Comparative Study of Robotic and Manual Welding in A Low Volume-High Mix

Manufacturing Environment: Case Study of Cross Head

By

Niloufer Sarah

A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Degree of

Master of Science

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In

Manufacturing Engineering Technology

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Minnesota State University, Mankato

Mankato, Minnesota

(July 2024)
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July 2024

Comparative study of robotic and manual welding in a low volume-high mix manufacturing

environment: Case study of Cross Head

Niloufer Sarah

This Thesis has been examined and approved by the following members of the student’s
committee.

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__________________________
Advisor
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________________
Committee Member
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________________________________
Committee Member
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Table of Contents
Welding ...................................................................................................................................................2
Types of Welding: ...............................................................................................................................2
Fusion Welding: ..............................................................................................................................2
Applications of Fusion Welding: ..................................................................................................16
Other Unique forms of welding. .................................................................................................18
Friction Welding ...........................................................................................................................19
Brazing/Soldering Welding (Messler, 1999): ...............................................................................20
Welding Automation:.......................................................................................................................21
Robotic Welding: ...........................................................................................................................22
Robots for welding: .......................................................................................................................25
Co-bots – Collaborative Robots in Welding: ................................................................................27
Time and motion study: ......................................................................................................................29
History of time study: ....................................................................................................................29

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Types of Time and Motion study methodologies: .....................................................................31
Methods - Time Measurement (MTM-1): .................................................................................35
MOST (Maynard Operation Sequence Technique):.................................................................41
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Part Analysis: ...............................................................................................................................47
Cost Analysis: ...............................................................................................................................60
Conclusion: ...........................................................................................................................................63
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Time Study Results: .....................................................................................................................63

Cost analysis results: ...................................................................................................................70
Breakeven Analysis: .....................................................................................................................71
References .............................................................................................................................................74
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Appendix: ..............................................................................................................................................78
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Acknowledgments

I extend my deepest gratitude to my advisor, Dr. Kuldeep Agarwal, for his invaluable
guidance and support. My thanks also go to Dr. Shaheen Ahmed, Dr. Pawan Bhandari and
Professor John Ruprecht for their insights and assistance. A special thank you to Truck
Bodies and Equipment International, and their fabrication team, for their crucial contributions
and collaboration.

I appreciate the collective wisdom and encouragement from my peers and the Department of
Manufacturing Engineering Technology faculty.

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Disclaimer

This thesis paper represents the collaborative efforts of five students, Aditya Suggula,

Mayank Srinivasa Murthy, Niloufer Sarah, Poorna Pragna Mysore and Sai Sasank

Pothamsetti, each investigating different segments of the subject matter. While the theoretical

framework and foundational concepts may appear identical, underscoring our unified

approach and understanding, specific portions of our work, notably the MTM1 analysis and

MOST analysis, were undertaken as joint efforts. These sections were collaboratively

developed to leverage our collective expertise, ensuring a rigorous and comprehensive

examination. Beyond these shared analyses, the calculations and subsequent analyses within

our individual papers are distinct, reflecting the unique contributions and insights of each

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student. This dual approach—combining collaborative and individual efforts—ensures a
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cohesive theoretical foundation while embracing diversity in analytical perspectives and

conclusions across our varied parts.

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COMPARATIVE STUDY OF ROBOTIC AND MANUAL WELDING IN A LOW

VOLUME-HIGH MIX MANUFACTURING ENVIRONMENT: CASE STUDY OF CROSS
HEAD

NILOUFER SARAH

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF SCIENCE IN MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

MINNESOTA STATE UNIVERSITY, MANKATO

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MANKATO, MINNESOTA
[July 2024]
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ABSTRACT

A comparative study of robotic and manual welding in a low volume high mix manufacturing
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environment focusing on a truck body part named the Cross head to see if there is a benefit of
incorporating robotic welding into the production line. By utilizing predetermined time studies such
as Methods Time Measurement 1(MTM-1) and Maynard’s Operation Sequence Technique (MOST) in
conjunction with actual welding time and motion study to see which method of time study can be used
to extrapolate the times of production for higher number of parts. MTM-1 and MOST were used for a
detailed time and motion analysis which were then used to evaluate the efficiency and cost
implications and feasibility of incorporating a co-bot welder to execute the tasks of an experienced
human welder. Necessity to do the cost analysis and comparison of the co-bot is understanding of the
additional cost related to robotic welding such as the fixture costs which include the design cost and
fabrication cost, the programming costs, and the common welding costs. The MTM-1, MOST and
actual welding time study was performed, and it was found that MTM-1 is closer to actual in the case
of Manual welding, and MOST is closer to the actual time in case of Robotic welding. With the
average welding process times used for the cost analysis, the robotic welding breaks even in less than
5 days with the daily working hours being 6. If the robotic welding process is optimized by 5%, the
break-even will be in less than 2 days, and if it is optimized by 10%, the break-even will be less than a
day.
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COMPARATIVE STUDY OF ROBOTIC AND MANUAL WELDING IN A LOW

VOLUME-HIGH MIX MANUFACTURING ENVIRONMENT: CASE STUDY OF CROSS

HEAD

In the manufacturing sector, a substantial volume of components undergoes welding,

stamping, and machining across diverse industries, including companies like TBEI, which

specializes in Truck Bodies and Equipment. This equipment includes heavy lifting hooks,

dumper buckets, and lifting rings designed to move hefty loads. Within the manufacturing

process, particularly during welding, a pivotal question arises regarding the potential for

automation or robotization on the shop floor. While many shop floor activities, such as

inventory control and CNC machining, are commonly automated, the welding process,

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especially manual arc welding for design-critical equipment in smaller industries, remains
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largely untouched by automation or robotics, unlike the prevalent use of spot-welding

automation in more prominent automotive sectors.

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This study addresses this disparity by conducting a time-motion analysis of skilled

human welders. The ultimate goal is to automate the manual arc welding process under low
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volume, high mix conditions using the Cross Head weld procedure as a subject for the study

and analysis.
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Welding
Welding is a process of joining materials, and it can be broadly categorized into three

groups: fusion welding, pressure welding, and brazing/soldering. Each group consists of

various welding methods, chosen based on factors like the materials being joined and the

desired functionality of the final product. (Giachino, (1973).)

Types of Welding:
1. Fusion Welding:
Fusion welding involves melting the base materials or combining them with a

welding rod. This category includes methods like arc welding, electron beam, gas,

and laser welding. These methods use different energy sources, such as electrical,

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chemical, or light, to create the necessary heat for melting and joining.

2. Brazing/Soldering:
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In brazing/soldering, a filler material (brazing paste) is applied to the joining

sections. This category includes induction heating brazing, torch brazing (flame
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brazing), light beam, and laser brazing. The energy sources for these methods can

be electrical, chemical, or light.

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Fusion Welding:
Fusion welding, a term frequently used but not universally understood, entails heating

two or more objects and joining them without external pressure. (Giachino, (1973).)

Depending on the job requirements, filler materials may be incorporated during fusion

welding. This distinguishes fusion welding from non-fusion welding, which utilizes lower

heat levels, ensuring the base metal does not melt. Examples of non-fusion welding include

soldering, pressure welding, and brazing.

Before delving into fusion welding, it is essential to understand welding as a

manufacturing process (KEYENCE America, n.d.). Recent research by the American

Welding Society highlights the substantial impact of welding, which contributes to 50% of
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the gross domestic product in the United States. Welding involves utilizing heat to attach two

or more similar or non-identical items, with the use of a filler optional based on the nature of

the work.

Types of Fusion Welding. Fusion welding, by definition, involves joining heat to

connect two edges of either the same or different materials. The heated portions melt and,

upon cooling, fuse. In cases of a significant gap between the two pieces, filler material may

be employed. The heating process introduces a heat-affected zone within the materials,

subjecting the base material to various stages.

Fusion welding occurs when the molten components of the base material mix with the

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molten filler. This process employs heat to produce an exterior junction at the weld point or

melt the material in the joining zone. The FC-120 Gasless Flux Cored Wire Inverter Welding
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Machine is recognized as a top tool for executing various forms of fusion welding.

Fusion welding is Categorized based on the heat source. Common fusion welding
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styles include ACR welding and various forms of fusion arc welding (Shielded Metal Arc

Welding, Tungsten Inert Gas Welding, Metal Gas Arc Welding, Submerged Arc Welding,
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Plasma Arc Welding, and Flux Cored Arc Welding). Gas welding, high-energy welding

(Electron Beam Welding and Laser Welding), resistance welding (for seams and spot

resistance welding), and friction welding (rotary, spot, linear, and stir friction welding) are

also prevalent.

Arc Welding.

• Overview: Arc welding stands out as the most popular and widely used type of

fusion welding. It relies on an electric arc to join two or more objects of the same

or similar materials.

• Process: The electric arc generated in arc welding can reach temperatures of up to

6,000 degrees Fahrenheit, making it capable of melting even the toughest metals.
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This process involves creating a molten pool at the welding point, allowing the

objects to fuse seamlessly.

• Special Features: Arc welding is not confined to conventional settings; it can be

performed underwater, making it particularly advantageous for offshore welding

projects where traditional welding methods might face challenges.

Laser Welding.

• Laser welding is a technique that employs a lens to focus light with high

directivity and convergence, creating a high-energy density beam utilized as the

primary heat source.

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• By manipulating the laser beam output, penetration welding with a narrow width

compared to the depth becomes feasible. Additionally, brazing and soldering can
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be achieved by melting and joining an alloy with a lower melting point than the

base material.
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• Notable advancements in laser output efficiency underscore the significance of

laser welding in the future of manufacturing. This segment provides an overview

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of the common technologies employed in laser welding.

Principles of laser welding.

• Modulating the intensity and spot size of the laser beam emitted by a laser

processing machine facilitates the welding and engraving of letters and patterns on

the surface of base materials and cutting operations.

• In laser welding, a significantly stronger laser beam than those used in other

processes is the heat source for melting and joining base materials. Employing a

high-power output laser necessitates precise control over the beam convergence

properties, including wavelength and energy density, and laser beam qualities,

such as intensity and beam mode. Despite these requirements, laser welding
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proves versatile, accommodating delicate applications while excelling in joining

both thick and thin plates.

Induction Welding.

• Overview: Induction welding distinguishes itself by relying on a unique principle

that does not involve direct contact between an object's surface and the heat

source.

• Process: Instead of direct contact, a wrapped coil is employed to create a magnetic

field, which, in turn, induces heat in the metal. The magnetic field rapidly heats

the metal surfaces, causing them to melt and fuse.

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Advantages: Induction welding offers rapid heating and minimal distortion,

making it suitable for specific applications with critical precision and efficiency.
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Oxyfuel Welding.
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• Overview: Oxyfuel welding is a chemical-based fusion welding process that

utilizes a flame to heat and join surfaces, with oxygen as the primary fuel source.
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• Process: The fundamental principle is the reliance on oxygen to fuel the fire,

creating a hot flame exceeding 4,500 degrees Fahrenheit. This intense heat is

applied to the surfaces, allowing them to reach the molten state and fuse.

• Versatility: Oxyfuel welding is versatile and finds application in various

industries, particularly where a portable and easily controllable heat source is

required.

Solid Reactant Welding.

• Overview: Solid reactant welding is a fusion welding type that leverages chemical

reactions with specific materials to achieve the joining process.

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• Process: Certain compounds can generate heat when mixed. Solid reactant

welding utilizes this principle, initiating chemical reactions that produce the

required heat to join two or more objects.

• Applications: This type of fusion welding is applied in scenarios where chemical

reactions can be harnessed for welding purposes, offering a unique approach to

joining materials.

Non-Consumable (Non-Fusible) Electrode Type.

TIG Welding (Tungsten Inert Gas Welding). TIG welding, also known as Gas

Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW), falls under the non-consumable electrode category. TIG

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(Tungsten Inert Gas) welding employs an inert gas in the welding process. This particular arc

welding method is characterized by its spark-free nature and is suitable for welding various
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metals, including stainless steel, aluminum, and iron. Non-consumable tungsten is the

discharge electrode, while an inert gas such as argon or helium acts as the shielding gas. The
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process initiates an arc within the inert gas, utilizing the generated arc heat to melt and weld

the base material. Despite the use of filler material, instances of spatter are minimal due to the
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inert gas's comprehensive coverage of the weld area, ensuring a stable arc.
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Figure 1

TIG welding (Messler, 1999)

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A semi-automatic TIG welding machine comprises essential components, including

the welding power supply, welding torch, and a gas cylinder with a gas flow controller.
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Additional instruments may be incorporated, especially when using a water-cooled torch or
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filler material in wire form.

The choice of electric current polarity (positive or negative) depends on the base

material, necessitating a controller in the welding power supply to select the appropriate
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polarity accordingly. (Messler, 1999)

The welding process in TIG welding involves various classifications based on factors

such as AC or DC power usage, the application of pulse or non-pulse current, and whether a

filler wire is utilized.

The choice of AC or DC is contingent upon the base material being used.

Additionally, the option of pulse or non-pulse current is available. Pulse TIG welding, for

instance, involves the alternating change of welding current at a constant frequency between

pulse current and base current. This results in periodic melting of the base material during the

pulse current and subsequent cooling during the base current, creating weld spots resembling
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a string of beads. Furthermore, TIG welding can be categorized into two types based on a

filler wire: cold and hot. Cold wire welding utilizes a standard filler wire, while hot wire

welding preheats the wire by passing a current through it. Hotwire welding offers the

advantage of increasing the deposition rate per unit time, allowing for quicker completion of

the welding process. This addresses the time-consuming aspect of TIG welding, where high-

quality welds are achieved but may take longer due to the gradual melting of the required

filler material.

Table 1

Weld parameters for TIG welding

Output current Pulse Frequency

Direct current Yes

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Low frequency (0.5 Hz to 20
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(DC) Hz)

Medium frequency (20 Hz to

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500 Hz)

High frequency (20 kHz or

higher)
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No -

Alternate Yes Low frequency (0.5 Hz to 20

current (AC) Hz)

Medium frequency (20 Hz to

500 Hz)

No
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Key Features of TIG Welding include:

• Precision Welding: TIG welding allows for precise and intricate welds, making it

suitable for applications where accuracy is crucial.

• Clean Welds: Using inert gas prevents atmospheric contamination, producing clean

and high-quality welds.

• Versatility: TIG welding applies to various materials, including exotic metals and thin

sheets.

Plasma Welding.
• Plasma welding is another non-consumable electrode type that shares similarities

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with TIG welding but utilizes a more focused plasma arc. Characteristics of

plasma welding include:

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• Increased Energy Density: The focused plasma arc increases energy density,
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allowing deeper penetration into the material.

• Enhanced Welding Speed: Plasma welding is known for its increased welding
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speed, contributing to efficiency in various applications.

• Narrower Heat-Affected Zone: The concentrated heat minimizes the size of the

heat-affected zone, reducing potential distortions.

Consumable (Fusible) Electrode Type.

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW). Shielded Metal Arc Welding, commonly

known as stick welding, is a consumable electrode type where a coated electrode is used.

Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) illustrates consumable (fusible) electrode-type arc

welding. It employs a metal rod (known as a shielded metal arc welding rod) crafted from the

same material as the base material, serving as the electrode. The arc between the electrode's

core wire and the base material functions as the heat source.
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The resulting molten metal is enveloped by the gas and glass-like slag produced from

the shield of the core wire. This process boasts the advantage of being less susceptible to

interference from wind or other external disturbances at the worksite due to the shielding

provided by the gas and slag. Additionally, a shielding tube forms at the tip of the welding

rod. SMAW has a rich history. It is often performed manually and earned the moniker manual

arc welding. While its prevalence has diminished with the proliferation of automatic or semi-

automatic MAG welding machines utilizing carbon dioxide (CO2), SMAW continues to find

applications owing to its merits of facilitating quick and straightforward welding indoors and

outdoors, coupled with relatively inexpensive equipment. (Messler, 1999)

Figure 2

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Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) (Messler, 1999)
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Features of SMAW include:

• Versatility: SMAW is versatile and can be applied to various materials and joint

configurations.

• Portability: It is suitable for outdoor and remote applications, offering portability and ease

of use.
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• Cost-Effective: SMAW equipment is generally more affordable, making it a cost-effective

choice for specific applications.

MAG Welding (Metal Active Gas Welding). Metal Active Gas Welding, or MAG

welding, is a consumable electrode type that employs a continuously fed wire and a shielding

gas with active components. MAG (Metal Active Gas) welding, or CO2 arc welding or CO2

welding, is a form of arc welding that employs an active gas, typically carbon dioxide (CO2)

or a gas mixture of argon and CO2. Primarily utilized for automatic or semi-automatic

welding of ferrous metals, MAG welding is unsuitable for nonferrous metals like aluminum

due to the chemical reactions involving CO2.

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In automatic or semi-automatic MAG welding, a coiled welding wire is an electrode,

replacing the welding rod used in manual shielded metal arc welding. The coiled wire is
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connected to the wire feed unit and automatically directed to the torch tip by a feed roller

driven by an electric motor. Upon passing through the contact tip, the wire is energized.
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The welding process involves striking an arc between the wire and the base material.

This simultaneous melting of the wire and base material creates a weld. Throughout this
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process, shielding gas is introduced through a nozzle into the weld area and its surroundings,

forming a protective shield around the arc and weld pool, preventing exposure to the

atmosphere. CO2 gas, a gas mix of argon and CO2, or a mix of argon with a small percentage

of oxygen can be used as the shielding gas. Compared to shielded metal arc welding, MAG

welding boasts a faster deposition rate, where the electrode transforms into weld metal. This

results in increased work efficiency, which is attributed to deep penetration into the base

material. Other notable advantages include high-quality weld metal and the ability to achieve

automatic welding by installing the welding torch on a robot.

A semi-automatic MAG welding machine mainly consists of the following:

• Welding power supply

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• Wire feed unit

• Welding torch

• Gas cylinder

The feed unit must feed the wire at a constant speed. Consequently, a constant-voltage

characteristic power supply is generally used for the welding power supply. The wire feed

unit is a continuous speed feeding type.

Figure 3

Flow chart on the different MAG welding techniques.

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Key attributes include:

• High Productivity: MAG welding offers high deposition rates, making it suitable for rapid

welding applications.

• Automated Processes: MAG welding is commonly used in automated systems, enhancing

efficiency and precision.

• Adaptability: It is suitable for various materials and thicknesses, providing versatility in

welding processes.

MIG Welding (Metal Inert Gas Welding). MIG welding, or Gas Metal Arc Welding

(GMAW), is similar to MAG welding but typically uses inert gases for shielding. MIG

(Metal Inert Gas) welding is another arc welding method. Similar to TIG welding, it utilizes
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an inert gas as a shielding gas. MIG welding belongs to the consumable electrode type,

involving a discharge electrode that melts during welding. (Understanding the Fusion

Welding Process - Arc Machines, n.d.)

This welding technique is commonly employed for joining stainless steel or

aluminum alloy workpieces, and the choice of shielding gas depends on the specific metal to

be welded. The electrode in MIG welding is a coiled welding wire, connected to the wire feed

unit, which automatically moves to the torch tip through a feed roller powered by an electric

motor. The wire is energized upon passing through the contact tip, initiating an arc between

the wire and the base material. Simultaneously melting the wire and base material, this

process forms the weld. Throughout the operation, shielding gas is delivered through a nozzle

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into the weld area and its surroundings to create a protective shield around the arc and weld
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pool, preventing exposure to the atmosphere.
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Figure 4

MIG Welding. (Messler, 1999)

Table 2

Classification of MIG Welding.

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Classification of MIG Pulse Welding method
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welding

Direct current (DC) No Short-arc MIG welding

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Spray MIG welding

Large-current MIG welding

Yes Pulse MIG welding

Low-frequency superimposed pulse MIG

welding.

Alternate current (AC) Yes AC pulse MIG welding

Low-frequency superimposed AC pulse MIG

welding.

DC + AC Yes AC/DC composite pulse MIG welding

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Notable features of MIG welding include

• Ease of Use: MIG welding is known for its user-friendly nature, making it suitable for

beginners and manual applications.

• High Productivity: The continuous wire feeding mechanism contributes to high

productivity in various welding processes.

• Reduced Cleanup: MIG welding minimizes spatter and fumes, reducing the need for

extensive post-weld cleanup.

Electro gas Arc Welding (EGW). Electro-gas Arc Welding is a consumable electrode

type that involves welding in a vertical position with a continuously fed consumable

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electrode and a gas shield. The Electro gas arc welding (EGW)technique was developed to

facilitate efficient vertical position welding of thick plates with stable penetration. The
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primary shielding gas employed in EGW is commonly CO2, although variations using argon

gas, gas mixes of argon and CO2, oxygen, or helium are also prevalent. Flux-cored wires,
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which generate slag to form a clean bead, are predominantly utilized for welding wire,

although solid wires find application in specific cases. The welding power supply is typically
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a DC constant-voltage or constant-current (drooping) characteristic power supply.

During the process, the weld pool is enclosed by the end of the base material, a copper

shoe, and a fire-resistant backing. Vertical position welding is executed upwards, preventing

the dripping of molten metal and enabling the welding of a thick plate in a single pass (one

operation). Noteworthy advantages include a rapid deposition rate facilitated by a large

current, high efficiency, and a relatively substantial margin for groove accuracy due to

minimal angular distortion.

EGW finds application in welding vertical butt joints of various products, including ship's

shell plates, bridges, storage tanks, and pressure vessels.

Characteristics of EGW include:

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• Vertical Welding: EGW is particularly effective for vertical welding of thick plates,

providing high-quality welds.

• High Deposition Rates: The process allows for high deposition rates, improving

efficiency in specific applications.

• Reduced Distortion: Electro-gas arc welding reduces distortion due to its vertical welding

orientation.

Applications of Fusion Welding:

Fusion welding finds extensive applications in constructing significant structures like

airplanes, bridges, ships, pressure tanks, and welded pipes. Its versatility allows the merging

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of various materials, regardless of thickness, owing to the substantial heat levels generated

during the process.

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Fusion Welding in Different Materials:
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• Metal Joining: Fusion welding involves intense heat to unite two or more metal pieces.

Unlike soldering, fusion welding melts the base metal and may require a filler material to

create a junction. As the molten components cool, they come together to produce a weld
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bead, resulting in a final product more durable than the starting material.

• Plastics Joining: Fusion welding is applicable in joining polymers, whereas solvent

welding employs adhesives. The process involves washing and drying surfaces, applying

pressure and heat to the molten component, and finally cooling the molten components to

solidify the link between the two polymers.

• Wood Materials Joining: Fusion welding for wood components requires heat production

through mechanical friction. This involves subjecting materials to high pressure, followed

by linear friction, generating heat to fuse two wooden components. The process is simple,

eliminating the need for nails or adhesive, and results in a more robust finished product

while preserving the original design.

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Pros and Cons of Fusion Welding.

Pros:

• Use of Filler Material: Fusion welding allows the use of filler material when

joining two wide sections.

• No External Pressure: The absence of external pressure preserves the initial

shape of the welded components.

• Minimal Edge Design and Preparation: Fusion welding does not necessarily

require intricate edge design and preparation, simplifying the process.

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• Durable Welded Joints: Fusion welding produces robust joints between parent

materials.
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• Suitable for Industrial Processes: Fusion welding's speed and simplicity make

it well-suited for various industrial applications.

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Cons:

• Challenges with Dissimilar Materials: Joining two materials with different

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melting points can be challenging.

• Stress and Damage: Fusion welding may induce stress and damage on the

welded component due to the need for fusion and solidification.

• Alteration of Parent Material: The original structure of the parent material

changes the heating process.

• Heat-Affected Zone Weakness: The linked parts create a heat-affected zone,

generally considered the weakest point in the entire structure.

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Other Unique forms of welding.

• Electron Beam (light beam) Welding:

• Pressure Welding

• Friction welding

Electron Beam Welding. Electron beam (EB) welding relies on the emission of

electrons in a vacuum tube or Braun tube. This welding method is primarily executed in a

vacuum, known as high-vacuum welding. It stands out for its ability to minimize distortion

across various applications, accommodating thick to thin plates and intricate welding

requirements. In recent advancements, electron beam welding machines have been designed

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to operate effectively without a perfect vacuum (low-vacuum welding machines) or by

incorporating a moving electron gun (moving electron gun welding machines), broadening
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the scope of potential applications.

Applications for electron beam welding include ship's shell plates, bridges, storage
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tanks, aircraft parts, and electronic components. In the realm of electronic components, a

process known as electron beam sealing is employed to seal crystal oscillators that require
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joining in a vacuum. This involves vacuum brazing sealing, achieved by melting the filler

material between a metal lid and a ceramic package through heat conduction induced by the

electron beam. (Sterkenburg, 2021)

Pressure Welding: Pressure welding is a fundamental technique in metal joining

processes. Unlike fusion welding, where heat is the primary agent, pressure welding requires

force to create a solid and durable bond between materials. This process is extensively used

in various industries due to its efficiency, precision, and versatility.

Types of Pressure Welding:

• Cold Welding

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