
ocket

1.Pr
opel
l
antt
ank:
itst
orest
hef
uel
ort
hepr
opel
l
ant

2.Combustionchamber,t
hisi
swherethef
uel
isbur
ntt
opr
oducet
hehotgases
thatgi
vestherocketaf
orwardt
hrust
.

3.Nozzle;
thi
sist
heopeni
ngatt
her
earoft
her
ocketf
rom wher
ethehotgas
escape.

4.Fi
ns:t
hesearel
ocat
edatthesi
deoft
her
ockett
ost
abi
l
izei
tandmai
ntai
nit
di
rect
ionofmot
ioni
nspace.

5.Pay
load:
thi
sdependsont
hef
unct
ionoft
her
ocket
s.