19/03/2024, 09:38 OOAD - Functional Modeling
OOAD - Functional Modeling
Functional Modelling gives the process perspective of the object-oriented analysis
model and an overview of what the system is supposed to do. It defines the function
of the internal processes in the system with the aid of Data Flow Diagrams (DFDs). It
depicts the functional derivation of the data values without indicating how they are
derived when they are computed, or why they need to be computed.
Data Flow Diagrams
Functional Modelling is represented through a hierarchy of DFDs. The DFD is a
graphical representation of a system that shows the inputs to the system, the
processing upon the inputs, the outputs of the system as well as the internal data
stores. DFDs illustrate the series of transformations or computations performed on
the objects or the system, and the external controls and objects that affect the
transformation.
Rumbaugh et al. have defined DFD as, “A data flow diagram is a graph which shows
the flow of data values from their sources in objects through processes that
transform them to their destinations on other objects.”
The four main parts of a DFD are −
Processes,
Data Flows,
Actors, and
Data Stores.
The other parts of a DFD are −
Constraints, and
Control Flows.
Features of a DFD
Processes
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Processes are the computational activities that transform data values. A whole
system can be visualized as a high-level process. A process may be further divided
into smaller components. The lowest-level process may be a simple function.
Representation in DFD − A process is represented as an ellipse with its name
written inside it and contains a fixed number of input and output data values.
Example − The following figure shows a process Compute_HCF_LCM that accepts
two integers as inputs and outputs their HCF (highest common factor) and LCM
(least common multiple).
Data Flows
Data flow represents the flow of data between two processes. It could be between an
actor and a process, or between a data store and a process. A data flow denotes the
value of a data item at some point of the computation. This value is not changed by
the data flow.
Representation in DFD − A data flow is represented by a directed arc or an arrow,
labelled with the name of the data item that it carries.
In the above figure, Integer_a and Integer_b represent the input data flows to the
process, while L.C.M. and H.C.F. are the output data flows.
A data flow may be forked in the following cases −
The output value is sent to several places as shown in the following figure.
Here, the output arrows are unlabelled as they denote the same value.
The data flow contains an aggregate value, and each of the components is
sent to different places as shown in the following figure. Here, each of the
forked components is labelled.
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Actors
Actors are the active objects that interact with the system by either producing data
and inputting them to the system, or consuming data produced by the system. In
other words, actors serve as the sources and the sinks of data.
Representation in DFD − An actor is represented by a rectangle. Actors are
connected to the inputs and outputs and lie on the boundary of the DFD.
Example − The following figure shows the actors, namely, Customer and
Sales_Clerk in a counter sales system.
Data Stores
Data stores are the passive objects that act as a repository of data. Unlike actors,
they cannot perform any operations. They are used to store data and retrieve the
stored data. They represent a data structure, a disk file, or a table in a database.
Representation in DFD − A data store is represented by two parallel lines
containing the name of the data store. Each data store is connected to at least one
process. Input arrows contain information to modify the contents of the data store,
while output arrows contain information retrieved from the data store. When a part
of the information is to be retrieved, the output arrow is labelled. An unlabelled
arrow denotes full data retrieval. A two-way arrow implies both retrieval and update.
Example − The following figure shows a data store, Sales_Record, that stores the
details of all sales. Input to the data store comprises of details of sales such as item,
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billing amount, date, etc. To find the average sales, the process retrieves the sales
records and computes the average.
Constraints
Constraints specify the conditions or restrictions that need to be satisfied over time.
They allow adding new rules or modifying existing ones. Constraints can appear in all
the three models of object-oriented analysis.
In Object Modelling, the constraints define the relationship between objects.
They may also define the relationship between the different values that an
object may take at different times.
In Dynamic Modelling, the constraints define the relationship between the
states and events of different objects.
In Functional Modelling, the constraints define the restrictions on the
transformations and computations.
Representation − A constraint is rendered as a string within braces.
Example − The following figure shows a portion of DFD for computing the salary of
employees of a company that has decided to give incentives to all employees of the
sales department and increment the salary of all employees of the HR department. It
can be seen that the constraint {Dept:Sales} causes incentive to be calculated only
if the department is sales and the constraint {Dept:HR} causes increment to be
computed only if the department is HR.
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Control Flows
A process may be associated with a certain Boolean value and is evaluated only if the
value is true, though it is not a direct input to the process. These Boolean values are
called the control flows.
Representation in DFD − Control flows are represented by a dotted arc from the
process producing the Boolean value to the process controlled by them.
Example − The following figure represents a DFD for arithmetic division. The Divisor
is tested for non-zero. If it is not zero, the control flow OK has a value True and
subsequently the Divide process computes the Quotient and the Remainder.
Developing the DFD Model of a System
In order to develop the DFD model of a system, a hierarchy of DFDs are constructed.
The top-level DFD comprises of a single process and the actors interacting with it.
At each successive lower level, further details are gradually included. A process is
decomposed into sub-processes, the data flows among the sub-processes are
identified, the control flows are determined, and the data stores are defined. While
decomposing a process, the data flow into or out of the process should match the
data flow at the next level of DFD.
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Example − Let us consider a software system, Wholesaler Software, that automates
the transactions of a wholesale shop. The shop sells in bulks and has a clientele
comprising of merchants and retail shop owners. Each customer is asked to register
with his/her particulars and is given a unique customer code, C_Code. Once a sale is
done, the shop registers its details and sends the goods for dispatch. Each year, the
shop distributes Christmas gifts to its customers, which comprise of a silver coin or a
gold coin depending upon the total sales and the decision of the proprietor.
The functional model for the Wholesale Software is given below. The figure below
shows the top-level DFD. It shows the software as a single process and the actors
that interact with it.
The actors in the system are −
Customers
Salesperson
Proprietor
In the next level DFD, as shown in the following figure, the major processes of the
system are identified, the data stores are defined and the interaction of the
processes with the actors, and the data stores are established.
In the system, three processes can be identified, which are −
Register Customers
Process Sales
Ascertain Gifts
The data stores that will be required are −
Customer Details
Sales Details
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Gift Details
The following figure shows the details of the process Register Customer. There are
three processes in it, Verify Details, Generate C_Code, and Update Customer Details.
When the details of the customer are entered, they are verified. If the data is
correct, C_Code is generated and the data store Customer Details is updated.
The following figure shows the expansion of the process Ascertain Gifts. It has two
processes in it, Find Total Sales and Decide Type of Gift Coin. The Find Total Sales
process computes the yearly total sales corresponding to each customer and records
the data. Taking this record and the decision of the proprietor as inputs, the gift
coins are allotted through Decide Type of Gift Coin process.
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Advantages and Disadvantages of DFD
Advantages Disadvantages
DFDs depict the boundaries of a system
DFDs take a long time to create, which
and hence are helpful in portraying the
may not be feasible for practical
relationship between the external objects
purposes.
and the processes within the system.
DFDs do not provide any information
They help the users to have a knowledge about the time-dependent behavior,
about the system. i.e., they do not specify when the
transformations are done.
The graphical representation serves as a They do not throw any light on the
blueprint for the programmers to develop frequency of computations or the
a system. reasons for computations.
The preparation of DFDs is a complex
DFDs provide detailed information about process that needs considerable
the system processes. expertise. Also, it is difficult for a non-
technical person to understand.
The method of preparation is
They are used as a part of the system
subjective and leaves ample scope to
documentation.
be imprecise.
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Relationship between Object, Dynamic, and Functional Models
The Object Model, the Dynamic Model, and the Functional Model are complementary
to each other for a complete Object-Oriented Analysis.
Object modelling develops the static structure of the software system in terms
of objects. Thus it shows the “doers” of a system.
Dynamic Modelling develops the temporal behavior of the objects in response
to external events. It shows the sequences of operations performed on the
objects.
Functional model gives an overview of what the system should do.
Functional Model and Object Model
The four main parts of a Functional Model in terms of object model are −
Process − Processes imply the methods of the objects that need to be
implemented.
Actors − Actors are the objects in the object model.
Data Stores − These are either objects in the object model or attributes of
objects.
Data Flows − Data flows to or from actors represent operations on or by
objects. Data flows to or from data stores represent queries or updates.
Functional Model and Dynamic Model
The dynamic model states when the operations are performed, while the functional
model states how they are performed and which arguments are needed. As actors
are active objects, the dynamic model has to specify when it acts. The data stores
are passive objects and they only respond to updates and queries; therefore the
dynamic model need not specify when they act.
Object Model and Dynamic Model
The dynamic model shows the status of the objects and the operations performed on
the occurrences of events and the subsequent changes in states. The state of the
object as a result of the changes is shown in the object model.
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