CHAPTER VI

The Basic Doctrines o f the

East M ountain Teaching

7. Problems in the Study o f the East M ountain Teaching

In Part One we saw that there was no clear line of demarcation between
the period known as the East Mountain Teaching, i.e., the careers of T^o-
hsin and Hung-jen, and that known as the Northern School, i.e., the
careers of Shen-hsiu and his successors. Although they appear to be two
separate phases of early Ch*an history, the former is known almost solely
through the texts of the latter. The same i$ true of the religious doctrines
of the two phases: No matter how hard we might try to reconstruct the
actual doctrines of l^o-hsin and Hung-jen, their “East Mountain Teach-
ing” can only be approached through texts produced and/or edited dur-
ing the later “Northern School” phase.
There are only a very few datable clues to the teachings of Ch'an dur-
ing the seventh century:

1. The HKSC refers to Tao-hsinfs teaching as the ^expedient means of

entering the Path” and depicts him as a devotee of the
Perfection o f W isdom ^
2. The Chin-kang san-mei ching (Sutra o f the Adamantine Samddhi),
a text probably written in Korea sometime between 645 and about 665,
mentions both Bodhidharma's two entrances and a practice of umain-
taining the one and preserving the three** (shou-i ts*un-san). The latter is
reminiscent of the doctrine of “maintaining the One without wavering”
(shou-ipu i) attributed to Tao-hsin.27
3. There exists a Tun-huang manuscript of a text entitled Ta-mo ch'an-
shih lun (Dhydna Master \Bodhl\dharma9s Treatise), which might be
taken as a guide to the teachings of early Ch*an. The text is probably rel-
atively early, although its putative date of compilation or transcription,
681, is not reliable. Unfortunately, its contents do not lend themselves to
precise dating.28
Basic Doctrines o f the East Mountain Teaching 119

4. The composition of Shen-hsiu's Kuan-hsin lun (Treatise on the Con-

templation o f the Mind) may be assigned to the years 675-700. The intro-
duction into the Ch*an tradition of Chih-i's Chfeng-hsin lun (Treatise
« e C7ar/ /*/£Y^/o/2 / e probably occurred during the same
period.29
5. Finally, the epitaph for Fa-ju (638-89) mentions such topics as the
different types of samadhi practiced at Hung-jen's monastery, Fa-ju*s
“sudden entrance into the One Vehicle ” his ability to remain “motion-
less in the True Realm and yet know the myriad forms ’’ and as discussed
in Part One, the fact that the transmission of the teaching was done with-
out words.30

Unfortunately, these details are all too brief, too vague and/or difficult
to interpret, and—in the case of those referring to Shen-hsiu and Fa-ju汾"
too late to be of any real value.
Modern scholars generally explain the teachings of Tao-hsin and
Hung-jen on the basis of two texts known chiefly from Tun-huang manu-
scripts. For Tao-hsin there exists a portion of the LCSTC that appears to
be taken verbatim from a work called the Ju-tao an~hsin yao fang-pien
fa-men (Essentials o f the Teaching o f the Expedient Means o f Entering
the Path and Pacifying the Mind; hereafter cited as JTFM). For Hung-
jen, there exists the Hsiu~hsin yao lun (Treatise on the Essentials o f
Cultivating the Mind), which is known from a variety of sources. Since
the /r F M teaches s/i or “maintaining the one,” and the
yao lun teaches shou-hsin, or ''maintaining the mind/9scholars have gen-
erally argued that the latter text and teaching were more advanced than
the former.31
I do not believe that this interpretation is acceptable. The JTFM is
known solely through the LCSTC. Judging by the absence of separate
Tbn-huang manuscripts—admittedly an argument made ex 5/7e/i//o—one
would have to conclude that the JTFM did not circulate independently.
Even more important, no other early Ch’an text quotes from it or even
alludes to it. Although there are no specific indications that it was of late
composition it uses many of the same texts and even the same passages
as other Northern School texts of the early eighth century.32 In addition,
it addresses certain Taoist ideas and Pure Land practices that would have
been of greater interest to an author working in the context of Buddhism
in the two capitals in the early eighth century than to a retiring medita-
tion specialist of the early seventh.33
Finally, although the text's explanation of shou-i does seem to be less
advanced in some ways than the ao /w/7’s concept of s/iow-
to " , the /7F M as a whole is a much more sophisticated, or at least a
more complex, work. Although it would be misleading to suggest that
120 P a r t T\vo: D o c t r in e

this greater internal complexity necessarily implies a later date of compo-

sition, some of the ideas contained in the treatise usually attributed to
Tao-hsin are suggestive of the most advanced teachings of the Northern
School.
A text attributed to l^o-hsin could well have been written after one
attributed to Hung-jen. We know that the Hsiu-hsin yao lun was not
written by Hung-jen himself, since the text itself admits that it was com-
piled by his students.34 Hung-jen was in many ways the most important
figure of early Ch’an in that he was the immediate spiritual forebear to
many of the men who disseminated the teachings in Ch*ang-an and Lo-
yang in the late seventh and early eighth centuries. Therefore, it is not
surprising that a text like the Hsiu-hsin yao lun would have been com-
posed to represent the fundamentals of his teachings. The attribution of
this text to Hung-jen thus has a retrospective validity: Its contents are not
an exact record of his teachings, but they are at least representative of the
most fundamental doctrines of early Ch’an a “lowest common denomi-
nator” of Ch’an theory around the year 700.
The existence of a handful of separate versions of the Hsiu-hsin yao
lun from l\in-huang and elsewhere indicates its general acceptance by the
members of the early Ch*an School as teachings appropriate to the
departed sage of East Mountain, After Hung-jen was thus equipped with
a suitable literary statement, the attentions of the early Ch*an authors
would have turned naturally to his predecessor, Tao-hsin. The process
continued in this reverse fashion with the compilation of the Hsin~hsin
ming (Inscription on Relying upon the Mind), which is falsely attributed
to Seng-ts’an Tko-hsin’s supposed teacher•”
Although specific proof is lacking, I suspect that the JTFM was only
written very shortly, no more than a decade or so, before U was noticed
by Ching-chueh and quoted in his LCSTC of 713-16. This interpretation
must be considered tentative, but the reader should at least grant that it
would be improper to follow the conventional approach in constructing
a theory for the chronological development of early Ch’an religious
thought. This problem is not limited to these two works. In fact, it is
extremely difficult to assign a definite date to any of the doctrinal devel-
opments of early Ch*an.
Having found a diachronic approach to the teachings of early Ch’an
untenable, we must turn to a synchronic, thematic approach. Because of
the retrospective validity of the Hsiu-hsin yao lun and, to a lesser extent,
the JTFM, these two texts will be our primary source of information
about the basic tenets of the East Mountain Teaching. The reader should
keep in mind that the “East Mountain Teaching” defined in these pages
does not refer to the teachings of Tao-hsin and Hung-jen, but rather to
the most basic doctrines of the Ch’an School in the early eighth century
in the vicinity of the two capitals.
Basic Doctrines o f the East Mountain Teaching 121

2. Textual Inform ation

The Hsiu-hsin yao lun,36 written as a dialogue between the master and an
unnamed interrogator, may be divided into two parts of roughly equal
length. The first, which includes sections A to M of the translation that
follows, is a structured series of questions and answers. The second, sec-
tions N to V, contains fewer questions, longer doctrinal statements and
descriptions of meditation practice, a greater amount of colloquial lan-
guage, and numerous direct exhortations to vigorous practice.
Important points to notice while reading this text include the fol-
lowing:

1. the metaphor of the sun obscured by clouds that occurs in sec-

tion D
2. emphasis on the importance of “maintaining [awareness of] the
mind” throughout the text, and
3. the two types of meditation practice recommended in sections O
and T

3. Treatise on the Essentials o f Cultivating the Mind

(Hsiu-hsin yao lun)
A. A Treatise on the Essentials of Cultivating the Mind, in one fasci-
cle, [written by] Preceptor [Hung]-jen of ChM-chou17 [in order to]
lead ordinary people to sagehood and to an understanding of the
basic principle of emancipation.38
B. If you do not take care of [this text], then all the [other] practi-
tioners will be unable to see it. Please understand that in copying it,
you should take care to make no mistakes or omissions, which might
mislead those who follow.19
C. The essence of cultivating the Path is to discern that one’s own
body (mind?40) is inherently pure, [not subject to the laws of] genera-
tion and extinction, and without discrimination. Perfect and com-
plete in its Self Nature,41 the Pure Mind is the fundamental teacher.
[Meditating on it] is superior to reflecting on the Buddhas of the ten
directions.
D. Q u e s t io n : How do you know that one’s own mind is inherently
pure?
AmwEK: The Treatise on the [SGtra o f the] Ten Stages42 (Shih-ti
lun) says:

There is an adamantine Buddha Nature within the bodies of sentient

beings.45 Like the sun, it is essentially bright, perfect, and complete.
122 P a r t TWo : D o c t r in e

Although vast and limitless, it is merely44 covered by the layered clouds

of the five skandhas. Like a lamp inside a jar, its light cannot shine.

Further, to use the bright45 sun as a metaphor, it is as if the clouds

and mists of this world were to arise together in [all] the eight direc-
tions, so that the world would become dark.46 How could the sun
ever be extinguished?
[Qu e s t io n : Without the sun being extinguished,] why would there
be no light?
A n s w e r : The sun’s light is not destroyed, but merely deflected by
the clouds and mists. The pure mind possessed by all sentient beings
is also like this, in simply being covered by the layered clouds of dis-
criminative thinking, false thoughts, and ascriptive views. If one can
just distinctly maintain [awareness of] the mind (shou-hsin)41 and
not produce false thoughts, then the Dharma sun48 of nirvana will be
naturally manifested. Therefore, it is known that one’s own mind is
inherently pure.
E. Q u e s t io n : How do you know that one’s own mind is inherently
not subject to the laws of generation and extinction?
A n s w e r : The VimalakTrti Sutra (Wei-mo ching) says: ^Suchness
is without generation; Suchness is without extinction.’’49 The
term “Suchness” refers to the suchlike Buddha Nature, the mind
which is the source [of all dharmas]50 and pure in its Self Nature.
Suchness is fundamentally existent and is not conditionally pro-
duced. [The VimalakTrti Sutrd\ also says: ^Sentient beings all [em-
body] Suchness. The sages and wise men also [embody] Suchness. MI
‘‘Sentient beings” means us (i.e” ordinary people), and “sages and
wise menv>means the Buddhas. Although the names and characteris-
tics of [sentient beings and the Buddhas] are different, the essential
reality of the Suchness contained within the bodies of each is identi-
cal and is not subject to the laws of generation and extinction. Hence
the sfitra] says “a ll embody] Suchness.” Therefore it is known that
one’s own mind is inherently not subject to the laws of generation
and extinction.
F. Q u e s t io n : Why do you call the mind the fundamental teacher?
A n s w e r : The True Mind exists of itself and does not come from
outside [oneself. As teacher] it does not even require any tuition
fee!52 Nothing in all the three periods of time is more dear [to a per-
son] than one*s mind. If you discern the Suchness [inherent in the
mind] and maintain awareness of it, you will reach the other shore
[of nirvana]. The deluded forsake it and fall into the three lower
modes of existence (i.e., animals, hungry ghosts, and residents of the
hells). Therefore, it is known that the Buddhas of the three periods
of time take their own True Mind53 as teacher.
Basic Doctrines o f the East Mountain Teaching 123

Hence the treatise says: “The existence of sentient beings is depen-

dent on the waves f false consciousness, the essence of which is illu-
sory.>>$4 By clearly maintaining awareness of the mind, the false mind
will not be activated (pu ch*i), and you will reach the state of birth-
lessness (i.eM nirvana). Therefore, it is known that the mind is the
fundamental teacher.
G. Q u e s t io n : Why is the mind of ordinary people superior to the
mind of the Buddhas?55
A n s w e r : You cannot escape birth and death by constantly reflect-
ing on buddhas divorced from yourself,56 but you will reach the
other shore of nirvana by maintaining awareness of your own funda-
mental mind.57 Therefore, [the Buddha] says in the Diamond Sutra
pov’o c //I “Anyone who views me in terms of form
and seeks me by sound is practicing a heretic path and is unable to
see the TatMgata*n%Therefore, it is known that maintaining aware-
ness of the True Mind is superior to reflecting on Buddhas divorced
from oneself. In addition, the word “superior” is only used as a
word of encouragement in the context of religious practice. In real-
ity, the essence of the ultimate fruit [of nirvana] is uniformly (<same,9
(p'ing-teng) and without duality.
H. Q u e s t io n : If the true essence of sentient beings and the Buddhas is
the same, then why is it that the Buddhas are not subject to the laws
of generation and extinction, but receive incalculable pleasures and
are autonomous (tzu-tsai) and unhindered [in their activities], while
we sentient beings have fallen into the realm of birth and death and
are subject to various kinds of suffering?59
A n s w e r : All the Buddhas of the ten directions are enlightened to
the Dharma Nature and distinctly illuminate the mind that is the
source [of all individual rfAflf/TWflfS] 具 They do
not generate false thoughts, never fail in correct mindfulness (cheng-
nien), and extinguish the illusion of personal possession.60 Because
of this, they are not subject to birth and death. Since they are not
subject to birth and death, they [have achieved] the ultimate state of
serene extinction (i.e., nirvana). Since they [have achieved] serene
extinction, the myriad pleasures naturally accrue to them.
Sentient beings, [on the other hand,] are all deluded as to the Urue
Nature and do not discern the fundamental mind. Because they
cognize the various [dAarmas falsely,61 they do not cultivate correct
mindfulness. Since they do not have correct mindfulness, thoughts
of revulsion and attraction are activated n them]. Because of [these
thoughts of] revulsion and attraction, the vessel of the mind becomes
defiled (lit” “broken and leaky”). Since the [vessel of] the mind is
defiled, [sentient beings] are subject to birth and death. Because of
birth and death, all the [various kinds of] suffering naturally appear.
 P a r t TWo : D o c t r in e

The Sutra o f Mind-king [Bodhisattva] (Hsin-wang ching) says: uThe

suchlike Buddha Nature is concealed by knowledge based on the
senses (chih-chien). [Sentient beings] are drowning in birth and death
within the seas of the six consciousnesses and do not achieve emanci-
pation.”62
Make effort! If you can maintain awareness of the True Mind
without generating false thoughts or the illusion of personal posses-
sion, then you will automatically be equal to the Buddhas.
Qu e s t io n : [Yo u say that] the suchlike Dharma Nature [is embod-
ied by both sentient beings and the Buddhas] identically and without
duality. Therefore, if [one group] is deluded, both should be delud-
ed. If [one group] is enlightened, both should be enlightened. Why
are only the Buddhas enlightened, while sentient beings are deluded?
A n s w e r : At this point we enter the inconceivable portion [of this
teaching], which cannot be understood by the ordinary mind. One
becomes enlightened by discerning the mind; one is deluded because
of losing [awareness of the TVue] Nature. If the conditions [necessary
for you to understand this] occur, then they occur63汾 it cannot be
definitively explained. Simply rely on the ultimate truth64 and main-
tain awareness of your own TYue Mind.
Therefore, the VimalakTrti Sdtra says: u[Dharmas\ have no Self
Nature and no Other Nature. Dharma% were fundamentally not
generated [in the first place] and are not now extinguished . U5
Enlightenment is to transcend the two extremes and enter into non-
discriminating wisdom. If you understand this doctrine, then during
all your activities66 you should simply maintain awareness of your
fundamental Pure Mind. Do this constantly and fixedly, without
generating false thoughts or the illusion of personal possession.
Enlightenment will thus occur of itself.
If you ask a lot of questions, the number of doctrinal terms will
become greater and greater. If you want to understand the essential
point of Buddhism 67 th e n be aware that] maintaining awareness of
the mind is paramount. Maintaining awareness of the mind is the
fundamental basis of nirvana, the essential gateway for entering the
path, the basic principle of the entire Buddhist canon/' and the
patriarch of all the Buddhas of past, present, and future.
Q u e s t io n : Why*9is maintaining awareness of the mind the funda-
mental basis of nirv^iia?
A n s w e r : The essence of what is called nirvana is serene extinc-
tion. It is unconditioned and pleasant. When one's mind is True,
false thoughts cease. When false thoughts cease, the result is] cor-
rect mindfulness. Having correct mindfulness leads to the generation
of the wisdom of serene illumination (i.e., the perfect knowledge or
Basic Doctrines o f the East Mountain Teaching 125

illumination of all things without mental discrimination), which in

turn means that one achieves total comprehension of the Dharma
Nature.70 By comprehending the Dharma Nature one achieves nir-
vana. Therefore, maintaining awareness of the mind is the funda-
mental basis of nirvana.
K. Q u e s t io n : Why is maintaining awareness of the mind the essential
gateway for entering the path?
A n s w e r : The Buddha teaches that even actions as seemingly triv-
ial as] raising the fingers of a single hand to draw an image of the
Buddha71 can create merit as great as the sands of the River Ganges.
However, this is just [his way of] enticing foolish sentient beings to
create superior karmic conditions whereby they will see the Buddha
and [become enlightened] in the future.72 If you wish to achieve bud-
dhahood quickly in your own body, then do nothing73 except to
maintain awareness of the True Mind.
The Buddhas of past, present, and future are incalculable and infi-
nite [in number], and every single one of them achieved buddhahood
by maintaining awareness of the True Mind.74 Therefore, the sutra
says: "When one fixes the mind in a single location, there is nothing
it cannot accomplish.” 75 Therefore, maintaining awareness of the
True Mind is the essential [gateway74] for entering the path.
L. Q u e s t io n : Why is maintaining the TVue Mind the basic principle
of the entire Buddhist canon?
A n s w e r : Throughout the canon, the TathQgata preaches exten-
sively about all the types of transgression and good fortune, causes
and conditions, and rewards and retributions. He also draws upon
all the various things [of this world]—mountains, rivers, the earth,77
plants, trees, etc.汾 to make innumerable metaphors. He also mani-
fests innumerable supernormal powers and various kinds of trans-
formations. All these are just the Buddha^ way of teaching foolish
sentient beings. Since they have various kinds of desires and a myr-
iad of psychological differences, the Tathagata draws them into per-
manent bliss (i.e., nirvana) according to their mental tendencies.
Understand clearly that the Buddha Nature embodied within sen-
tient beings is inherently pure, like a sun underlaid by clouds. By just
distinctly maintaining awareness of the True Mind, the clouds of
false thoughts will go away and the sun of wisdom78 will appear.
Why make any further study of knowledge based on the senses,
which only leads to the suffering of saitisara?
All concepts, as well as the affairs of the three periods of time,
[should be understood according to] the metaphor of polishing a
mirror: When the dust is gone the Nature naturally becomes mani-
fest fchien-hsing).79 That which is learned by the ignorant mind is
126 P a r t TWo : D o c t r in e

completely useless. True learning is that which is learned by the inac-

tive (or unconditioned, wu-wei) mind, which never ceases correct
mindfulness. Although this is called 44true learning," ultimately there
is nothing to be learned. Why is this? Because the self and nirvana
are both nonsubstantial, they are neither different nor the same.
Therefore, the essential principle* of [the words “ nothing to be
learned” is true.
One must maintain clear awareness of the True Mind without
generating false thoughts or the illusion of personal possession.
Therefore, the NirvQna Sutra (Nieh-pran ching) says: *To under-
stand that the Buddha does not [actually] preach the Dharma is
called having sufficiently listened 究 to the Buddha’s preaching .’’*1
Therefore, maintaining awareness of the True Mind is the basic prin-
ciple of the entire Buddhist canon.
M. Qu e s t io n : Why is maintaining awareness of the mind the patri-
arch of all the Buddhas of past, present, and future?
A n s w e r : All the Buddhas of past, present, and future are generat-
ed within [one*s own] consciousness. When*2 you do not generate
false thoughts, [the Buddhas] are generated within your conscious-
ness. When your illusions of personal possession have been extin-
guished, [the Buddhas] are generated within your consciousness. You
will only achieve buddhahood by maintaining awareness of the True
Mind. Therefore, maintaining awareness of the mind is the patriarch
of all the Buddhas of past, present, and future.
N. If one were to expand upon the four previous topics, how could
one ever explain them completely? My only desire is that you discern
the fundamental mind for yourselves. Therefore, I sincerely tell you:
Make effort! Make effort! The thousand sutras and ten thousand
treatises say nothing other than that maintaining the True Mind is the
essential [way to enlightenment].83 Make effort!
I base [my teaching] on the Lotus Sutra (Fa-hua ching), in which
[the Buddha says: “ I have presented you with a great cart and a
treasury of valuables, including bright jewels and wondrous medi-
cines. Even so, you do not take them. What extreme suffering! Alas!
Alas!"84 If you can cease generating false thoughts and the illusion
of personal possession, then all the [various types of] merit will
become perfect and complete. Do not try to search outside yourself,
w hich only] leads to the suffering of saihs ra. Maintain the same
state of mind in every moment of thought, in every phase of mental
activity. Do not enjoy the present while planting the seeds of future
suffering—[by doing so] you only deceive yourself and others and
cannot escape from the realm of birth and death.
Make effort! Make effort! Although it may seem futile now, [your
Basic Doctrines o f the East Mountain Teaching 127

present efforts] constitute the causes for your future [enlighten-

ment].*5 Do not let time pass in vain while only wasting energy. The
sQtra says: “ Foolish sentient beings will reside forever in hell as if
pleasantly relaxing in £i garden. There are no modes of existence
worse than their present state•” MWe sentient beings fit this descrip-
tion. Having no idea how horribly terrifying [this world really is, we
never have the least intention of leaving! How awful!
O. If you are just beginning to practice sitting meditation,87 then do
so according to the Sutra o f the C<mtemp!ati<m o f j4mitdbhau fWih
Uang-shou kuan ching): Sit properly with the body erect, closing the
eyes and mouth. Look straight ahead with the mind, visualizing a
sun at an appropriate distance away. Maintain this image continu-
ously without stopping. Regulate your breath so that it does not
sound alternately coarse and fine, as this can make one sick.
If you sit [in meditation] at night, you may experience all kinds of
good and bad psychological states; enter into any of the blue, yellow,
red, and white samadhis; witness your own body producing light;
observe the physical characteristics of the Tathagata; or experience
various [other] transformations. When you perceive [such things],
concentrate the mind and do not become attached to them. They are
all nonsubstantial manifestations of false thinking.*9 The sutra says:
“All the countries of the ten directions are [nonsubstantial like
spaced Also, "The triple realm is an empty apparition that is solely
the creation of the individual mind.M90 Do not worry if you cannot
achieve concentration and do not experience the various psychologi-
cal states. Just constantly maintain clear awareness of the TVue Mind
in all your actions.
If you can stop generating false thoughts and the illusion of per-
sonal possession, [then you will realize that all the myriad armas
are nothing other than [manifestations of your] own mind. The Bud-
dhas only preach extensively using numerous verbal teachings and
metaphors because the mental tendencies of sentient beings differ
necessitating a variety of teachings. In actuality, the mind is the basic
subject of the eighty-four thousand doctrines, the ranking of the
three vehicles and the definitions of the seventy-two stages of] sages
and wise men.
To be able to discern one*s own inherent mind and improve [the
ability to maintain awareness of it with every moment of thought is
equivalent to constantly making pious offerings to the entire Bud-
dhist canon and to all the Buddhas in the ten directions of space,91
who are as numerous as the sands of the River Ganges. It is equiva-
lent to constantly turning the wheel of the Dharmd with every
moment of thought.
128 P a r t TWo : D o c t r in e

He who comprehends the mind that is the source of all dharmas

always understands everything. All his wishes are fulfilled and all his
religious practices completed. He accomplishes all [that he sets out to
do] and will not be reborn again [in the realm of samsSra].92 If you
can stop generating false thoughts and the illusion of personal pos-
session and completely discard [your preoccupation with] the body,
then you will certainly achieve birthlessness (i.eM nirvana). How
inconceivably [wonderful]!
Make effort! And do not be pretentious!93 It is difficult to get a
chance to hear this essential teaching. Of those who have heard it,
not more than one person in a number as great as the sands of the
River Ganges is able to practice it. It would be rare for even one per-
son in a million billion eons to practice it to perfection.94 Calm your-
self with care, moderate any sensory activity, and attentively view the
mind that is the source of all dharmas. Make it shine distinctly and
purely all the time, without ever becoming blank.95
P. Q u e s t io n : What is blankness of mind?
A n s w e r : People who practice mental concentration may inhibit
the True Mind within themselves by being dependent on sensory per-
ceptions, coarse states of mind, and restricted breathing. Before
achieving mental purity, [such people may undertake the] constant
practices of concentrating the mind and viewing the mind. Although
they do so during all their activities, [such people] cannot achieve
[mental] clarity and purity, nor illumine that mind which is the
source of all dharmas. This is called blankness [of mind.]
[People who possess such a] defiled mind cannot escape the great
illness of birth and death. How much more pitiful are those who are
completely ignorant of [the practice of] maintaining awareness of the
mind! Such people are drowning in the seas of suffering that are con-
comitant with the realm of samsara—when will they ever be able to
escape?
Make effort! The sutra says:
If sentient beings are not completely sincere about seeking enlighten-
ment, then not even all the Buddhas of the three periods of time will be
able to do anything [for them, even if those Buddhas] are as numerous
as the sands of the River Ganges.96

The sfltra says: “Sentient beings discern the mind and cross over [to
the other shore of enlightenment] by themselves. The Buddhas can-
not make sentient beings cross over [to the other shore] ^ If the Bud-
dhas were able to make sentient beings cross over [to the other shore
of enlightenment], then why—the Buddhas of the past being as incal-
culable as the sands of the River Ganges_ have we sentient beings
Basic Doctrines o f the East Mountain Teaching 129

not yet achieved buddhahood? We are drowning in the seas of suffer-

ing simply because we are not completely sincere about seeking
enlightenment.
Make effort! One cannot know the transgressions of one^s past,
and repenting now is of no avail. Now, in this very lifetime, you have
had an opportunity to h ear this teaching]. I have related it clearly; it
would be well for you to understand what I say. Understand clearly
that maintaining awareness of the mind is the highest way. You may
be insincere about seeking the achievement of buddhahood and
become receptive to the immeasurable pleasures and benefits [that
accrue from religious training. You may go so far as to ostenta-
tiously follow worldly customs and crave [personal fame and gain.
[If you do so you will] eventually fall into hell and become subject to
all kinds of suffering. What a plight! Make effort!
Q. One can have success with minimal exertion by merely donning
tattered robes, eating coarse food> and clearly maintaining aware-
ness of the mind. The unenlightened people of this world do not
understand this truth and undergo great anguish in their ignorance.
Hoping to achieve emancipation^ they cultivate a broad range of
superficial types of goodness—only to fall subject to the suffering
concomitant with samsdra.
He who, in [mental] clarity never ceases correct mindfulness while
helping sentient beings cross over to the other shore of nirvana is a
bodhisattva of great power.97 I tell you this explicitly: Maintaining
awareness of the mind is the ultimate. If you cannot bear suffering
during this single present lifetime, you will be subject to misfortune
for ten thousand eons to come. I ask you: Which case applies to you?
To remain unmoved by the blowing of the eight winds98 [of good
and ill fortune] is to have a truly special mountain of treasure. If you
want to realize the fruit [of nirvana], then just respond to all the
myriad different realms of your consciousness by activating trans-
formations as numerous as the sands of the River Ganges. OneJs dis-
crimination [of each instant] is so skillful it seems to flow. Applying
medicine to fit the disease, one is able to stop generating false
thoughts and the illusion of personal possession. He who [can do
this] has transcended the world and is truly a man of great stature."
Ah, the unrestricted freedom of a Tbthagata汾 how could it ever be
exhausted!
Having explained these things, I 100 urge you in complete sincerity:
Stop generating false thoughts and the illusion of personal posses-
sion!
R. Qu e s t io n : What do you mean by the “illusion of personal posses-
sion ”
130 P a r t TWo : D o c t r in e

An s w e r : When only slightly superior to someone else [in some

way], one may think that this [superiority] is due to one's own
achievement. To feel this way is to be sick even while in nirvana. The
Nirvdna Sutra says: MThis is likened to the realm of space, which
contains the myriad things. Space does not think to itself, I am doing
this. M01 This is a metaphor for the two teachings of [eradicating the)
illness and practicing [the truth, i.e.,] the concept of extinguishing
the illusion of personal possession and the ^adamantine samadhr
(chin-kang san-mei) .102
S. Q u e s t io n : Even sincere103 practitioners who seek a perfect and
permanent nirva a [may only seek] the crude and impermanent stan-
dards of goodness and fail to take pleasure in the Ultimate Truth.
[Such people may try to have their minds operate according to [Bud-
dhist doctrines before they have manifested that which is true, per-
manent, wondrous, and good (i.e., the Buddha Nature). This leads
to the activation of discriminative thinking, which constitutes a
defiled state of mind. They may try to fix the mind in the locus of
non-being 104 To do so is to be lodged in the darkness of
ignorance and is not in accord with the [True] Principle.
They may grasp nonsubstantiality in an improper way, without
trying to fix the mind [on a single object of contemplation] according
to [Buddhist doctrines. Although they have received a human body,
theirs is the practice of animals. They lack the expedient means of
meditation and wisdom and cannot clearly and brightly see the Bud-
dha Nature. This is the predicament of religious practitioners [such
as ourselves]. We beseech you to tell us the true teaching by which we
can progress toward remainderless nirvdna!
A n s w e r : When you are completely in [possession of] the True
Mind, the achievement of your ultimate wish [is assured].
Gently quiet your mind. I will teach you [how to do this] once
again: Make your body and mind pure and peaceful, without any
discriminative thinking at all. Sit properly with the body erect. Regu-
late the breath and concentrate the mind so it is not within you, not
outside of you, and not in any intermediate location. Do this care-
fully and naturally. View your own consciousness tranquilly and
attentively, so that you can see how it is always moving, like flowing
water or a glittering105 mirage. After you have perceived this con-
sciousness, simply continue to view it gently and naturally, without
the consciousness assuming any fixed position] inside or outside of
yourself. Do this tranquilly and attentively until its fluctuations dis-
solve into peaceful stability. This flowing consciousness will disap-
pear like a gust of wind.,#<t
When this [flowing] consciousness disappears, [all one's illusions
Basic Doctrines o f the East Mountain Teaching 131

will] disappear along with it, even the [extremely subtle] illusions of
bodhisattvas of the tenth stage. When this consciousness and [false
cognition of the] body have disappeared, one's mind becomes peace-
fully stable, simple, and pure. I cannot describe it any further. If you
want to know more about it, then follow the "Chapter on the Ada-
mantine Body** (Chin-kang shen p fin) of the NirvQna SQtra and the
"Chapter on the Vision of Aksobhya Buddha** (Chien o-ch*u-fo
p*in) of the VimilakTrti Sutra.'01 Think about this carefully, for this is
the truth.
T. Any person who can avoid losing [sight] of this mind during all his
actions and in the face of the five desires and the eight winds [of
good and ill fortune] has established his pure practice,108 done that
which must be done, and will never again be born into the realm of
birth and death. The five desires are [those that arise relative to]
form, sound, smell, taste, and touch. The eight winds are success
and failure; defamation and praise; honor and abuse; and suffering
and pleasure.
While cultivating the Buddha Nature109 you must never worry
about not achieving autonomous [mastery of the supernormal pow-
ers, etc.] in this lifetime. The sutra says: <4When there is no buddha
in the world, then bodhisattvas who have [reached the ten] stages are
unable to manifest the functioning [of enIightenment(?)J. M,° You
must become emancipated from this retribution body. The abilities
of sentient beings [as governed by the factors of the) past differ in
ways that cannot be understood. Those of superior [ability can
achieve enlightenment] in an instant, while those of inferior [abil-
ity take] an incalculable number of eons. When you have the
strength,111 generate the good roots of enlightenment according to
[your own] nature (i.eMindividual identity) as a sentient being, so
that you benefit yourself and others and ornament the path of bud-
dhahood.
You must completely [master] the four dependences112 and pene-
trate the true characteristic [of all things]. If you become dependent
on words you will lose the TVue Principle (chen-tsung). All you
monks who have left home (i.eM to become monks) and practice
some other form of Buddhism—this is the [true meaning ofi “leav-
ing home.” “Leaving home” is to leave the home of birth and death.
You will achieve success in the cultivation of the path when your
[practice of] correct mindfulness is complete. To never fail in correct
mindfulness—even when one's body is being torn apart or at the
time of death—is to be a buddha.
U. My disciples have compiled this treatise113 [from my oral teach-
ings], so that [the reader] may just use his True Mind to grasp the
132 P a r t IW o : D o c t r in e

meaning of its words. It is impossible to exhaustively substantiate

[every detail] with preaching such as this. If [the teachings contained
herein] contradict the Holy Truth, I repent and hope for the eradica-
tion [of that transgression]. If they correspond to the Holy TVuth, I
transfer [any merit that would result from this effort to all] sentient
beings. I want everyone to discern their fundamental minds and
achieve buddhahood at once. Those who are listening [now] should
make effort, so that you can achieve buddhahood in the future. I
now vow to help my followers to cross over [to the other shore of nir-
va a].
V. Q u e s t io n : This treatise [teaches] from beginning to end that mani-
festing one's own mind represents enlightenment. [However, I] do
not know whether this is a teaching of the fruit [of nirvana] or one of
practice.
A n s w e r : The basic principle of this treatise is the manifestation of
the One Vehicle. Its ultimate intention is to lead the unenlightened to
emancipation, so that they can escape from the realm of birth and
death themselves and eventually help others to cross over to the other
shore of nirvana. [This treatise] only speaks of benefiting oneself
and does not explain how to benefit others."4 It should be categor-
ized as a teaching of practice 具 Anyone who practices
according to this text will achieve buddhahood immediately.
If I am deceiving you, I will fall into the eighteen hells in the
future. I point to heaven and earth in making this vow: If [the teach-
ings contained here] are not true, I will be eaten by tigers and wolves
for lifetime after lifetime.113

4. The Metaphor o f the Sun and Clouds

The key to understanding the Hsiu-hsin yao lun is the metaphor of the
sun obscured by clouds that occurs near the beginning of the text. Unfor-
tunately, the origin of the passage containing this metaphor is obscure.
The same passage is also found in Ching-chueh's LCSTC and Shen-
hsiu*s Kuan-hsin lun, but it is attributed in these texts to the Shih-ti
ching, the SUtra on the Ten Stages, rather than the Shih-ti [chingj lun, the
treatise based on that sutra. In fact, the passage occurs in neither. Since
no scriptural precedent for this passage has ever been found, it seems
best to assume that it derived from an unknown Chinese source of the
late seventh century or earlier.1,6
Nowhere does the use of this metaphor occur so prominently as in the
beginning of I-hsing^s commentary on the Th~jih chirtg (Sutra o f the
Great Vairocana [Buddha]), one of the most important scriptures of eso-
teric Buddhism. I-hsing, who was at one time a student of P^-chi, opens
Basic Doctrines o f the East Mountain Teaching 133

his commentary with an explanation of the name of the Buddha that

occurs in the title of the sutra:
The Sanskrit word Vairocana is another name for the sun, having the
meaning of an omnipresent brilliance that eradicates darkness. The sun of
this world, however, is governed by spatial limitations. It cannot illuminate
inside [a building] the same as it can outside; it can brighten one place but
not another. Also, its brilliance only occurs during the daytime and does not
illuminate the night. The brilliance of the sun of the Tathdgata*s wisdom is
not like this, in that it is a great illuminating brightness that extends to every
location [in the universe]. There are no spatial [limitations of] interior and
exterior or distinctions of day and night.
Also, as the sun travels [about] the world, the plants and trees are able to
grow according to their natural allotments, so that the various tasks of this
world achieve completion thereby. The brilliance of the sun of the Tath&gata
illuminates the entire dharmadhdtu, [so that] it is able to foster, with abso-
lute impartiality (p'ing-teng), the incalculable ugood roots** of sentient
beings. In addition, all the excellent mundane and supramundane activities
are without exception achieved on the basis of [the sun of the Tathagata*%
wisdom].
Further, layered shadows can obscure the orb of the sun so that it is hid-
den, yet it is not destroyed. Violent winds can blow the clouds away so that
the sun's brilliance may be seen to illuminate, yet it is not only just born.
The sun of the Mind of the Buddha (fo-hsin chihjih) [that is within us all] is
also like this: Although it may be obstructed by the layered clouds of igno-
rance, the afflictions, and foolish disputation, it is never decreased by such
obstructions . Even if one achieves the ultimate experience of the]
dhi of the true characteristic of all dharmasr [in which] onc*s perfect bril-
liance is unlimited, [the Mind of the Buddha within is not increased
thereby].
Because of various factors such as these, the sun of this world cannot be
taken as a metaphor [for the sun of the 7& aW’s wisdom . It is only by
taking consideration of the small degree of resemblance and adding the
word great that one can say: ^Mahdvairocana,**'11

It is possible, of course, that I-hsing learned this metaphor from ^u-

bhdkarasimha, the esoteric Buddhist master under whom he studied the
sutra in question. However, the content and structure of the third para-
graph of the statement just quoted, which discusses ^layered shadows*5
(i.e., clouds), violent winds, and the ensuing appearance of the indestruc-
tible sun, are strikingly reminiscent of the corresponding Hsiu-hsin yao
lun passage."8 Whatever its origin, I-hsing's explanation of the name
Vairocana utilizes the conceptual framework operant in the Ch’an
School at exactly the same time.
The metaphor of the sun and clouds is used twice in the LCSTC, once
in the entry on Gunabhadra, and again in that on Hui-k9o. In the latter
134 P a r t Tw o : D o c t r in e

instance it appears essentially as it does in the Hsiu-hsin yao lun. In addi-

tion to minor variations of wording and the different attribution men-
tioned in the first paragraph of this section, Ching-chueh interpolates a
passage from the Avatamsaka Sutra on the Buddha Nature being as vast
as space. He follows the metaphor of the sun and clouds with a list of
several others: ice and water, a lamp in the wind, fire within wood, gold
and gangue, and water and waves. The most interesting, for our pur-
poses, is the following:
The Buddha Nature [exists in the] same sense as the sun and moon exist in
the world (lit. “below heaven” and fire exists within wood. Within people,
there is the Buddha Nature. It is also called the (<lamp of the Buddha
Nature'* and the <lmirror of nirvana." Therefore, the great mirror of nir-
vana is brighter than the sun and moon. Interior and exterior are perfect
and pure boundless and limitless.n9
Ching-chueh*s reference to the mirror is particularly interesting in light
of the famous Platform Sutra verses. The other reference to the meta-
phor of the sun and clouds in Ching-chueh's work occurs together with
an allusion to the mirror that is even more apropos:
The great path {ta-tao, here probably equivalent to enlightenment) is fun-
damentally vast. Being perfect and pure it is fundamentally existent and is
not attained through causes. It resembles the light of the sun, which is
underlaid by clouds. When the clouds and mists disappear, the light of the
sun appears of itself. What use is it to make any further study of discrimina-
tive knowledge, to range across the written and spoken words that only lead
to the path of birth and death? He who transmits oral explanations of writ-
ten texts as the path [to enlightenment] is only seeking personal fame and
benefit, [thereby] harming self and others.
It is also like the polishing of a bronze mirror: When the dust is com-
pletely gone from the surface of the mirror, the mirror is naturally bright
and pure. The SQtra on the Nonactivity o f All Dharmay (Chu-fa wu-hsing
ching) says: i(The Buddha does not achieve buddhahood, nor does he save
sentient beings. [It is only due to] the excessive discrimination of sentient
beings that [he is said to] achieve buddhahood and save sentient beings.'* If
you do not become enlightened to this mind, you will never be certain (of its
existence and function]. If you are enlightened to it, then [you will perceive]
its illumination. The great function of causal generation being perfectly
interpenetrating and without hindrance: This is called the **great cultivation
of the path.’’120
At first glance, these references to the mirror seem to have exactly the
same implication as in the Platform Sutra verse attributed to Shen-hsiu.
Certainly, the basic construction of the metaphor is the same: The mirror
represents the fundamental mind or Buddha Nature; the dust represents
the human ignorance that obscures one’s True Mind. Although Ching-
Basic Doctrines o f the East Mountain Teaching 135

chueh^ explicit injunction is to recognize the mind that lies beneath the
obscuring dusts of the illusions, one suspects that he is also recommend-
ing that we work to rid ourselves of illusion just as one would rub dust
from the surface of a mirror.
Not only is no such recommendation made in the LCSTC, but this
metaphor is not used in the same way in the Hsiu-hsin yao lun and other
East Mountain Tfeaching texts. TVue the // 5/W-/W//7 ao /wrt does contain a
reference to polishing a mirror clean of dust (see section L of the transla-
tion), but this reference is not used to exhort the student to strive for the
vigorous removal of the “dust” of his own illusions. On the contrary, the
implication is that the reflective or illuminative capacity of the mirror is a
fundamental characteristic that is not really affected by the adventitious
appearance of dust upon its surface.
Another East Mountain Teaching text, the Liao-hsing chu (Stanzas on
the Comprehension o f the Nature), puts it this way:
Although the [Pure] Nature is without darkness, it is obstructed by the
clouds of false thoughts. It is like dust on a bright mirror汾 how can it possi-
bly damage the [mirror's] essential brightness (ming-hsing, or ^brightness
nature’’}? Although it may be temporarily obstructed, rubbing will return
the brightness. The brightness [of the mirror] is a fundamental brightness,
not like something appended to it. The Dharma Nature is the same.'2'

In other words, the brightness of the mirror and the existence of dust on
its surface are of two fundamentally different levels of reality. The mir-
ror is not really affected by the dust, which can be wiped off at any time.
In the Hsiu-hsin yao lun the emphasis is placed on the sun, which is the
symbolic equivalent of the mirror, rather than on the clouds or dusts of
ignorance. The clouds that block our view of the sun do not destroy the
sun; the winds that drive those clouds away do not thereby create the
newly apparent sun. As Ching-chueh points out in the LCSTC, the Bud-
dha actually neither becomes a buddha nor saves other beings汾 he only
appears to do so to those who lack true understanding.
According to the Hsiu-hsin yao lunp the existence of the Buddha
Nature or Fundamental Mind within all sentient beings is the single most
important fact of our existence. True, that Buddha Nature may be
rendered invisible or ineffective by ignorant views, dualistic conceptual-
ization, and the karmic residue of past errors—but the important fact is
that it is there. What is the appropriate religious response to this situa-
tion? Would it be to strive diligently for the annihilation of those obsta-
cles of dualistic ignorance in order to strip away the ^clouds** obscuring
one’s pristine internal “sun ”
No, the appropriate response is to focus on the sun rather than on
one’s illusions, to nurture the awareness of its existence in each and every
136 P a r t T w o : D o c t r in e

moment, no matter what one*s particular activity or situation might be.

This is the meaning of the term shou~hsint to ^maintain [awareness of]
the mind.”

5. Shou-hsin and Meditation Practice in the H siu-hsin yao lun

Shou-hsin literally means uto guard the mind/* or, according to a more
liberal interpretation, <(to maintain constant, undiscriminating aware-
ness of the absolute mind or Buddha Nature within oneself/* The word
means “to protect, maintain, or uphold” and is used in other Bud-
dhist terms in the sense of maintaining the precepts, or moral purity in
general. The term shou-hsin, in fact, is very similar to shou4, uto guard
the will” or “to guard the consciousness,” which is used in very early Chi-
nese translations in the sense of “mindfulness ” an important concept in
Buddhist meditation theory.122
In the Hsiu-hsin yao lun, shou-hsin does not mean to guard the mind
against outside influences so much as to maintain it uppermost in one*s
thoughts, to refrain from ever forgetting about the cardinal importance
of its existence, to make its presence the dominant standard by which one
orders one^s life. In the strictest sense, shou-hsin means to simply main-
tain continued possession of the Absolute Mind, but this possession is
treated in cognitive terms: It is the awareness of the presence of that
mind that is important. Eventually, one will experience the Buddha
Nature directly when one’s illusions disappear.
The metaphor of the sun and clouds and the use of the term shou-hsin
combine to indicate a very gentle approach to spiritual practice: If one
maintains awareness of the mind without having any false thoughts or
illusions, then the <(sun of nirvana** will appear naturally. In other
words, one’s Buddha Nature will become manifested and one will be
enlightened. The insistence on maintaining awareness of the mind rather
than purposefully working for and achieving enlightenment amounts to
an affirmation of the ultimate perfection of the human condition just as
it is, without the necessity of any adjustment or alteration.
In spite of this gentle, all-affirming attitude, the Hsiu-hsin yao tun is
also outspoken about the need for vigorous effort in meditation. Hung-
jen is frequently made to exhort his students to make effort, and enlight-
enment is clearly considered something to be energetically sought for and
achieved, if not in this lifetime, then in the next. In the context of this
treatise it is impossible to completely resolve this apparent contradiction
between the passive acceptance of the ultimate perfection of the present
human condition and the purposive striving for enlightenment. Quite
possibly shou-hsin was intentionally designed to mitigate the general ten-
dency of beginning students to grasp for an idealized and thus funda-
mentally misapprehended goal, i.e., the achievement of enlightenment.
Basic Doctrines o f the East Mountain Teaching 137

Certainly, such considerations occur frequently in early Ch*an works.

One important example from the letters attached to the EJSHL, which
we discussed in the previous chapter, emphasize that the spiritual goal is
not a personal transformation per se but the realization that no such
transformation is required. In addition, the tension between the ultimate
perfection of human existence and the need to strive diligently for self-
realization is common throughout the entire Ch*an tradition. Although
the Hsiu-hsin yao lun does not explicitly address this creative tension, the
meditation techniques it suggests are in themselves functional paradigms
of the importance of the Buddha Nature and the essential emptiness of
the discriminative mind. Hence, the very type of practical striving advo-
cated here is in itself an affirmation of perfection in the undisciplined
human state.'23
The first meditation technique recommended in the Hsiu-hsin yao lun,
the visualization of the golden orb of the sun, is obviously related to the
metaphor discussed earlier. (See section O of the translation.) This tech-
nique, which is loosely based on the Pure Land tradition's Sutra o f the
Contemplation o f AmitSbha, is a simple concentration device for the
beginning student similar to those common to all systems of Buddhist
meditation and at the same time a translation of the abstract idea of
shou-hsin and the metaphor of the sun into practical terms. That is,
visualizing an image of the sun is a practical enactment of the state of
enlightenment, in which the Buddha Nature has become and will remain
constantly visible.
The second technique is simply to concentrate on the movement of
one's own discriminative mind. (See section S.) In effect, this is to con-
centrate on the clouds or dusts of ignorance rather than the pure bril-
liance of the sun or mirror, but the overall impact is very much the same
as in the former technique. Here, too, the instruction is not to wrest that
ignorance from one's person, but merely to observe that ignorance until
it ceases to function. In effect, this is to concentrate on one's illusions
until they dissolve into nonexistence. At the point at which one*s dis-
criminative mind finally stops, one is said to have come into contact with
the Absolute Mind. The meditator is not supposed to alter his practice of
shou-hsin after achieving this contact, but rather to maintain it per-
manently while responding perfectly to the outside world. The difference
between this new state of being and the previous, unenlightened state
necessarily involves being in direct, undistorted contact with the outside
world through the undeluded, Absolute Mind. Although this Absolute
Mind is said to discriminate sense data, it does so perfectly and without
any false conceptualization.124
The functioning of the enlightened mind is not discussed at length in
the Hsiu-hsin yao lun, which describes itself as devoted solely to the ben-
efit of self rather than others. The functioning of the enlightened mind is
138 P a r t T s v o : D o c t r in e

actually the province of the Northern School per se, but we are left to
wonder just how much of the later methodology designed to explicate
this issue was already in place by the time the Hsiu-hsin yao lun was writ-
ten. As we shall see in the following section, the JTFM has more to say
on this subject.

6. The Background o f shou-i pu i or

^Maintaining the One W ithout Wavering"
The most interesting subject discussed in the JTFM is shou-i pu i or
^maintaining the One without wavering.** Although the full four-charac-
ter phrase is not found elsewhere, the term shou-i has a very long history
in Chinese literature.123 Yoshioka Yoshitoyo has analyzed the rich back-
ground and significance of this term in the Chinese Taoist tradition,
arguing that by the beginning of the fifth century the advocates of
assumed the status of an independent faction and that by the beginning
of the sixth century this faction had developed to the point that shou-i
had become accepted as the central element of Taoist meditation prac-
tice.126
The basis of the Taoist practice of shou-i is the emphasis on the ^One^
(i)t which in the Tao-te ching is understood as the immediate derivative of
the Tao itself and, in turn, the source of the myriad elements of phenom-
enal reality.127 The term shou-i is used in both the Tao-te ching and the
Chuartg-tzu, but it is in Ko Hung's Pao-p9u tzu that it receives its most
definitive early exposition. Here the “One” is regarded as the source of
all things, including even the Tao itself, and the fundamental reason for
all things being as they are. He who knows the One knows all; he who is
ignorant of the One knows nothing.
The One is the source of all good fortune, as well as personal longevity,
so that the Taoist scriptures teach the practice of ^maintaining the One**
(shou-i). The One is regarded as existing within the psychic centers of the
body, i.eMthe three Cicinnabar fields^ below the navel, below the heart,
and behind the space between the eyes. If a practitioner could 4<maintain
the One without tiringM(shou-ipu t 9ai), the One would protect him from
all danger.128
Although some of the phrases that occur in Taoist texts are very similar
to the shou-i pu i of the JTFM, the explanation of the Taoist practice of
shou-i is couched in the highly symbolic language of internal alchemy,
which does not translate readily into a Buddhist context.129 The follow-
ing statement from a mid-fifth-century Taoist text, however, is unmistak-
ably relevant to the development of Chinese Buddhism:
The srQmanera students of the Hinayana sit quietly and count their
breaths. Reaching ten, they begin again, doing this all year long without for-
getting it for a moment . . .
Basic Doctrines o f the East Mountain Teaching 139

The Taoist priests (tao-shih), the students of the Mahayana, constantly

think upon the image of the true god within the body, [including] its apparel
and color. They lead it going and coming (tao-yin wang-lai), treating it as a
divine ruler, without ceasing for a moment. Therefore, thoughts do not
enter from outside, the Divine and True Being descends, and the mind is
without [the confusion of] excess affairs. The Mahayana [way of] training is
to accept the pneuma and maintain the One (shou-ch'ishou~i).U(i

It is amusing to observe Tkoists using the Buddhist terms “Hlnayana”

and “Mahayana” against Buddhism. For our purposes, the important
implication is that the Ch'an School may have adopted use of the term
shou-i because it represented an alternative to traditional Buddhist medi-
tation technique that was somehow more compatible with the Chinese
religious spirit. Indeed, the state in which “thoughts do not enter from
the outside, the Divine and True Being descends, and the mind is without
[the confusion of] excess affairs** could easily be transposed into a Bud-
dhist idiom, with the Divine and True Being taken as an anthropo-
morphized Buddha Nature.
This interpretation is rendered even more plausible by the fact that
another Taoist text, thought by Yoshioka to have been written around the
year 700, emphasizes the importance of shou-i in much the same way that
the Hsiu-hsin yao lun does shou-hsin, describing it as the one precept in
which all others are subsumed. Not only are the terms “gradual” and
^sudden*' (chien and tun) mentioned, but the text recommends that one
apply the precepts in one's mind, (<not activating any other thought** (pu
ch*i Va nien).iu <<Nonactivation>, (pu<hri) was an important Northern
Ch'an term at the same point in Chinese religious history.
At the very least, the use of the terms shou-i and shou-i pu i in the early
Ch’an School represents the borrowing or imitation of attractive Taoist
terminology. Beyond this, shou-i may have been adopted because of its
specific meaning within the Ikoist tradition. That is, shou-i represented
the quintessential element of Tkoist meditation practice, a general tech-
nique that was applicable in all situations and far superior to the myriad
other techniques of more specific use and elaborate description. The pre-
cipitation of shou-i out of the mass of Ikoist spiritual technology thus
resembles the quest within Buddhism for the single most important and
immediately relevant religious technique, a quest that was an important
factor in the development of both Ch'an meditation and the Pure Land
practice of the ^mindfulness of the Buddha** (nien-fo).
It is also possible that the Ikoist practice of shou-i represented a sort of
generalized mindfulness of one’s internal harmony that appealed to the
followers of early Ch*an. Thus the Buddhists overlooked the symbology
of cinnabar fields and internal spirits and focused on the state achieved
during the correct practice of shou-i, in which thoughts did not intrude
on the harmonized mind. Although this interpretation seems reasonable,
140 P a r t I \ v o : D o c t r in e

there is unfortunately no specific evidence to indicate the degree to which

the Buddhists were aware of and indebted to the previous accomplish-
ments of their Taoist counterparts.

7. The Meaning o f “Maintaining the One W ithout Wavering”

in the JTFM
The 77FM claims that in the practice of shou-i pu i **the trainee is able to
clearly see the Buddha Nature and quickly enter the gateway of medita-
tion.’’132The text describes this practice as follows:

A. First, taking the body as the fundamental [focus of one's atten-

tion], one should cultivate a detailed contemplation of the body.
Also, the body is the amalgam of the four elements (i.e., earth,
water, fire, and wind) and the five skandhas (form, feelings, percep-
tions, impulses, and consciousness). It is ultimately impermanent
and will never achieve autonomy (tzu~tsai). Although it has not yet
been destroyed, it is ultimately nonsubstantial. The Vimalaklrti
Sutra says: uThe body is like a floating cloud汾 in an instant it disap-
pears.’’133
Further, one should constantly contemplate one's own body to be
nonsubstantial and pure134 like a shadow, which can be seen but not
grasped. Wisdom is generated from within the shadow. Being ulti-
mately without location [of its own, wisdom] is unmoving and yet
responds to things, inexhaustible in its transformations. It generates
the six senses out of nonsubstantiality. The six senses are also non-
substantial and serene, so one should realize that their six respective
realms of sense perception a r e illusory, like] dreams or phantasma-
goria.
When the eye sees something, there is no “thing” within the eye.
When a mirror reflects a face, it may be perfectly distinct, but this is
an image (lit” a “shadow of the form” manifested in space and
there is not any “thing” within the mirror. You should understand
that a person^ face does not enter into the mirror, nor does the mir-
ror enter into the person's face.133 One should understand by this
detailed consideration that mirror and face fundamentally do not
exit or enter or go or come. This is the meaning of Tathagata (Ju-lai,
“Thus~comeOne”).
According to this analysis, within the eye and within the mirror
there is a fundamental and constant state of nonsubstanUality and
serenity. The illumination of the mirror and the illumination (i.e.,
perception) of the eye are identical. Therefore, [the eye] has been
used as a comparison. The meaning of the nose, tongue» and other
Basic Doctrines o f the East Mountain Teaching 141

senses is the same. Know that the eye is fundamentally nonsubstan-

tial and that all visible form must be understood to be “other-form”
(t9a-se).li6 When the ear hears a sound, understand this to be an
“other-sound.” When the nose smells a fragrance, understand this to
be an “other-fragrance•” When the tongue distinguishes a taste,
understand this to be an “other-taste.” When the mind apprehends a
dharma, understand this to be an ^othtx-dharma^ When the body
experiences a feeling, understand this to be an “other-feeling” •
B. To “maintain the One without wavering” is to concentrate on
viewing a single thing with this eye of nonsubstantial purity, to be
intent on this constantly and motionlessly, without interruption, day
and night. When the mind tries to run away, bring it back quickly.
Just as a line is tied to the foot of a bird to retrieve it if it tries to fly,
you should view fk'an) [that thing] all day long, without cease. The
mind will then become completely settled . . .
When studying archery, one first shoots at a large target, then a
medium-sized one, then a small one then the bull's-eye, then a single
hair, then one-hundredth of a hair. Then one shoots each arrow into
the haft of the previous one, [each arrow] supported, haft by haft,
without any of them falling. This is a metaphor for spiritual training,
in which one fixes the mind [on a single object] thought after
thought. Continuing this in successive moments of thought without
any temporary [diversion], one's correct mindfulness is uninter-
rupted. One is correctly mindful of the immediate present . . .l,7
Furthermore, if the mind activates (ch*i) its cognitive [functions]
(chueh) in connection with some sense realm separate from itself,
then contemplate the locus of that activation as ultimately nonac-
tivating (pu-ch'i). When the mind is conditionally generated, it does
not come from [anywhere within] the ten directions, nor does it go
anywhere. When you can constantly contemplate [your own] ratioci-
nation, discrimination, false consciousness, perceptions, random
thoughts,13* and confused [states of] mind as nonactivated, then
[your meditation] has attained gross stability. If you can stabilize the
mind and be without further conditional mentation,139 you will be
accordingly serene and concentrated and will also be able accord-
ingly to put an end to [your present] afflictions and cease the produc-
tion of new ones. This is called emancipation.
If you can view the mind^ most subtle afflictions, agonized confu-
sions, and dark introspections and can temporarily let go of them
and gently stabilize [your mind] in a suitable fashion, your mind will
naturally attain peace and purity(?).140 Only you must be valiant, as
if you were saving your head from burning. You must not be lax!
Make effort! Make effort!
142 P a r t ^IWo: D o c t r in e

C. When you are beginning to practice seated meditation and mind-

viewing, you should sit alone in a single place.141 First, sit upright in
correct posture, loosen your robe and your belt, and relax your body
by massaging yourself seven or eight times.142 Force all the air out of
your abdomen, so as to become like peace itself, simple and calm. By
regulating the body and mind one can pacify the mind (hsin-shen).
Therefore, being completely effaced in profound obscurity,143 one's
breathing becomes tranquil and the mind gradually regulated.144
One's spirit (shen-tao) becomes clear and keen, one's mind (hsin-ti)
bright and pure. Observing distinctly, both interior and exterior are
nonsubstantial and pure,145 so that the Mind Nature is quiescent.
When it is quiescent, the mind of the sage will be manifest.
Although formless in nature, the virtuous fidelity [of the mind of
the sage] is always present. The [functioning of the] abstruse numen
cannot be exhausted and always maintains its brilliance: this is called
the Buddha Nature.146 He who sees this Buddha Nature transcends
birth and death forever and is referred to as a person who has
escaped the world. Therefore, the VimalakTrti Sutra says: 44With a
sudden expansiveness one retrieves the Fundamental Mind.’’147 How
true these words!

In contrast to the relatively straightforward manner in which different

topics are introduced and discussed in the Hsiu-hsin yao lun, the JTFM is
repetitive and occasionally confusing. It is much more willing than the
other text to string together scriptural quotations (these have been largely
excised from the passage introduced here), to make sophisticated allu-
sions to the classics of Chinese secular and Buddhist literature, and even
to state apparently self-contradictory positions. Finally, where the Hsiu-
hsin yao lun is devoted almost entirely to static images汾 the existence of
the Buddha Nature, maintenence of the mind, etc.汾 the JTFM mixes
both the static and dynamic. In particular, it exhibits a greater interest in
the ongoing functioning of the enlightened mind than in the immanence
of that mind within us all.
Simply put, in the JTFM umaintaining the One without wavering**
refers to the practice of meditation on the nonsubstantiality of one*s
body and the entirety of oneJs sensory apparatus and experience. The
explanation of this practice has two different components: a definition
of the nonsubstantiality of body and mind and the instruction to use that
fundamentally nonsubstantial mind to contemplate a selected object of
meditation.
Later in the LCSTC, the parent text in which the JTFM is found, the
practitioner is advised to usit upright in correct position on a flat [place
with an unobstructed view], relax the body and mind, and distantly view
Basic Doctrines o f the East Mountain Teaching 143

the character (one* (;, essentially a straight horizontal line) at the very
edge of space., M, This symbolic visualization is of much the same kind as
the visualization of the sun recommended in the Hsiu-hsin yao tun. In
this case the practitioner is identifying himself with the unity of all
things. Other passages in the text, however, imply that the “One” of
“maintaining the One” is equivalent to nonsubstantiality and should not
be grasped too insistently.149
At any rate the practical explanation of “maintaining the One without
wavering” is that one is simply to contemplate every aspect of one’s men-
tal and physical existence focusing on each individual component with
unswerving attention until one realizes its essential emptiness or nonsub-
stantiality. The interesting aspect of this regimen is, paradoxically, its
apparent conventionality. Although further examination will reveal sig-
nificant differences between this and traditional Buddhist meditation
practice, the description given so far would apply equally well to the
most basic of Mah^yana techniques: the insight-oriented contemplation
of the nonsubstantiality of the body.
Although this type of contemplation is the common property of virtu-
ally all schools of Mahayana Buddhism, its presentation here differs in at
least two ways from that found in more traditional texts. First, no pre-
paratory requirements, no moral prerequisites or preliminary exercises
are given. Instead, one moves directly into the practice of contemplation.
Second, the technique of “maintaining the One without wavering” is in
itself completely without steps or gradations. One concentrates, under-
stands, and is enlightened, all in one undifferentiated practice. These dif-
ferences may appear to be of little consequence to modern readers,
whose cultures generally emphasize instant gratification and success. But
it is important to remember that the traditional practice of Buddhist
meditation involved a highly articulated system of moral prerequisites
and contemplative techniques. Hence these two differences represent
fundamental distinctions from the traditional practice of Chinese Bud-
dhist meditation.
The JTFM thus contains the first explicit statement of the sudden and
direct approach that was to become the hallmark of Ch'an religious prac-
tice.150 Nevertheless, the following passage indicates that this text had a
complex attitude toward meditation:
Do not [practice] mindfulness of the Buddha, do not grasp the mind, do
not view the mind, do not measure the mind, do not meditate, do not con-
template, and do not disrupt [the mind]. Just let it flow. Do not make it go
and do not make it stay. Alone in a pure and ultimate location (i.e., the
absolute), the mind will be naturally bright and pure.
Or you can view it dearly, and the mind will attain brightness and purity.
The mind will be like a bright mirror. You can [do this for] a year, and the
144 P a r t T\v o : D o c t r in e

mind will be even more bright and pure. Or you can do this for three or five
years, and the mind will be even more bright and pure.151

Obviously, the JTFM makes allowance for both sudden apperception

of the Buddha Nature and gradual improvement in the brightness and
purity of the concentrated mind. As Tanaka Rydshd has shown, the
77FM actually allows for a number of alternative situations: One may
achieve “bright purity” of mind either with or without undertaking the
extended practice of <4viewing the mind** One may also achieve enlight-
enment either solely through one*s own efforts or, conversely, with the
aid of a teacher*s instruction.152 The point of these alternatives is that a
true teacher must be able to understand which students are best suited for
which approach and to teach them differently on the basis of that under-
standing. Differences of ability had long been recognized within Chinese
Buddhism; F*u-chi is known to have said that enlightenment could occur
either right away or only after several years of practice.153 The orienta-
tion of the JTFM to teachers of meditation rather than to the students
themselves highlights the increasing maturity of the Ch*an tradition.

8. The Metaphor o f the Mirror

In the Hsiu-hsin yao lun the practice of meditation necessarily involves
one or both of two goals: (1) intimate contact or unification with the
Buddha Nature and (2) realization of the ultimate nonexistence or lack of
efficacy of the illusions. The text's emphasis on maintaining a constant
focus on the fundamentally pure mind is an expression of the first of
these two goals; the practice of watching the discriminating mind until it
naturally comes to a stop may be correlated with the second.
The description of shou-i pu i in the JTFM cannot be completely
explained on the basis of the dualistic paradigm of the sun and clouds or
Buddha Nature and illusions. Here the primary emphasis is on the ongo-
ing functioning of the enlightened mind. The text mentions the inex-
haustible transformation undertaken by wisdom in response to things,
the nonsubstantiality of the senses and sensory phenomena, and the ulti-
mate serenity of the apparent activity of perception. It also discusses the
activation and nonactivation (ch*i and pu^chH) of the mind's cognitive
functions.154 The JTFM, therefore, posits only one comprehensive goal,
the consummation of both the static realm of the perception of the Bud-
dha Nature and the dynamic realm of the perfection of ongoing percep-
tual processes. The most apt paradigm for such an achievement is the
metaphor of the perfectly reflecting mirror.
The metaphor of the mirror is mentioned prominently in the passages
discussed in the previous section, but its most explicit statement in early
Ch'an literature actually occurs even earlier in the JTFM:
Basic Doctrines o f the East Mountain Teaching 145

Truly, the Tathagata's body of the Dharma Nature is pure, perfect, and
complete. All forms (hsiang-lei) are manifested within it, even though that
body of the Dharma Nature is without any mental activity. It is like a crystal
mirror suspended in an elevated building: All the various objects are mani-
fested within it, but the mirror is without any mind that can manifest
them.155

This is the basis for the JTFAfs statement that the illumination of the
mirror and the illumination of the eye are identical.156 The sun and, of
course, the mind itself could also be made members to this equation. In
other words, this text does not emphasize simply the immanence of the
Buddha Nature, but also the activation of that Buddha Nature; not
merely the recognition of the Buddha Nature as the governing principle
of one’s existence, but also the transformation of one’s own being into
an unqualified expression of that Buddha Nature.

9. The Use o f the Mirror in Early C h’an Texts

References to the mirror occur frequently in early Ch’an texts. Some of
these references, such as the Platform SQtra anecdote introduced at the
beginning of this study—if, for the time being, we accept the traditional
interpretation—use the mirror in a fashion analogous to the metaphor of
the sun and clouds discussed in conjunction with the Hsiu-hsin yao lun.
According to this usage, the “bright mirror” is equated with the con-
stantly shining sun and the dust that occurs on the mirror’s surface, obs-
curing its reflective capacity, corresponds to the ^clouds and mists of the
eight directions" that block the light of the sun. In other instances, how-
ever, references to the mirror or the images that appear on its surface are
based on a more active image of the mirror's functioning. In these
instances the question of dust simply does not arise.
The mirror referred to in most Ch’an texts is an idealized version of
the round metal mirrors so common in exhibitions of Chinese art (where
emphasis is placed on the beautifully ornamented reverse sides rather
than on the reflective surface). The difference between the real artifacts
and the idealized prototype is indicated in the passage translated in the
previous section, which mentions a “crystal mirror suspended in an
elevated building.** In other words, this mirror is made out of a special
substance that lacks the metallic distortion of most ancient Chinese mir-
rors. Even more important than its perfectly reflective substance, how-
ever, is the fact that this mirror is mounted in a very special location
where all phenomenal reality is somehow reflected on its surface. The
purpose of this idealized conception of the mirror should be immediately
obvious: to make the mirror a fitting match for the mind of the Buddha,
whom the Chinese regarded as omniscient.
146 P a r t T w o : D o c t r in e

Most of the references in early Ch'an texts to the metaphor of the mir-
ror are rather brief. Considered individually, these references are some-
times so fragmentary as to be almost incomprehensible. Tkken together,
however, they describe a logical or metaphorical construct that is well
integrated and comprehensible. The different aspects of this extended
metaphor may be explained as follows:
The mirror functions constantly and with inherent perfection. It reflects
any object that is placed before it, doing so immediately and without any
distortion or fatigue. The mirror reflects images, but it does not become
attached to them—when the object is no longer present, the image disap-
pears. The images are essentially unreal, being neither part of the object nor
part of the mirror. Most important, they neither interfere with each other
nor exert any influence on the mirror.

In the background of this understanding of the mirror is, of course, the

Yogacara doctrine of the "great perfect mirror wisdom" (ta yuan-ching
chiht corresponding to the Sanskrit Qdar^a-jnQna). One of the four wis-
doms possessed by enlightened beings and representing the transforma-
tion of what in unenlightened persons is the ^storehouse consciousness>,
(Qlaya-vijnana), the (tgreat perfect mirror wisdom** and the other three
wisdoms are not unknown in Northern School literature. Nevertheless,
most references to the mirror in the literature of this school are more gen-
eral than this technical usage, referring to any perceptive function or the
sage's mind in general rather than to the enlightened equivalent of one of
the eight vijnanas of Yogacara philosophy.
The mirror as defined here is an apt metaphor for the mind of the sage,
which is constantly functioning on behalf of sentient beings but at the
same time essentially inactive. In addition, the images that appear on the
surface of the mirror are used metaphorically to describe the illusoriness
of phenomenal reality and the mutual noninterference or nonhindrance
of its individual elements. One text describes the mirror and its images in
parallel terms : “The bright mirror never thinks ‘I can manifest images;’
the images never say, ‘I am generated from the mirror. ” 157

10. The Sun, the Mirror and Bodhidharma’s Treatise

These, then, are the two most important metaphors of early Ch*an: the
sun and clouds and the mirror and its images. They are only rarely
explained or stated completely. Instead, texts tend, especially in the case
of the mirror metaphor, to mention only one aspect of the metaphor in
any given context. It seems best to approach these metaphors not as rigid
devices of unchanging implication, but as conceptual matrices that pro-
vide logical frameworks for the expression of several different view-
Basic Doctrines o f the East Mountain Teaching 147

points. Reference may be made to the unreality of the images on the mir-
ror, for example, without any explicit mention of the mirror itself. In
such fragmentary citations it is important to remember the full ramifica-
tions of the mirror as a conceptual model: The gradualistic interpretation
of the Platform Sutra verses should not be applied indiscriminately.
It is significant that these two conceptual matrixes of early Ch'an doc-
trine may be correlated so easily with the 4<two entrances** of Bodhidhar-
ma’s 55W-A5//1 /wn. The parallel between the “entrance of princi-
ple” and the metaphor of the sun and clouds is obvious and needs no
discussion. Although the meditation practices of Bodhidharma and his
immediate associates cannot be ascertained with any precision, the tech-
niques outlined in the Hsiu-hsin yao tun constitute a very simple yet
sophisticated response to the religious dilemma implied by the paradigm
of the immanent Buddha Nature and the adventitious obfuscation
caused by the illusions.
Although the similarities between the “entrance of practice” and the
metaphor of the mirror are not nearly so obvious, both emphasize the
active expression of one's enlightenment in the activities of daily life. The
highest sense of the entrance of practice, the reader will recall, was the
ability to undertake all activities in accord with the the principle of sun-
yata. One was to practice the perfection of charity, for example, without
conceiving of the existence of recipient, donor, or gift. This approach is
congruent with the mirror's ability to reflect images without becoming
attached to or affected by them.
I believe that it is possible to correlate the metaphor of the sun and
clouds with the simpler doctrines of the East Mountain Teaching and that
of the mirror with the more complex formulations of the Northern
School. This distinction is, of course, a didactic conceit of only general
validity. As we have seen with the JTFM, the ideas that underlie both of
these metaphors can occur in one and the same text. The simpler East
Mountain Teaching probably antedated the ideas of the Northern
School, but we cannot reconstruct the dynamics of that philosophical
evolution. Nevertheless, since there are only one or two explicit instances
of later doctrinal elaboration on Bodhidharma's two entrances,158 it is
interesting that his treatise contains a primitive expression of the two
most important logical constructs of early eighth-century C h^n doc-
trine.