Learning strategies

As researchers and teachers have been working hard to find out effective teaching methods
and approaches to language teaching, Brown (2007) noted that certain learners tended to
be successful regardless of methods or techniques of teaching; therefore, the importance of
individual variation in language learning has been noticed. The notion of independent
successful learners is closely linked to the increasing importance now attached to the
learner-centred approach to language teaching, which is grounded in the assumption that
language learners who have greater control of their learning will become more successful
than those who do not. the learning strategies used by successful or good language learners
have been the focus of attention among both teachers and researchers.
Definition:
According to Oxford, “language learning styles and strategies are among the main factors
that help determine how and how well our students learn a second language”. (Oxford, 2001,
p. 43). He refers to learning style as the “general approach” (Oxford, 2001, p. 44) and
defines learning strategies as “specific actions, behaviors, steps, or techniques”. (Oxford,
2001, p. 45). The term strategies, in the second-language-learning sense, has come to be
applied to the conscious moves made by second-language speakers intended to be useful in
either learning or using the second language. A learning strategy in language learning has
been defined as conscious mental activity that contains a goal or intention, an action to
reach this goal, and a learning activity (Cohen, 2007). However, Cohen also notes
contention among academics over this definition, in that not all learning strategies
necessarily reflect these three factors. Self-regulation in language learning refers to the
processes the learner uses to exercise control over learning. This term is usually used
synonymously with autonomy and self-management by some researchers (Cohen, 2007).
There are obvious connections that link both learning strategies and self-regulation to self-
access learning, as they share core notions of independent learning settings, learner-
centredness, and the raising of awareness and knowledge necessary for a learner to
exercise responsibility for their learning (White, 2008). Oxford further points out “when
learner consciously chooses strategies that fit his or her learning style …, these strategies
become a useful toolkit for active, conscious, and purposeful self-regulation of learning.”
(Oxford, 2001, p. 55).
Ever since Naiman et al. (1976) noted that “good” language learners appeared to use a
larger number and range of strategies than “poor” language learners, the implications of
understanding strategy use have seemed increasingly important. However, there are still
many questions to resolve. Does strategy use actually aid language learning, or is it just
something that good learners do? Are some strategies better than others, or is it the number
and range of strategies used that counts? Are there “bad” strategies that actually making
learning or performance worse? Can “poor” language learners benefit from being taught the
strategies that “good” learners use, or do you need to be a good learner already to use some
of the strategies? Does strategy training affect language learning, and if so is the effect
direct, or does such training serve mainly to raise motivation and awareness? If learners are
encouraged to use strategies to organise their own learning, for example, what are the
implications for the role of the classroom teacher? Such issues have already prompted a
considerable volume of research and writing, and directly or indirectly made a significant
impact on language learning, at least in some places. For example, the establishment of
self-access centres and the encouragement of learner independence are essentially based
on the assumption that students will be able to use viable metacognitive learning strategies.
Ellis (1994) writes: “The study of learning strategies holds considerable promise, both for
language pedagogy and for explaining individual differences in second language learning. It

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is probably true to say, however, that it is still in its infancy. For this reason, perhaps,
discussions of learning strategies typically conclude with the problems that have surfaced
and that need to be addressed before progress can be made” (p. 558).
Language learning and language use strategies (from Hall, 2017)
One helpful distinction for defining language learner strategies is between language learning
and language use strategies.
‘Language learning strategies’ – referring to the conscious and semi-conscious thoughts
and behaviours used by learners with the explicit goal of improving their knowledge and
understanding of a target language.
‘Language use strategies’ – referring to strategies for using the language that has been
learned, however incompletely, including four sub-sets of strategies:
‘Retrieval strategies’ (strategies used to call up language material from storage, for
example, calling up the correct verb in its appropriate tense or retrieving the meaning of a
word when it is heard or read).
‘Rehearsal strategies’ (strategies for practicing target language structures, for example,
rehearsing the subjunctive form for several Spanish verbs in preparation for using them
communicatively in a request in Spanish to a teacher or boss to be excused for the day).
‘Communication strategies’ (strategies used to convey a message that is both meaningful
and informative for the listener or reader, for example, when we want to explain technical
information for which we do not have the specialized vocabulary).
‘Cover strategies’ (strategies for creating an appearance of language ability so as not to
look unprepared, foolish or even stupid, for example, using a memorized and partially
understood phrase in a classroom drill in order to keep the action going, or laughing at a joke
that you did not understand at all).

Types of Learning Strategies:

Strategies can be very different in nature, ranging from planning the organisation of one’s
learning (a metacognitive learning strategy) through using mnemonic devices to learn
vocabulary (cognitive learning strategies) and rehearsing what one expects to say (a
performance strategy) to bolstering one’s self-confidence for a language task by means of
“self-talk” (an effective strategy).
1. Affective
Research by Dreyer and Oxford (1996) and Oxford and Ehrman (1995) into learning foreign
languages has shown that affective strategies, such as identifying mood and anxiety levels,
talking about feelings, challenging belief systems and using deep breathing or positive self-
talk, can be significantly beneficial for language learners. For example, if you are stressed
you are less likely to attain information, but by working on your personal wellbeing means
reducing those stress levels, therefore, making you more focused. Focus on developing your
self-esteem and compassion within language learning.
2. Cognitive
Cognitive strategies enable the learner to manipulate the language material in direct ways
via reasoning, analysis, note-taking, summarizing, synthesizing, outlining, reorganizing
information to develop knowledge structures, practicing in naturalistic settings, and practicing
structures and sounds formal. All learning styles can benefit from these methods. In order to

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begin learning you must be paying attention. The average person can hold up to 3 small
learning tasks at a time and 1 complex task at a time. Next, what we are paying attention to
must be stored in our memory and there are 3 stages of memory process before something
is learnt! Firstly, is the sensory register (seconds), then it is passed into short-term
memory (20 seconds – 2minutes), then if the word is rehearsed it short end up in the long-
term memory. To achieve this, you need to encode the foreign words you are learning. If you
are a visual learner you could do this via reading a language book or if you are audio via
listening to the language. Tactile or kinaesthetic flash cards work best for you.
3. Compensatory Learning
Compensatory strategies (e.g., guessing from the context in listening and reading; using
synonyms and “talking around” the missing word to aid speaking and writing; and strictly for
speaking, using gestures or pause words) help the learner make up for missing knowledge.
When used in conjunction with memory-related strategies this can be pretty powerful
language learning strategy. Watching body language to put foreign language into context.
4. Metacognitive Approach
These focus on identifying on a more holistic approach taken individual needs into
account. Planning and goal setting for learning tasks, information gathering, and organizing
materials, arranging a study space and a schedule, monitoring mistakes, and evaluating task
success. Metacognitive approach can complement affective learning strategies.
5. Memory-related
Memory-related strategies help learners link languages or concepts with another but do not
necessarily involve deep understanding. Various memory-related strategies enable learners
to learn and retrieve information in an orderly string (e.g., acronyms), while other techniques
create learning and retrieval via sounds (e.g., rhyming), images (e.g., a mental picture of the
word itself or the meaning of the word), a combination of sounds and images (e.g., the
keyword method), body movement (e.g., total physical response), mechanical means (e.g.,
flashcards), or location (e.g., on a page). The probable reason for this is that memory
strategies are often used for memorizing vocabulary and structures in initial stages of
language learning, but that learners need such strategies much less when their arsenal of
vocabulary and structures has become larger.
6. Social
Social strategies (e.g., asking questions to get verification, asking for clarification of a
confusing point, asking for help in doing a language task, talking with a native-speaking
conversation partner, and exploring cultural and social norms) help the learner work with
others and understand the target culture as well as the language. One of the best ways to
learn a new language is to ‘live it‘. Fully immerse yourself in the language and no matter you
sensory preferences bombarded with visual, auditory, touch, and taste.
Pushing Boundaries
Language learners really start to make the most improvement when they push the
boundaries and get out of their ‘comfort zones’. Although it is important to make the most out
of learning styles don’t be afraid to extend beyond your style preferences.
The key is to try a variety of different activities within a more mindful and holistic orientated
approach. Also, don’t forget about the biological structures that could be holding you back
from achieving your goals! By applying these and also pushing boundaries you will become
a much more efficient, focused and productive language learner.