Light Polarization - Malus’s law

Apparatus: Optics bench with ruler, light sensor (photodiode), Mercury lamp (unpolarized light),
polarizer, analyzer*, multimeter (set in millivoltV range).
*A polarizer used to study already polarized light is usually called an analyzer (the same device can be

viewed as a polarizer or analyzer depending on its use).

Polarizer Analyzer

Light sensor (Photodiode)

Optical bench
Mercury lamp (unpolarized light)

Multimeter

Figure 1. Experimental setup

Theory
• Light is an electromagnetic wave, and the polarization direction of an electromagnetic wave is
defined as the vibration direction of the electric field for the wave. In a vacuum or uniform medium, the
direction of polarization is perpendicular to the propagation direction of an electromagnetic wave. As
shown in figure 2, an electromagnetic wave propagates along the x-axis, and the polarization direction
follows the y-axis.
• However, for any light wave (or electromagnetic wave) commonly found in nature, the
polarization direction of the electric field exists in every angle as shown in figure 3a. The result is an
“unpolarized” electromagnetic wave, such as sunlight or light emitted from an incandescent bulb.
• Since human eye cannot distinguish between polarized light and unpolarized light, we are not
normally aware of the many instances of polarized light around us. Bees, on the other hand can detect
polarized light and use scattered polarized sunlight in navigating.
• Polarizers are used to produce a linearly polarized light beam as shown in figure 4. A polarizer
only allows light which is vibrating in a particular plane to pass through it. This plane forms the “axis” of
polarization. Unpolarized light vibrates in all planes perpendicular to the direction of propagation. The
transmitted light is polarized in one plane.
• If this polarized light is incident upon a second polarizer (analyzer), the axis of which is oriented
such that it is perpendicular to the plane of polarization of the incident light, no light will be transmitted
through the second polarizer. However, if the second polarizer is oriented at an angle so that it is not
perpendicular to the first polarizer, there will be some component of the electric field of the polarized
light that lies in the same direction as the axis of the second polarizer, thus some light will be transmitted
through the second polarizer shown in figure 4.

1
 Electric field
y

d
f ie l Pro p
tic of w ag at i on
gne av e d i re
a Z ct io
M B n

C
x
 
Figure 2. An illustration of an electromagnetic wave. The electric and magnetic field vectors ( E and B )
vibrate at right angles to each other and perpendicularly to the direction of propagation (transverse).
E E E

(a) Unpolarized (b) Partially polarized (c) Lineraly or plane polarized


Figure 3. An illustration of the polarization of light as denoted by the E vector viewed along the axis of
propagation.

Malus’s Law
According to Malus, when completely plane polarized light is incident on the analyzer, the intensity I of
the light transmitted by the analyzer is directly proportional to the square of the cosine of angle between
the transmission axes of the analyzer and the polarizer.
• The polarization of light may be analyzed (detected) by means of another polarizer, which acts as

an analyzer figure 4. The magnitude of the component of the E vector parallel to the transmission axis of
the analyzer is E = E0 cos  . Since the intensity of light varies as the square of the electric field
amplitude, the transmitted intensity of light through the analyzer is
E 2 = E02 cos 2   I = I 0 cos 2  (1)
Where
• I 0 (in Candela) is the maximum intensity of light through the analyzer.
•  (in degree) is the angle between the transmission axes of the polarizer and analyzer.
• I (in Candela) is the intensity of light through the analyzer.
This equation is known as Malus’s law. It applies to any two polarizing elements whose transmission
directions make an angle  with each other.
• If  = 0o , the second polarizer (analyzer) is aligned with the first polarizer, and the value of
cos 2  is one (from equation 1). Thus the intensity transmitted by the second filter is equal to the light
intensity that passes through the first filter. This case will allow maximum intensity to pass through.
• If  = 90o , we have a condition of cross-polarizers, and no light is transmitted through the
analyzer ( cos 2  =0).

2
 θ
Transmission
axis
E cosθ
0

E 0

Polarizer axis
analyzer axis
Unpolarized
light Analyzer E0 sinθ
Polarized
light
E0
θ E cosθ
0

Polarizer
Figure 4 Polarizer and analyzer, when the transmission axes of the polarizer and analyzer are not parallel,
less light is transmitted.

Procedure
In this experiment the light sensor measures the relative intensity of light that passes through two
polarizers. You will change the angle of the second polarizer relative to the first.
1. Arrange the light source polarizer, analyzer and photodiode on the optical bench as shown in figure 1.
2. Make sure that the photo detector is totally illuminated when the polarization filter is set up.
3. The background voltage V0 ( I Ambient ) must be determined with the light source switched off and this
must be subtracted from actual readings.
4. Record the intensity in terms of photo voltage using a multimeter (DC-mV range). It is I max. measured .
5. Place a polarizer at  = 0o and record the photo-voltage I measured with analyzer at angles given in table
below.
I
6. Plot vs cos 2  (x-axis) and fit the straight line to find slope and verify Malus’s law.
I0
Measurements
I ambient =




mV
I max. measured =




mV
I 0 = I max. measured  I ambient =




mV

 (o ) cos 2  I measured ( mV ) I ( mV ) I
= I measured  I ambient I max.

15

30