PETE 343
PETROLEUM RESERVOIR
ENGINEERING - I
SUMMARY
Fall 2023 - 2024 Chapter-11
CHAPTER 1
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Using the definition of reservoir engineering made by L.P.
Dake, reservoir engineering:
Estimates the original oil in place
Estimates recovery factor
Attaches a time scale to recovery
•Dake,L.P., (1978) Fundamentals of Reservoir Engineering, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam.
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CHAPTER 2
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Review of rock properties
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• Porosity
– A measure of the void space in a rock
Vp
f=
Vb
• Compressibility
– A measure of the change in volume that a substance undergoes
during a change in pressure
1 𝜕𝑉
𝐶=−
𝑉 𝜕𝑝
• Fluid Saturation
– A measure of the gross fluid distribution within a rock
So + Sg + Sw = 1.0
• Permeability
Q k ΔP
– A measure of the fluid transmissivity of a rock =−
A μ L
Parlaktuna & Sınayuç PETE 343 Fall 2023 – 2024
Wettability
• Wettability is the preference of a liquid to be in contact with a solid
surrounded by another fluid
Parlaktuna & Sınayuç PETE 343 Fall 2023 – 2024
Capillary Pressure
• Capillary pressure (Pc) is the amount of extra pressure required to force the
nonwetting phase to displace the wetting phase in the capillary.
For a water-wet oil reservoir
2 wo cos
Pc = = Po − Pw
r
Parlaktuna & Sınayuç PETE 343 Fall 2023 – 2024
Relative Permeability
Effective permeability Relative permeability
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Review of Fluid Properties
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Solution Gas-Oil Ratio, Rs
• The quantity of gas dissolved in an
oil at reservoir conditions is called
solution gas-oil ratio.
• Solution gas-oil ratio is the
amount of gas that evolves from
the oil as the oil is transported
from the reservoir to surface
conditions.
• This ratio is defined in terms of the
quantities of gas and oil which
appear at the surface during
production.
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 (𝑆𝐶𝐹)
𝑅𝑠 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑐𝑘 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 (𝑆𝑇𝐵)
Parlaktuna & Sınayuç PETE 343 Fall 2023 – 2024
Oil Formation Volume Factor, Bo
The volume of liquid that enters the stock tank at the surface is less
than the volume of liquid which leaves the reservoir due to
• Pressure reduction causes slight expansion of remaining oil ⊕
• Contraction of the oil due to the reduction of temperature ⊖
• Evolution of gas from liquid causes a rather large decrease in the
volume of liquid
The change in liquid volume due to these 3 factors is expressed in
terms of formation volume factor of oil which is defined as the volume
of reservoir liquid required to produce 1 STB of oil.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑖𝑙 + 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 𝑇 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃 (𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑣𝑜𝑙)
𝐵𝑜 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑎𝑡 𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑐𝑘 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 (𝑆𝑇 𝑣𝑜𝑙)
Parlaktuna & Sınayuç PETE 343 Fall 2023 – 2024
Oil Formation Volume Factor, Bo
• As the pressure in the reservoir reducing below the initial reservoir
pressure Pi, the oil volume increases due to expansion of liquid in the
reservoir. Therefore Bo increases up to Pb.
• Further reduction of reservoir pressure results in evolution of gas in the
pore spaces of the reservoir. The liquid remaining in the reservoir has a
smaller volume and consequently Bo decreases.
• When Pr → Patm, Bo → 1.
Yet, temperature reduction
to 60F is necessary to bring
Bo exactly to 1.
Parlaktuna & Sınayuç PETE 343 Fall 2023 – 2024
Gas Formation Volume Factor, Bg
• Gas formation volume factor is
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 𝑇 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃 (𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑣𝑜𝑙)
𝐵𝑔 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 (𝑆 𝑣𝑜𝑙)
Parlaktuna & Sınayuç PETE 343 Fall 2023 – 2024
Crude Oil Viscosity, o
The effect of reservoir pressure on the viscosity of the reservoir oil at
constant reservoir temperature:
Pr > Pb initially:
As Pr decreases µo decreases
due to expansion of the oil.
At Pb gas is liberated so µo starts
to increase. (i.e. lighter HCs
start to leave the solution).
As an oil reservoir is depleted, not only does the production decreases
due to decrease in pressure available to drive the oil to the well, but
also because the µo has increased.
A 10-fold variation between the viscosity at the bubble-point pressure
and the viscosity at very low pressure is common.
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CHAPTER 3
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DRIVE MECHANISMS
PRIMARY RECOVERY
Primary recovery is based on natural energy of the
reservoir which are known as:
• depletion drive,
• water drive,
• compaction drive and
• gravity drive.
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DEPLETION DRIVE RESERVOIRS
A depletion type reservoir is a hydrocarbon reservoir which is not
in contact with a large body of water reservoir (aquifer).
They are also known as volumetric reservoirs
In this type of reservoirs the energy comes from the expansion of
the fluids in the reservoir (oil, water and gas) as well as its
associated pore space.
The two types of depletion drives are:
• Dissolved-gas drives (solution-gas drive) and
• Gas-cap drives.
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CHAPTER 4
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VOLUMETRIC CALCULATIONS
The following equation is used in the volumetric calculation of
reserves
N 1
STOIIP = Vb (1 − S w )
G Bo
Vb = bulk volume of the reservoir rock, m3
N/G = net/gross ratio of formation thickness, fraction
= porosity, fraction
Sw = water saturation, fraction
Bo = oil formation volume factor, rm3/STm3
STOIIP = stock-tank oil initially in place, STm3
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CHAPTER 5
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RESERVE CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE
WPC Definitions
Although definitions and
use vary,
• Proven reserves (1P)
represents a 90 %
certainty level;
• Proven + probable (2P), a
50 % certainty level; and
• Proven + probable +
possible (3P), a 10 %
certainty level
“Classification and Nomenclature Systems for Petroleum and Petroleum Reserves”,
1933 and 1983 Study Group report, 11th World Petroleum Congress, London (1984).
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CHAPTER 6
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PROBABILITY DENSITY FUNCTIONS
Mode < Mean
Positive skew
Mode > Mean
Negative skew
Normal (Gausssian) Skewed.
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EXPECTATION CURVE
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@RISK
https://www.palisade.com/risk/default.asp
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they are to occur.
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ones to avoid—critical insight in today’s uncertain world.
15 DAYS FREE TRIAL
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CHAPTER 7
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MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATION
Cross section of a combination drive reservoir.
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MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATION
Volume changes in the reservoir associated with a finite pressure drop ∆p;
(a) volumes at initial pressure, (b) at the reduced pressure
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GENERAL MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATION
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THE MATERIAL BALANCE EXPRESSED AS LINEAR EQUATION
Havlena and Odeh proposed the following definitions to express
the material balance equation as linear equation for different
cases
Underground withdrawal:
Expansion of the oil and its originally dissolved gas:
Expansion of the gas-cap gas:
Expansion of the water and pore volume reduction:
- Havlena, D. and Odeh, A.S., 1963. The Material Balance as an Equation of a Straight Line. J.Pet.Tech. August: 896-900. Trans., AIME, 228.
- Havlena, D. and Odeh, A.S., 1964. The Material Balance as an Equation of a Straight Line. Part II - Field Cases. J.Pet.Tech. July: 815-822.
Trans., AIME., 231.
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THE MATERIAL BALANCE EXPRESSED AS LINEAR EQUATION
Using these terms MBE can be written as:
- Havlena, D. and Odeh, A.S., 1963. The Material Balance as an Equation of a Straight Line. J.Pet.Tech. August: 896-900. Trans., AIME, 228.
- Havlena, D. and Odeh, A.S., 1964. The Material Balance as an Equation of a Straight Line. Part II - Field Cases. J.Pet.Tech. July: 815-822.
Trans., AIME., 231.
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CHAPTER 8
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INSTANTANEOUS (PRODUCING) GAS-OIL RATIO
For a radial system in terms of Darcy’s law:
2𝜋𝑘𝑒,𝑔 ∆𝑃 2𝜋𝑘𝑒,𝑜 ∆𝑃
𝑞𝑔 = 𝑞𝑜 = 𝑟
𝜇𝑔
𝑟
𝑙𝑛𝑟 𝑒 𝜇𝑜 𝑙𝑛𝑟 𝑒
𝑤 𝑤
𝑞𝑔
𝐵𝑔
𝑅= 𝑞𝑜 + 𝑅𝑠
𝐵𝑜
𝑘𝑒,𝑔 𝐵𝑜 𝜇𝑜
𝑅= + 𝑅𝑠
𝑘𝑒,𝑜 𝐵𝑔 𝜇𝑔
Parlaktuna & Sınayuç PETE 343 Fall 2023 – 2024 34
OIL SATURATION EQUATION
The oil saturation equation provides an average oil
saturation for a reservoir at any time
𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑆𝑜 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑁 − 𝑁𝑝 𝐵𝑜
𝑁𝐵𝑜𝑏
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 =
1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖
So = oil saturation at any time
Swi = connate water saturation
N = the oil in place at the bubble point
Np = the cumulative oil production below the bubble point
𝑁 − 𝑁𝑝 𝐵𝑜 𝑁𝑝 𝐵𝑜
𝑆𝑜 = = 1 − 1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖
𝑁𝐵𝑜𝑏 Τ 1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖 𝑁 𝐵𝑜𝑏
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TARNER METHOD
REDUCED MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATION
𝑁𝑝 𝐵𝑜 + 𝑁𝑝 𝑅𝑃 − 𝑁𝑝 𝑅𝑠 𝐵𝑔 = 𝑁 𝐵𝑜 − 𝐵𝑜𝑏 + 𝑅𝑠𝑖 − 𝑅𝑠 𝐵𝑔
Rearrange, solve for 𝑁𝑝 𝑅𝑃
𝑁 𝐵𝑜 − 𝐵𝑜𝑏 + 𝑅𝑠𝑖 − 𝑅𝑠 𝐵𝑔 𝑁𝑝 𝐵𝑜 − 𝑅𝑠 𝐵𝑔
𝑁𝑝 𝑅𝑃 = − = 𝐺𝑝
𝐵𝑔 𝐵𝑔
Divide each term by N
𝐺𝑝 𝐵𝑜 − 𝐵𝑜𝑏 + 𝑅𝑠𝑖 − 𝑅𝑠 𝐵𝑔 𝑁𝑝 𝐵𝑜 − 𝑅𝑠 𝐵𝑔
= −
𝑁 𝐵𝑔 𝑁 𝐵𝑔
Again two unknowns, Np and Gp.
The solution strategy is of a trial and error approach using two independent equations:
Producing GOR and MBE
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TARNER METHOD
Write MBE for gas production at two different pressure levels Pj and PJ+1
and get their difference
𝐺𝑝,𝑗+1 𝐺𝑝,𝑗 𝐵𝑜 − 𝐵𝑜𝑏 + 𝑅𝑠𝑖 − 𝑅𝑠 𝐵𝑔 𝐵𝑜 − 𝐵𝑜𝑏 + 𝑅𝑠𝑖 − 𝑅𝑠 𝐵𝑔
− = −
𝑁 𝑁 𝐵𝑔 𝐵𝑔
𝑗+1 𝑗
𝑁𝑝 𝐵𝑜 − 𝑅𝑠 𝐵𝑔 𝑁𝑝 𝐵𝑜 − 𝑅𝑠 𝐵𝑔
− +
𝑁 𝐵𝑔 𝑁 𝐵𝑔
𝐽+1 𝐽
Calculate the same difference from instantaneous gas-oil ratio equation
𝐺𝑝,𝑗+1 𝐺𝑝,𝑗 𝑁𝑝 𝑁𝑝
− = 𝑅ത −
𝑁 𝑁 𝑁 𝑗+1 𝑁𝑗
𝑁𝑝
Check the equality of incremental gas production by assuming a fractional oil recovery, 𝑁 𝑗+1
Repeat the procedure until the equality is achieved.
Tarner, J. “How Different Size Gas Caps and Pressure Maintenance Programs Affect Amount of Recoverable Oil”,
Oil Weekly, June 2, 1944, No:2, 32 – 34.
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CHAPTER 9
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The van Everdingen and Hurst Edge-Water Drive Model
Consider a circular reservoir of radius ro in a horizontal, circular
aquifer of radius re, which is uniform thickness, permeability, and
porosity, and in rock and water compressibilities.
van Everdingen, A.F., Hurst, W., "The Application of the Laplace Transformation to Flow Problems in Reservoirs",
Trans. AIME (1949), 186, 305.
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The van Everdingen and Hurst Edge-Water Drive Model
The radial diffusivity equation expresses the relationship between
pressure, radius, and time for a radial system, where the driving
potential of the system is the water expandability and rock
compressibility:
𝜕 2 𝑃 1 𝜕𝑃 ∅𝜇𝐶 𝜕𝑃
2
+ =
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑘 𝜕𝑡
k = average aquifer permeability, D;
t = time, sec;
φ = aquifer porosity, fraction;
μ = water viscosity, cP;
ct = aquifer compressibility, 1/atm;
r = radius, cm;
P = pressure, atm.
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The van Everdingen and Hurst Edge-Water Drive Model
The dimensionless water influx WeD (tD) is frequently presented in
tabular form as a function of tD for a range of ratios of the aquifer to
reservoir radius reD = re/ro, for radial aquifers.
WeD WeD WeD WeD WeD WeD WeD WeD WeD WeD WeD WeD WeD
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The van Everdingen and Hurst Edge-Water Drive Model
The cumulative water influx We at some arbitrary time T, which
corresponds to the nth time step, is obtained by the superposition
∆𝑃0 𝑊𝑒𝐷 𝑇𝐷 + ∆𝑃1 𝑊𝑒𝐷 𝑇𝐷 − 𝑡𝐷1 + ∆𝑃2 𝑊𝑒𝐷 𝑇𝐷 − 𝑡𝐷2
𝑊𝑒 𝑇 = 𝑈
+ … … … … … ∆𝑃𝑛−1 𝑊𝑒𝐷 𝑇𝐷 − 𝑡𝐷𝑛−1
Parlaktuna & Sınayuç PETE 343 Fall 2023 – 2024 42
The Approximate Water Influx Theory of Fetkovich for Finite Aquifers
In general for the nth time period
𝑊𝑒𝑖 𝐽𝑃𝑖 ∆𝑡𝑛
− 𝑊
∆𝑊𝑒𝑛 = 𝑃𝑎,𝑛−1 − 𝑃𝑛 1 − 𝑒 𝑒𝑖
𝑃𝑖
σ𝑛−1
𝐽=1 ∆𝑊𝑒𝑗
𝑃𝑎,𝑛−1 = 𝑃𝑖 1 − 𝑊𝑒𝑖
𝑃𝑛−1 + 𝑃𝑛
𝑃𝑛 = = 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
2
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CHAPTER 10
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CLASSIFICATION OF DECLINE CURVES
There are three commonly recognized types of decline curves.
Each of these has a separate mathematical form that is related to the
second factor characterizing a decline curve, that is, the curvature.
These types are referred to as:
1. Constant-percentage decline.
2. Harmonic decline.
3. Hyperbolic decline.
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CLASSIFICATION OF DECLINE CURVES
Each type of decline curve has a different curvature.
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