Gharda Institute of Technology, Ratnagiri (Khed,Lavel)

Sub: Adhoc Wireless Network (BE COMPUTER-VIII Semester)

______________________________________________________________________________________
UNIT 2
MEDIUM ACCESS PROTOCOLS
Syllabus

2.1 MAC Protocols for Ad hoc wireless Networks: Introduction, Issues in designing a MAC
protocol for Ad hoc wireless Networks, Design goals and Classification of a MAC protocol,
Contention based protocols with reservation mechanisms.

2.2 Scheduling algorithms, protocols using directional antennas. IEEE standards: 802.11a,
802.11b, 802.11g, 802.15, 802.16, HIPERLAN.

ISSUES IN DESIGNING MAC PROTOCOL FOR AD HOC WIRELESS NETWORK

The main issues in designing MAC protocol for ad hoc wireless network are:
Bandwidth efficiency
 Bandwidth must be utilized in efficient manner
 Minimal Control overhead
 BW = ratio of BW used for actual data transmission to the total available BW
Quality of service support
Essential for supporting time-critical traffic sessions
They have resource reservation mechanism that takes into considerations the nature of
wirelesschannel and the mobility of nodes
Synchronisation
MAC protocol must consider synchronization between nodes in the
network
Synchronization is very important for BW (time slot) reservation by nodes
Exchange of control packets may be required for achieving time synchronisation among nodes
Hidden and exposed terminal problems
The hidden terminal problem refers to the collision of packets at a receiving node due to
thesimultaneous transmission of those nodes that are not within the direct transmission range of
the sender but are within the transmission range of the receiver.
Collision occurs when both nodes transmit packets at the same time without knowing about
thetransmission of each other.

____________Prepared By: Mrs. KRANTI M. GAJMAL (Asst. Prof. Computer Dept.)__________

 Gharda Institute of Technology, Ratnagiri (Khed,Lavel)
Sub: Adhoc Wireless Network (BE COMPUTER-VIII Semester)
______________________________________________________________________________________
 S1 and S2 are hidden from each other & they transmit simultaneously to R1 which
 eads to collision
 The exposed terminal problem refers to the inability of a node, which is blocked due to
transmission by a nearby transmitting node, to transmit to another node
 If S1 is already transmitting to R1, then S3 cannot interfere with on-going transmission & it cannot
transmit to R2.
 The hidden & exposed terminal problems reduce the throughput of a network when traffic load is
high
Error-prone shared broadcast channel
 When a node is receiving data, no other node in its neighborhood should transmit
 A node should get access to the shared medium only when its transmission do not affect any
ongoing session.
 MAC protocol should grant channel access to nodes in such a manner that collisions are minimized
 Protocol should ensure fair BW allocation
Distributed nature/lack of central coordination
 Do not have centralized coordinators
 Nodes must be scheduled in a distributed fashion for gaining access to the channel
 MAC protocol must make sure that additional overhead, in terms of BW consumption, incurred due to
this control information is not very high
 Nodes are mobile most of the time
 The protocol design must take this mobility factor into consideration so that the performance of the
system is not affected due to node mobility

DESIGN GOALS OF A MAC PROTOCOL FOR AD HOC WIRELESS NETWORKS

 The operation of a protocol should be distributed
 The protocol should provide QoS support for real-time traffic
 The access delay, which refers to the average delay experienced by any packet to get transmitted,
must be kept low
 The available bandwidth must be utilized efficiently
 The protocol should ensure fair allocation of bandwidth to nodes
 Control overhead must be kept as low as possible
 The protocol should minimize the effects of hidden and exposed terminal problems
 The protocol must be scalable to large networks
 It should have power control mechanisms in order to efficiently manage energy consumption of the
nodes
 The protocol should have mechanisms for adaptive data rate control
 It should try to use directional antennas which can provide advantages such as reduced
interference, increased spectrum reuse, and reduced power consumption
 The protocol should provide time synchronization among nodes

Classification of MAC Protocols.

____________Prepared By: Mrs. KRANTI M. GAJMAL (Asst. Prof. Computer Dept.)__________
 Gharda Institute of Technology, Ratnagiri (Khed,Lavel)
Sub: Adhoc Wireless Network (BE COMPUTER-VIII Semester)
______________________________________________________________________________________

1) Contention-based protocols

• Sender-initiated protocols: Packet transmissions are initiated by the sender node.

o Single-channel sender-initiated protocols: A node that wins the contention to the channel can make
use of the entire bandwidth.
o Multichannel sender-initiated protocols: The available bandwidth is divided into multiple channels.

• Receiver-initiated protocols: The receiver node initiates the contention resolution protocol.

2) Contention-based protocols with reservation mechanisms

• Synchronous protocols: All nodes need to be synchronized. Global time synchronization is

difficult to achieve.

• Asynchronous protocols: These protocols use relative time information for effecting
Reservations.

3) Contention-based protocols with scheduling mechanisms

• Node scheduling is done in a manner so that all nodes are treated fairly and no node is starved
of bandwidth.
• Scheduling-based schemes are also used for enforcing priorities among flows whose packets are
queued at nodes.
• Some scheduling schemes also consider battery characteristics.

Other protocols are those MAC protocols that do not strictly fall under the above categories . Directional
antenna based protocols fall within this category.

Sender Initiated CONTENTION-BASED PROTOCOLS

____________Prepared By: Mrs. KRANTI M. GAJMAL (Asst. Prof. Computer Dept.)__________

 Gharda Institute of Technology, Ratnagiri (Khed,Lavel)
Sub: Adhoc Wireless Network (BE COMPUTER-VIII Semester)
______________________________________________________________________________________
Single Channel
1) MACAW: A Media Access Protocol for Wireless LANs
This protocol is based on the multiple access collision avoidance protocol (MACA). MACA was
proposed due to the shortcomings of CSMA protocols when used for wireless networks.

MACA Protocol
 MACA does not make use of carrier-sensing for channel access. It uses two additional signaling
packets: the request-to-send (RTS) packet and the clear-to-send (CTS) packet.
 When a node wants to transmit a data packet, it first transmits an RTS packet. The receiver node, on
receiving the RTS packet, if it is ready to receive the data packet, transmits a CTS packet.
 Once the sender receives the CTS packet without any error, it starts transmitting the data packet.
 If a packet transmitted by a node is lost, the node uses the binary exponential back-off (BEB)
algorithm to back off for a random interval of time before retrying.
 A node near the receiver, upon hearing the CTS packet, defers its transmission till the receiver
receives the data packet. Thus, MACA overcomes the hidden node problem.
 Similarly, a node receiving an RTS defers only for a short period of time till the sender
could receive the CTS. Thus, a node that hears only the RTS packet is free to transmit
simultaneously when the sender of the RTS is transmitting data packets. Hence, the exposed terminal
problem is also overcome in MACA.

Packet Transmission in MACA

MACAW Protocol
 To prevent large variations in the back-off values, a multiplicative increase and linear decrease
(MILD) back-off mechanism is used in MACAW. Here, upon a collision, the back-off is increased
by a multiplicative factor (1.5), and upon a successful transmission, it is decremented by one.
 In MACAW, after successful reception of each data packet, the receiver node transmits an ACK
packet. If the sender does not receive the ACK packet, it reschedules the same data packet for
transmission.
 MACAW uses another small (30-bytes) control packet called the data-sending (DS) packet. Before
transmitting the actual data packet, the source node transmits this DS packet. The DS packet carries
information such as the duration of the data packet transmission, which could be used by the exposed
nodes for updating information they hold regarding the duration of the data packet transmission.
 The MACAW protocol uses one more control packet called the request-for-request-to-send (RRTS)
packet.
 MACAW protocol has been designed based on four main observations.
 The first is that the relevant congestion occurs at the receiver node and not at the sender. This
realization makes CSMA protocols unsuitable for ad hoc wireless networks, and therefore the RTS-
CTS-DATA exchange mechanism of MACA becomes necessary.
 MACAW further improves upon this scheme using the RTS-CTS-DS-DATA-ACK exchange
mechanism.

____________Prepared By: Mrs. KRANTI M. GAJMAL (Asst. Prof. Computer Dept.)__________

 Gharda Institute of Technology, Ratnagiri (Khed,Lavel)
Sub: Adhoc Wireless Network (BE COMPUTER-VIII Semester)
______________________________________________________________________________________
 The second observation is that congestion is dependent on the location of the receiver. Therefore,
instead of characterizing back-off by a single back-off parameter, separate back-off parameters have
been introduced for each flow instead of each node.
 The third is that learning about congestion at various nodes must be a collective enterprise.
Therefore, the notion of copying back-off values from overheard packets has been introduced in
MACA.
 And the final observation is that in order that nodes contend effectively for the channel, the
synchronization information needs to be propagated to the concerned nodes at appropriate times. This
is done in MACAW through the DS and RRTS packets.
 Because of the various changes described above, the performance of MACAW is significantly
improved when compared to the MACA protocol.

2) Floor Acquisition Multiple Access Protocols

 The floor acquisition multiple access (FAMA) protocols [3] are based on a channel access discipline
which consists of a carrier-sensing operation and a collision-avoidance dialog between the sender
and the intended receiver of a packet.
 Floor acquisition refers to the process of gaining control of the channel. At any given point of time,
the control of the channel is assigned to only one node, and this node is guaranteed to transmit one
or more data packets to different destinations without suffering from packet collisions.
 Two FAMA protocol variants are discussed in this section: RTS-CTS exchange with no carrier
sensing, and RTS-CTS exchange with non-persistent carrier-sensing.
 The first variant uses the ALOHA protocol for transmitting RTS packets, while the second variant
uses non persistent CSMA for the same purpose.

Multichannel Protocols
1) Busy Tone Multiple Access Protocols
1.1 Busy Tone Multiple Access
 The busy tone multiple access (BTMA) protocol [4] is one of the earliest protocols proposed for
overcoming the hidden terminal problem faced in wireless environments.
 The transmission channel is split into two: a data channel and a control channel.
 The data channel is used for data packet transmissions, while the control channel is used to transmit
the busy tone signal.
____________Prepared By: Mrs. KRANTI M. GAJMAL (Asst. Prof. Computer Dept.)__________
 Gharda Institute of Technology, Ratnagiri (Khed,Lavel)
Sub: Adhoc Wireless Network (BE COMPUTER-VIII Semester)
______________________________________________________________________________________
 When a node is ready for transmission, it senses the channel to check whether the busy tone is
active. If not, it turns on the busy tone signal and starts data transmission; otherwise, it reschedules
the packet for transmission after some random rescheduling delay.
 Any other node which senses the carrier on the incoming data channel also transmits the busy tone
signal on the control channel. Thus, when a node is transmitting, no other node in the two-hop
neighborhood of the transmitting node is permitted to simultaneously transmit.
 Though the probability of collisions is very low in BTMA, the bandwidth utilization is very poor

 Transmission in BTMA

1.2 Dual Busy Tone Multiple Access Protocol

 The dual busy tone multiple access protocol (DBTMA) [5] is an extension of the BTMAscheme.
 Here again, the transmission channel is divided into two: the data channel and the control channel.
 As in BTMA, the data channel is used for data packet transmissions. The control channel is used for
control packet transmissions (RTS and CTS packets) and also for transmitting the busy tones.
DBTMA uses two busy tones on the control channel, BTt and BTr .
 The BTt tone is used by the node to indicate that it is transmitting on the data channel. The BTr tone is
turned on by a node when it is receiving data on the data channel. The two busy tone signals are two
sine waves at different well-separated frequencies.
 An active BTr signal indicates that a node in the neighborhood of the ready node is currently
receiving packets. If the ready node finds that there is no BTr signal, it transmits the RTS packet on
the control channel.
 An active BTt implies that some other node in its neighborhood is transmitting packets and so it
cannot receive packets for the moment. If the node finds noBTt signal, it responds by sending a CTS
packet and then turns on the BTr signal
 The sender node, on receiving this CTS packet, turns on the BTt signal and starts transmitting data
packets.
 After completing transmission, the sender node turns off the BTt signal. The receiver node, after
receiving all data packets, turns off theBTr signal.

____________Prepared By: Mrs. KRANTI M. GAJMAL (Asst. Prof. Computer Dept.)__________

 Gharda Institute of Technology, Ratnagiri (Khed,Lavel)
Sub: Adhoc Wireless Network (BE COMPUTER-VIII Semester)
______________________________________________________________________________________

Receiver Initiated Contention Based Protocols

1) Receiver-Initiated Busy Tone Multiple Access Protocol.

 In the receiver-initiated busy tone multiple access protocol (RI-BTMA) ,similar to BTMA, the
available bandwidth is divided into two channels: a data channel for transmitting data packets and a
control channel.
 The control channel is used by a node to transmit the busy tone signal. A node can transmit on the
data channel only if it finds the busy tone to be absent on the control channel.
 The data packet is divided into two portions: a preamble and the actual data packet.
 The Preamble carries the identification of the intended destination node. Both the data channel and
the control channel are slotted, with each slot equal to the length of the preamble.
 Data transmission consists of two steps. First, the preamble needs to be transmitted by the sender.
Once the receiver node acknowledges the reception of this preamble by transmitting the busy tone
signal on the control channel, the actual data packet is transmitted.
 A sender node that needs to transmit a data packet first waits for a free slot, that is, a slot in which
the busy tone signal is absent on the control channel.
 Once it finds such a slot, it transmits the preamble packet on the data channel. If the destination
node receives this preamble packet correctly without any error, it transmits the busy tone on the
control channel till it is receiving data from the sender.

____________Prepared By: Mrs. KRANTI M. GAJMAL (Asst. Prof. Computer Dept.)__________

 Gharda Institute of Technology, Ratnagiri (Khed,Lavel)
Sub: Adhoc Wireless Network (BE COMPUTER-VIII Semester)
______________________________________________________________________________________
There are two types of RI-BTMA protocols: the basic protocol and the controlled protocol.

Basic protocol,
 Nodes do not have backlog buffers to store data packets. Hence packets that suffer collisions cannot
be retransmitted.
 Also, when the network load increases, packets cannot be queued at the nodes.
 This protocol would work only when the network load is not high; when network load starts
increasing, the protocol becomes unstable.

The controlled protocol

 Overcomes this problem. This protocol is the same as the basic protocol, the only difference being
the availability of backlog buffers at nodes.
 Therefore, packets that suffer collisions, and those that are generated during busy slots, can be
queued at nodes.

2) MACA-By Invitation Protocol

It is a receiver-initiated protocol

It reduces the number of control packets used in the MACA protocol
It eliminated the need for the RTS packet
In MACA-BI, the receiver node initiates data transmission by transmitting a ready-to-receive (RTR) control
packet to the sender as shown in the figure.

If it is ready to transmit, the sender node respond by sending a DATA packet
Thus data transmission in MACA-BI occurs through a two-way handshake mechanism
The efficiency of the MACA-BI scheme is mainly dependent on the ability of the receiver node to predict
accurately the arrival rates of traffic at the sender nodes.
 In MACA, the CTS packet was used to inform the hidden terminals (nodes) about the impending
DATA packet transmission, so that they do not transmit at the same time and disrupt the session.
 This role is played in MACA-BI by the RTR packets. An RTR packet carries information about the
time interval during which the DATA packet would be transmitted.
 Since it has information about transmissions by the hidden terminals, it refrains from transmitting
during those periods. Hence the Collision among DATA packets is impossible, but among control
packets is possible as shown in following diagram.


____________Prepared By: Mrs. KRANTI M. GAJMAL (Asst. Prof. Computer Dept.)__________

 Gharda Institute of Technology, Ratnagiri (Khed,Lavel)
Sub: Adhoc Wireless Network (BE COMPUTER-VIII Semester)
______________________________________________________________________________________
3) Media Access with Reduced Handshake Protocol
 It is a receiver-initiated protocol.
 Doesn’t require any traffic prediction mechanism.
 Exploits the broadcast nature of traffic from Omni-directional antennas to reduce the number of
handshakes involved in the data transmission
 In MACA [1], the RTS-CTS control packets exchange takes place before the transmission of
every data packet. But in MARCH, the RTS packet is used only for the first packet of the stream.
From the second packet onward, only the CTS packet is used.
 A node obtains information about the data packet arrivals at its neighboring nodes by over heading the
CTS packets transmitted by them.
 It then sends a CTS packet to the concerned neighbor node for relaying data from that node
 This mechanism is as shown below

 It can be observed from the figure that the time taken for a packet transmitted by node A to reach
node D in MARCH, that is, tMARCH, is less compared to the time taken in MACA, tMACA.
 The throughput of MARCH is significantly high compared to MACA
 Control overhead is much less and Less BW is consumed for control traffic.
 When the network is heavily loaded, the average end-to-end delay in packet delivery for MARCH is
very low compared to that of MACA.
 All the above advantages are mainly due to the fact that MARCH has a lower number of control
packet handshakes compared to MACA.
 The lower number of control packets transmitted reduces the control overhead while improving the
throughput, since less bandwidth is being consumed for control traffic.

CONTENTION BASED PROTOCOLS WITH RESERVATION MECHANISMS

Distributed Packet Reservation Multiple Access Protocol (D-PRMA)
• It extends the centralized packet reservation multiple access (PRMA) scheme into a distributed scheme
that can be used in ad hoc wireless networks.
• PRMA was designed in a wireless LAN with a base station.
• D-PRMA extends PRMA protocol in a wireless LAN.
• D-PRMA is a TDMA-based scheme.
• The channel is divided into fixed- and equal-sized frames along the time axis.

____________Prepared By: Mrs. KRANTI M. GAJMAL (Asst. Prof. Computer Dept.)__________

 Gharda Institute of Technology, Ratnagiri (Khed,Lavel)
Sub: Adhoc Wireless Network (BE COMPUTER-VIII Semester)
______________________________________________________________________________________

• Each frame is composed of s slots and each slot consists of m minislots

• Each minislot is further divided into two control fields, RTS/BI and CTS/BI
• These control fields are used for slot reservation and for overcoming the hidden terminal problem
• All nodes having packets ready for transmission contend for the first minislot of each slot
• The remaining (m-1) minislots are granted to the node that wins the contention.
• Also, the same slot in each subsequent frame can be reserved for this winning terminal until it
completes its packet transmission session
• Within a reserved slot, communication between the source and receiver nodes takes by means of
either time division duplexing (TDD) or frequency division duplexing (FDD).
• Any node that wants to transmit packets has to first reserve slots
• A certain period at the beginning of each minislot is reserved for carrier sensing
• In order to prioritize nodes transmitting voice traffic over nodes transmitting normal data traffic, two
rules are followed in D-PRMA
 1st rule  voice nodes are allowed to start contending from minislot 1 with probability
p=1. Others with p<1
 2nd rule  only if the node winning the minislot contention is a voice node, it is
permitted to reserve the same slot in each subsequent frame until the end of the session
 In order to avoid the hidden terminal problem, all nodes hearing the CTS sent by the receiver are not
allowed to transmit during the remaining period of that same slot
 In order to avoid the exposed terminal problem, a node hearing the RTS but not the CTS is still allowed
to transmit
 Requirement 1  when a node wins the contention in minislot 1, other terminals must be prevented
from using any of the remaining (m-1) minislots in the same slot for contention
 Requirement 2  when a slot is reserved in subsequent frames, other nodes should be prevented from
contending for those reserved slots
 D-PRMA is more suited for voice traffic than for data traffic applications.

Collision Avoidance Time Allocation Protocol (CATA)

 It is based on dynamic topology-dependent transmission scheduling
 Nodes contend for and reserve time slots by means of a distributed reservation and handshake
mechanism.
 Support broadcast, unicast, and multicast transmissions.
 The operation is based on two basic principles:
• The receiver(s) of a flow must inform the potential source nodes about the reserved slot on
which it is currently receiving packets. The source node must inform the potential destination
node(s) about interferences in the slot.
• Usage of negative acknowledgements for reservation requests, and control packet
transmissions at the beginning of each slot, for distributing slot reservation information to
senders of broadcast or multicast sessions.
 Time is divided into equal-sized frames, and each frame consists of S slots.
 Each slot is further divided into five minislots.
 The first 4 minislots are used for transmitting control packets and are called control minislots (CMS)
____________Prepared By: Mrs. KRANTI M. GAJMAL (Asst. Prof. Computer Dept.)__________
 Gharda Institute of Technology, Ratnagiri (Khed,Lavel)
Sub: Adhoc Wireless Network (BE COMPUTER-VIII Semester)
______________________________________________________________________________________

Frame format in CATA.

 The last minislot is called data minislot (DMS).

 Each node that receives data during the DMS of the current slot transmits a slot reservation (SR)
packet during the CMS1 of the slot
 This serves to inform other neighboring potential sender nodes about the currently active reservations
 The SR packet is either received without error at the neighboring nodes or causes noise at those nodes,
preventing them from attempting to reserve the current slot
 Every node that transmits data during the DMS of the current slot transmits a request -to-send packet
 The receiver node of a unicast session transmits a clear-to-send packet
 On receiving this packet, the source node clearly understands that the reservation was successful and
transmits data during the DMS of that slot until unicast flow gets terminated.
 Once the reservation has been made successfully in a slot, from the next slot onward, both the sender
and receiver do not transmit anything during CMS3 and during CMS4 the sender node alone transmits
a not-to-send (NTS) packet
 The not-to-send (NTS) packet serves as a negative acknowledgement
 A potential multicast or broadcast source node that receives the NTS packet or that detects noise,
understands that its reservation request has failed & does not transmit during DMS of current slot
 The length of the frame is very important in CATA
 The worst case value of the frame-length = Min(d2+1, N) , where d is the maximum degree of a node in
the network and N is the total number of nodes in the network
 CATA works well with simple single-channel half-duplex radios
 It is simple and provides support for collision-free broadcast and multicast traffic

Hop Reservation Multiple Access Protocol

 A multichannel MAC protocol which is based on half-duplex, very slow frequency-hopping spread
spectrum (FHSS) radios
 Uses a reservation and handshake mechanism to enable a pair of communicating nodes to reserve a
frequency hop, thereby guaranteeing collision-free data transmission.

Frame format in HRMA.

____________Prepared By: Mrs. KRANTI M. GAJMAL (Asst. Prof. Computer Dept.)__________

 Gharda Institute of Technology, Ratnagiri (Khed,Lavel)
Sub: Adhoc Wireless Network (BE COMPUTER-VIII Semester)
______________________________________________________________________________________

 There are L frequency channels available

 HRMA uses one frequency channel, denoted by f0 as a dedicated synchronizing channel
 The nodes exchange synchronization information on f0
 The remaining L-1 frequencies are divided into M=(L-1)/2 frequency pairs
 fi is used for transmitting and receiving hop-reservation packets, RTS, CTS and data packets
 fi* is used for sending and receiving acknowledgement (ACK) packets
 The data packets transmitted can be of any size.
 Data transmission can take place through a single packet or a train of packets.
 In HRMA, time is slotted and each slot is assigned a separate frequency hop
 Each time slot is divided into four periods, namely, synchronizing period, HR period, RTS period, and
CTS period
 Each period meant for transmitting or receiving the synchronizing packet, FR packet, RTS packet, and
CTS packet respectively.
 During the synchronizing period of each slot, all idle nodes hop to the synchronizing frequency f 0 and
exchange synchronization information.

Merging of subnets.

 When a new node enters the network, it remains on the synchronizing frequency f 0 for a long enough
period of time so as to gather synchronization information such as the hopping pattern and the timing
of the system
 If it receives no information, it assumes that it is the only node in the network, broadcasts its own
synchronization information and forms a one-node system
 Figure above depicts the worst-case frequency overlap scenario
 When a node receives data to be transmitted, it first listens to the HR period of the immediately
following slot
 If it finds the channel to be free during the SR period, it transmits an RTS packet to the destination
during the RTS period of the slot and waits for the CTS packet
 On receiving the RTS, the destination node transmits the CTS packet during the CTS period of the same
slot and waits for the data packet
 If the source node receives the CTS packet correctly, it implies that the source and receiver nodes have
successfully reserved the current hop
 After transmitting each data packet, the source node hops onto this acknowledgement frequency.
 The receiver sends an ACK packet back to the source.

Soft Reservation Multiple Access with Priority Assignment

____________Prepared By: Mrs. KRANTI M. GAJMAL (Asst. Prof. Computer Dept.)__________
 Gharda Institute of Technology, Ratnagiri (Khed,Lavel)
Sub: Adhoc Wireless Network (BE COMPUTER-VIII Semester)
______________________________________________________________________________________
 Developed with the main objective of supporting integrated services of real-time and non-real-time
application in ad hoc networks, at the same time maximizing the statistical multiplexing gain.
 Nodes use a collision-avoidance handshake mechanism and a soft reservation mechanism
 Unique frame structure
 Soft reservation capability for distributed ad dynamic slot scheduling
 Dynamic and distributed access priority assignment and update policies
 Time constrained back-off algorithm
 Time is divided into frames, with each frame consisting of a fixed number of slots
 Each slot is further divided into 6 different fields (figure) namely SYNC, soft reservation (SR),
reservation request (RR), reservation confirm (RC), data sending (DS) and acknowledgement (ACK)

Frame structure in SRMA/PA.

 The SYNC field is used for synchronization purposes

 The SR, RR, RC, and ACK fields are used for transmitting and receiving the corresponding control
packets
 The DS field is used for data transmission
 The SR packet serves as a busy tone
 It informs the nodes about the reservation of the slot
 SR packet also carries the access priority value assigned to the node that has reserved the slot
 When an idle node receives a data packet for transmission, the node waits for a free slot and transmits
the RR packet in the RR field of that slot
 A node determines whether or not a slot is free through the SR field of that slot
 In case of a voice terminal node, the node tries to take control of the slot already reserved by a data
terminal if it finds it priority level to be higher than that of the data terminal
 This process is called soft reservation.
 Priority levels are initially assigned to nodes based on the service classes in a static manner
 It is required that priority of voice terminal pv(R) > priority of data terminal pd(R) such that delay-
sensitive voice applications get preference over normal data applications
 A node that is currently transmitting is said to be in active state
 A node that is said to be in the idle state if it does not have any packet to be transmitted
 In the active state itself, nodes can be in one of the two states: access state and reserved state
 Access state is one in which the node is backlogged and is trying to reserve a slot for transmission
 The access priorities are assigned to nodes and updated in a distributed and dynamic manner
 This allows dynamic sharing of the shared channel
 In order to avoid collisions, a binary exponential back-off algorithm is used for non-real time
connections and a modified binary exponential back-off algorithm is used for real time connections.

Five-Phase Reservation Protocol

 A single-channel time division multiple access (TDMA)-based broadcast scheduling protocol.
____________Prepared By: Mrs. KRANTI M. GAJMAL (Asst. Prof. Computer Dept.)__________
 Gharda Institute of Technology, Ratnagiri (Khed,Lavel)
Sub: Adhoc Wireless Network (BE COMPUTER-VIII Semester)
______________________________________________________________________________________
 Nodes use a contention mechanism in order to acquire time slots.
 The protocol is fully distributed, that is, multiple reservations can be simultaneously made throughout
the network.
 No ordering among nodes is followed
 Nodes need not wait for making time slot reservations.


Frame structure in FPRP.

 Time is divided into frames
 There are two types of frames namely reservation frame and information frame
 Each RF is followed by a sequence of Ifs
 Each RF has N reservation slots (RS)
 Each IF has N information slots (IS)
 In order to reserve an IS, a node needs to contend during the corresponding RS
 Based on these contentions, a TDMA schedule is generated in the RF and is used in the subsequent Ifs
until the next RF.
 Each RS is composed of M reservation cycles
 During the corresponding IS, a node would be in one of the three states: transmit(T), receive(R) or
blocked(B)
 The protocol assumes the availability of global time at all nodes.
 The reservation takes five phases: reservation, collision report, reservation confirmation, reservation
acknowledgement, and packing and elimination phase.

o Reservation request phase: Nodes that need to transmit packets send reservation request (RR)
packets to their destination nodes.

o Collision report phase: If a collision is detected by any node during the reservation request phase, then
that node broadcasts a collision report (CR) packet. The corresponding source nodes, upon receiving the
CR packet, take necessary action. By listening for CR packets in this phase, an RN comes to know
about collision of the RR packet it had sent. If no CR is heard by the RN in this phase, it then
becomes a transmitting node (TN). Once it becomes a transmitting node, the node proceeds to the
next phase, the reservation confirmation phase. On the other hand, if it hears a CR packet in this
phase, it waits until the next reservation request phase, and then tries again.

o Reservation confirmation phase: A source node is said to have won the contention for a slot if it
does not receive any CR messages in the previous phase. In order to confirm the reservation
request made in the reservation request phase, it sends a reservation confirmation (RC) message
to the destination node in this phase.

o Reservation acknowledgment phase: In this phase, the destination node acknowledges reception
of the RC by sending back a reservation acknowledgment (RA) message to the source. The
hidden nodes that receive this message defer their transmissions during the reserved slot.

____________Prepared By: Mrs. KRANTI M. GAJMAL (Asst. Prof. Computer Dept.)__________

 Gharda Institute of Technology, Ratnagiri (Khed,Lavel)
Sub: Adhoc Wireless Network (BE COMPUTER-VIII Semester)
______________________________________________________________________________________
o Packing and elimination (P/E) phase: Two types of packets are transmitted during this phase:
Packing packet and elimination packet.

 Here nodes 1, 7, and 9 have packets ready to be transmitted to nodes 4, 8, and 10, respectively.
During the reservation request phase, all three nodes transmit RR packets.
 Since no other node in the two-hop neighborhood of node 1 transmits simultaneously, node 1
does not receive any CR message in the collision report phase.
 So node 1 transmits an RC message in the next phase, for which node 4 sends back an RA message,
and the reservation is established.
 But at the node 11 CR is observed hence RC and RA cannot takes place.

MACA with Piggy-Backed Reservation

 Provide real-time traffic support in multi-hop wireless networks
 Based on the MACAW protocol with non-persistent CSMA
 The main components of MACA/PR are:
 A MAC protocol
 A reservation protocol
 A QoS routing protocol
 Differentiates real-time packets from the best-effort packets
 Provide guaranteed BW support for real-time packets
 Provides reliable transmission of best efforts packets

____________Prepared By: Mrs. KRANTI M. GAJMAL (Asst. Prof. Computer Dept.)__________

 Gharda Institute of Technology, Ratnagiri (Khed,Lavel)
Sub: Adhoc Wireless Network (BE COMPUTER-VIII Semester)
______________________________________________________________________________________

Packet transmission in MACA/PR.

 Time is divided into slots
 Slots are defined by the reservations made at nodes
 They are asynchronous in nature with varying lengths
 Each node in the network maintains a reservation table (RT) that records all the reserved transmit and
receive slots/windows of all nodes within its transmission range
 The sender is assumed to transmit real-time packets at certain regular intervals, say, every CYCLE time
period
 The first data packet of the session is transmitted in the usual manner
 The source node first sends an RTS packet, for which the receiver responds with a CTS packet
 Now the source node sends the first DATA packet of the real-time session
 Reservation information for the next DATA packet to be transmitted is piggy-backed on this current
DATA packet.
 On receiving this DATA packet, the receiver node updates its reservation table with the piggy -backed
reservation information
 It then sends ACK packet back to the source
 Receiver node piggy-backs the reservation confirmation information on the ACK packet
 Slot reservation information maintained in the reservation tables is refreshed every cycle
 Thus, MACA/PR is an efficient bandwidth reservation protocol that can support real-time traffic
sessions
 Advantage  it does not require global synchronization among nodes
 Drawback  a free slot can be reserved only if it can fit the entire RTS-CTS-DATA-ACK exchange.

Real-Time Medium Access Control Protocol

 Provides a bandwidth reservation mechanism for supporting real-time traffic in ad hoc wireless
networks
 RTMAC has two components
o A MAC layer protocol is a real-time extension of the IEEE 802.11 DCF.
 A medium-access protocol for best-effort traffic
 A reservation protocol for real-time traffic
o A QoS routing protocol is responsible for end-to-end reservation and release of bandwidth
resources.

____________Prepared By: Mrs. KRANTI M. GAJMAL (Asst. Prof. Computer Dept.)__________

 Gharda Institute of Technology, Ratnagiri (Khed,Lavel)
Sub: Adhoc Wireless Network (BE COMPUTER-VIII Semester)
______________________________________________________________________________________

Reservation mechanism in RTMAC

 A separate set of control packets, consisting of ResvRTS, ResvCTS, and ResvACK, is used for
effecting BW reservation for real-time packets
 RTS, CTS and ACK control packets are used for transmitting best effort packets.
 Time is divided into super frames. (figure)
 Bandwidth reservations can be made by a node by reserving variable-length time slots on
super frames
 The core concept of RTMAC is the flexibility of slot placement in the super frame
 Each super frame consists of a number of reservation-slots
 The time duration of each resv-slot is twice the maximum propagation delay
 Data transmission normally requires a block of resv-slots
 A node that needs to transmit real-time packets first reserves a set of resv-slots
 The set of resv-slots reserved by a node for a connection on a super frame is called a
connection-slot
 Each node maintains a reservation table containing information such as the sender id,
receiver id, and starting and ending times of reservations that are currently active
 In RTMAC, no time synchronization is assumed
 The protocol uses relative time for all reservation purpose
 A three way handshake protocol is used for effecting the reservation
 In the figure, NAV indicates the network allocation vector maintained at each node

Advantages
 Main advantage is Bandwidth efficiency
 Another advantage is asynchronous mode of operation where nodes do not require any global
time synchronization

____________Prepared By: Mrs. KRANTI M. GAJMAL (Asst. Prof. Computer Dept.)__________

 Gharda Institute of Technology, Ratnagiri (Khed,Lavel)
Sub: Adhoc Wireless Network (BE COMPUTER-VIII Semester)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_

MAC PROTOCOLS THAT USE DIRECTIONAL ANTENNAS

MAC protocols that use directional antennas for transmissions have several advantages over
those that use Omni directional transmissions. The advantages include reduced signal
interference, increase in the system throughput, and improved channel reuse that leads to an
increase in the overall capacity of the channel

Working with Directional Antennas

 Each node is assumed to have only one radio transceiver, which can transmit and receive
only one packet at any given time. The transceiver is assumed to be equipped with M
directional antennas, each antenna having a conical radiation pattern, spanning an angle
of radians.

 It is assumed that the transmissions by adjacent antennas never overlap.

Packet Transmission
 Each node is assumed to have six directional antennas. The main concept in this protocol
is the mechanism used by the transmitting and receiving nodes to determine the
directions of each other.
 An idle node is assumed to be listening to the on-going transmissions on all its antennas.
The sender node first transmits an RTS packet addressed to the receiver. This RTS is
transmitted through all the antennas of the node (omnidirectional transmission).
 The intended receiver node, on receiving this RTS packet, responds by transmitting a
CTS packet, again on all its antennas (omnidirectional transmission).
 The receiver node also notes down the direction of the sender by identifying the antenna
that received the RTS packet with maximum power.
 The source, on receiving the CTS packet, determines the direction of the receiver node in
a similar manner.
 The neighbor nodes that receive the RTS or CTS packets defer their transmissions for
appropriate periods of time.
 After receiving the CTS, the source node transmits the next data packet through the
chosen directional antenna. All other antennas are switched off and remain idle.
____________Prepared By: Mrs. KRANTI M. GAJMAL (Asst. Prof. Computer Dept.)__________
 Gharda Institute of Technology, Ratnagiri (Khed,Lavel)
Sub: Adhoc Wireless Network (BE COMPUTER-VIII Semester)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_
 The receiver node receives this data packet only through its selected antenna.

1) Directional Busy Tone-Based MAC Protocol

The directional busy tone-based MAC protocol [22] adapts the DBTMA protocol [5] for use
with directional antennas. It uses directional antennas for transmitting the RTS, CTS, and data
frames, as well as the busy tones. By doing so, collisions are reduced significantly. Also, spatial
reuse of the channel improves, thereby increasing the capacity of the channel.
 The protocol uses the same two busy tones BTt and BTr used in the DBTMA protocol. The
purpose of the busy tones is the same.
 Before transmitting an RTS packet, the sender makes sure that the BTr tone is not active
in its neighborhood, similarly, a receiver node, before transmitting a CTS, verifies that a
BTt is not active in its neighborhood. This is done to make sure that the data the node is
expected to receive does not collide with any other on-going.
 The directional busy tones can permit simultaneous transmissions in the neighborhood of
a transmitting or a receiving node.
 When Omni directional busy tones are being used, when a transmission is going on from
node A to node B, node D is not permitted to receive any data as it hears the BTt tone
transmitted by node A. But when directional busy tone transmissions are used, it can be
seen that node D can simultaneously receive data from node C.


____________Prepared By: Mrs. KRANTI M. GAJMAL (Asst. Prof. Computer Dept.)__________
 Gharda Institute of Technology, Ratnagiri (Khed,Lavel)
Sub: Adhoc Wireless Network (BE COMPUTER-VIII Semester)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_
2) Directional MAC Protocols for Ad Hoc Wireless Networks
DMAC-1
 In the first directional MAC scheme (DMAC-1), a directional antenna is used for
Transmitting RTS packets. CTS packet transmissions are Omni directional.
 Here node A, which needs to transmit a packet to node B, first transmits a directional
RTS (DRTS) packet to node B. Node B, on receiving this packet, responds by
transmitting an Omni directional CTS (OCTS) packet.
 Once the OCTS is received without any error by node A, node A sends a data packet
using a directional antenna. When node B receives the data packet, it immediately
transmits a directional ACK (DACK) packet.
 Node C would receive the OCTS packet from node B. At node C, only the directional
antenna pointing toward node B would be blocked due to this. Node C can freely transmit
to node D using another directional antenna. Thus it can be seen that in DMAC-1, usage
of directional antennas improves the performance by allowing simultaneous
transmissions.

DMAC-2
 In the second directional MAC scheme (DMAC-2) proposed in ,both directional RTS
(DRTS) as well as Omni directional RTS (ORTS) transmissions are used.
 The probability of control packet collisions is reduced in DMAC-2. In DMAC-2, a node
that wants to initiate a data transfer may send an ORTS or aDRTS as per the following
two rules.
o If none of the directional antennas at the node are blocked, then the node sends an
ORTS packet.
o Otherwise, the node sends a DRTS packet, provided the desired directional
antenna is not blocked.

____________Prepared By: Mrs. KRANTI M. GAJMAL (Asst. Prof. Computer Dept.)__________

 Gharda Institute of Technology, Ratnagiri (Khed,Lavel)
Sub: Adhoc Wireless Network (BE COMPUTER-VIII Semester)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_
 Node B sends an OCTS packet to node A after receiving DRTS from nodeA. Node C
would be aware of the transmission and its antenna pointing toward node B would remain
blocked for the duration of the transmission.
 Now suppose node D sends an ORTS to node C. Since one of node C's antennas is
blocked currently, it would not respond to the ORTS packet. This results in node D
timing out and unnecessary retransmissions ofORTS packets to node C.
 To avoid this situation, another packet called directional wait-to-send (DWTS) is used.
On receiving the ORTS from node D, node C transmits the DWTS packet using a
directional antenna toward node D.
 This DWTS packet carries the expected duration of the on-going transmission between
nodes A and B. Node D, on receiving this packet, waits for the specified interval of time
and then tries again.

CONTENTION-BASED MAC PROTOCOLS WITH SCHEDULING

MECHANISMS

Protocols that fall under this category focus on packet scheduling at the nodes and
transmission scheduling of the nodes. Scheduling decisions may take into consideration various
factors such as delay targets of packets, laxities of packets, traffic load at nodes, and remaining
battery power at nodes.

1) Distributed Priority Scheduling and Medium Access in Ad Hoc

Networks

Two mechanisms for providing quality of service (QoS) support for connections in ad hoc
wireless networks.
 Distributed priority scheduling (DPS), piggy-backs the priority tag of a node's current and
head-of-line packets on the control and data packets.

____________Prepared By: Mrs. KRANTI M. GAJMAL (Asst. Prof. Computer Dept.)__________

 Gharda Institute of Technology, Ratnagiri (Khed,Lavel)
Sub: Adhoc Wireless Network (BE COMPUTER-VIII Semester)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_
 Multi-hop coordination, extends the DPS scheme to carry out scheduling over multi-hop
paths.

Distributed Priority Scheduling

 The distributed priority scheduling scheme (DPS) is based on the IEEE 802.11
distributed coordination function. DPS uses the same basic RTS-CTS-DATA-ACK
packet exchange mechanism.
 The RTS packet transmitted by a ready node carries the priority tag/priority index for the
current DATA packet to be transmitted. The priority tag can be the delay target for the
DATA packet.
 On receiving the RTS packet, the intended receiver node responds with a CTS packet.
The receiver node copies the priority tag from the received RTS packet and piggybacks it
along with the source node id, on the CTS packet.
 Neighbor nodes receiving the RTS or CTS packets (including the hidden nodes) retrieve
the piggy-backed priority tag information and make a corresponding entry for the packet
to be transmitted, in their scheduling tables (STs).
 When the source node transmits a DATA packet, its head-of-line packet information
(refers to the packet to be transmitted next by the node) is piggy-backed on the DATA
packet.
 This information is copied by the receiver onto the ACK packet it sends in response to
the received DATA packet.
 When a node hears an ACK packet, it removes from its ST any entry made earlier for the
corresponding DATA packet.

Multi-Hop Coordination
 By means of the multi-hop coordination mechanism, the excess delay incurred by a
packet at the upstream nodes is compensated for at the downstream nodes.
 When a node receives a packet, it would have already received the priority index of the
packet piggy-backed on the previous RTS packet. In case the node is an intermediate
____________Prepared By: Mrs. KRANTI M. GAJMAL (Asst. Prof. Computer Dept.)__________
 Gharda Institute of Technology, Ratnagiri (Khed,Lavel)
Sub: Adhoc Wireless Network (BE COMPUTER-VIII Semester)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_
node which has to further forward the packet, the node calculates the new priority index
of the DATA packet in a recursive fashion, based on the received value of the priority
index
 If = the priority index assigned to the Kth packet of flow i with size at its jth hop,
and = the time at which the Kth packet of flow i arrives at its first hop (the next hop
node to the source node on the path to the destination), Then

New priority index assigned to the received packet at intermediate node j is given as

 Because of this mechanism, if a packet suffers due to excess delay at the upstream nodes,
the downstream nodes increase the priority of the packet so that the packet is able to meet
its end-to-end delay target.
 Similarly, if a packet arrives very early due to lack of contention at the upstream nodes,
then the priority of that packet would be reduced at the downstream nodes.

2) Distributed Wireless Ordering Protocol

 The distributed wireless ordering protocol (DWOP) consists of a media access scheme
along with a scheduling mechanism. It is based on the distributed priority scheduling
scheme.
 DWOP ensures that packets access the medium according to the order specified by an
ideal reference scheduler such as first-in-first-out (FIFO), virtual clock, or earliest
deadline first.
 The key concept in DWOP is that a node is made eligible to contend for the channel only
if its locally queued packet has a smaller arrival time compared to all other arrival times
in its ST as FIFO is chosen as the reference scheduler.
 Two additional table management techniques, Receiver Participation and stale entry
elimination, are used in order to keep the actual schedule close to the reference FIFO
schedule
 Receiver Participation mechanism is used to solve the problem of asymmetric
information.

____________Prepared By: Mrs. KRANTI M. GAJMAL (Asst. Prof. Computer Dept.)__________

 Gharda Institute of Technology, Ratnagiri (Khed,Lavel)
Sub: Adhoc Wireless Network (BE COMPUTER-VIII Semester)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_

 Here sender of flow A is not aware of the arrival times of packets queued at the sender of
flow B and hence it concludes that it has the highest priority packet in its neighborhood.
Therefore, node 1 unsuccessfully tries to gain access to the channel continuously. This
would result in flow B receiving an unfair higher share of the available bandwidth.
 In the receiver participation mechanism, a receiver node, when using its ST information,
finds that the sender is transmitting out of order, that is, the reference FIFO schedule is
being violated, an out-of-order notification is piggy-backed by the receiver on the control
packets (CTS/ACK) it sends to the sender.
 Thus the node backs off after the transmission of its current packet, allowing higher
priority packets in the neighborhood of the receiver to get transmitted first.
 The stale entry elimination mechanism makes sure that the STs are free of stale entries.
An entry is deleted from the ST only after an ACK packet for the corresponding entry is
heard by the node. In case the ACK packet collides at the node, the corresponding entry
in the ST will never be removed.

 The sender and receiver of flow B might have stale entries because of collisions caused
by packets belonging to flow A and flow C at the sender and receiver of flow B.
 Thus, when a node observes that its rank remains fixed while packets whose priorities are
below the priority of its head-of-line packet are being transmitted; it concludes that it may
have one or more stale entries in its ST. The node simply deletes the oldest entry from its
ST, assuming it to be the stale entry.
 This mechanism thus eliminates stale entries from the STs of nodes.
____________Prepared By: Mrs. KRANTI M. GAJMAL (Asst. Prof. Computer Dept.)__________
 Gharda Institute of Technology, Ratnagiri (Khed,Lavel)
Sub: Adhoc Wireless Network (BE COMPUTER-VIII Semester)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_

3) Distributed Laxity-Based Priority Scheduling Scheme

 The distributed laxity-based priority scheduling (DLPS) scheme [20] is a packet
scheduling scheme, where scheduling decisions are made taking into consideration the
states of neighboring nodes and the feedback from destination nodes regarding packet
losses.
 Packets are reordered based on their uniform laxity budgets (ULBs) and the packet
delivery ratios of the flows to which they belong.
 Each node maintains two tables:
o Scheduling table (ST)  Information about packets to be transmitted by the node
and packets overheard by the node, sorted according to their priority index values

o Packet delivery ratio table (PDT). Count of packets transmitted and the count
of acknowledgment (ACK) packets received for every flow passing through the
node.
 A node keeps track of packet delivery ratios (used for calculating priority index of
packets) of all flows it is aware of by means of a feedback mechanism.

Feedback Mechanism
 Incoming packets to a node are queued in the node's input queue according to their arrival
times. The scheduler sorts them according to their priority values and inserts them into
the transmission queue.
 The node, after transmitting a packet, updates the count of packets transmitted so far in
its PDT. The destination node of a flow, on receiving data packets, initiates a feedback by
means of which the count of DATA packets received by it is conveyed to the source
through ACK packets traversing the reverse path.
 The lower the priority index, the higher the packets priority and the highest priority
packet from this queue is selected for transmission.
 The Priority Index is calculated using ULB (uniform laxity budgets). The ULB of each
packet in ST is available at the node.
 Using the count of DATA packets transmitted (pktsSent) and count information carried
by ACK packets (acksRcvd), available in PDT, packet delivery ratio (PDR) of the flow at
any given time is computed as

Priority index of a packet (PI) is defined as

____________Prepared By: Mrs. KRANTI M. GAJMAL (Asst. Prof. Computer Dept.)__________
 Gharda Institute of Technology, Ratnagiri (Khed,Lavel)
Sub: Adhoc Wireless Network (BE COMPUTER-VIII Semester)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_

Here,
Is the uniform laxity budget of the packet, and
 M = user defined parameter representing the desired packet delivery ratio of flow.
 Deadline = the end-to-end deadline target of the packet and is equal to
(Packet creation time + end-to-end delay target).
 Current Time = the current time according to the node's local clock.

 When greater numbers of packets belonging to a flow meet their delay targets, the term
would have a high value. Hence priority index would be high for packets of that
flow, and therefore the actual priority of the packets would be low.
 When very few packets of a flow meet their delay targets, the value of would be
much less, thereby lowering the priority index and increasing the priority of packets of
that flow. ULB also plays an equally important role.
 Since remHops, the number of hops remaining to be traversed, is in the denominator of
the expression for ULB, when a packet is near its source and needs to traverse several
hops to reach its destination, its priority index value will be lowered, thereby increasing
its priority. When it nears its destination, the fewer number of hops to be traversed tends
to increase the priority index, thereby lowering its priority.

IEEE STANDARDS

Fundamentals of WLAN
2.2.1 Technical Issues
Here the technical issues that are encountered in the design and engineering of WLANs are
discussed. They can act as differences between wireless and wired networks
• Address is not equivalent to physical location:
• Dynamic topology and restricted connectivity:
• Medium boundaries are not well-defined
• Error-prone medium:

Use of WLANs
WLANs are very flexible and can be configured in a variety of topologies based on the
application. Some possible uses of WLANs are mentioned below.
• Users would be able to surf the Internet, check e-mail, and receive Instant Messages on the
move.
• In areas affected by earthquakes or other such disasters, no suitable infrastructure may be
available on the site. WLANs are handy in such locations to set up networks on the fly.

____________Prepared By: Mrs. KRANTI M. GAJMAL (Asst. Prof. Computer Dept.)__________

 Gharda Institute of Technology, Ratnagiri (Khed,Lavel)
Sub: Adhoc Wireless Network (BE COMPUTER-VIII Semester)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_
• There are many historic buildings where there has been a need to set up computer networks. In
such places, wiring may not be permitted or the building design may not be conducive to
efficient wiring. WLANs are very good solutions in such places.

Design Goals
The following are some of the goals which have to be achieved while designing
WLANs:
• Operational simplicity:.
• Power-efficient operation:
• License-free operation:
• Tolerance to interference:
• Global usability:
• Security:
• Safety requirements:
• Quality of service requirements:
• Compatibility with other technologies and applications:

IEEE 802.11
IEEE 802.11 is a set of media access control (MAC) and physical layer (PHY) specifications for
implementing wireless local area network (WLAN) computer communication in the 900 MHz and 2.4,
3.6, 5, and 60 GHz frequency bands. They are created and maintained by the Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers (IEEE) LAN/MAN Standards Committee (IEEE 802). The base version of the
standard was released in 1997, and has had subsequent amendments. The standard and amendments
provide the basis for wireless network products using the Wi-Fi brand.

Network Architecture
This section lists the types of WLANs, the components of a typical WLAN, and the services offered by a
WLAN.
Infrastructure Based Versus Ad Hoc LANs

Components in Typical 802.11 Networks

1) MT: Mobile Terminals
2) BSS: Basic Service Set
3) DS: Distribution Systems
4) AP: Access Points

____________Prepared By: Mrs. KRANTI M. GAJMAL (Asst. Prof. Computer Dept.)__________

 Gharda Institute of Technology, Ratnagiri (Khed,Lavel)
Sub: Adhoc Wireless Network (BE COMPUTER-VIII Semester)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_

Services Offered by 802.11 Networks

• Association:
• Reassociation:
• Disassociation:
• Distribution
• Integration:
• Authentication:
• Deauthentication:
• Privacy:
• Data delivery:

Physical Layer
IEEE 802.11 supports three options for the medium to be used at the physical level — one is
based on infrared and the other two are based on radio transmission. (FSHH and DSSS)

Basic MAC Layer Mechanisms

This section describes the MAC layer as specified by the IEEE 802.11 standard. The
primary function of this layer is to arbitrate and statistically multiplex the transmission requests
of various wireless stations that are operating in an area. This assumes importance because
wireless transmissions are inherently broadcast in nature and contentions to access the shared
channel need to be resolved prudently in order to avoid collisions, or at least to reduce the
number of collisions. The MAC layer also supports much auxiliary functionality such as offering
support for roaming, authentication, and taking care of power conservation.
The primary access method of IEEE 802.11 is by means of a distributed coordination
function (DCF). This mandatory basic function is based on a version of carrier sense with
multiple access and collision avoidance (CSMA/CA). To avoid the hidden terminal problem
(which is explained later), an optional RTS-CTS mechanism is implemented

Task Groups in 802.11

____________Prepared By: Mrs. KRANTI M. GAJMAL (Asst. Prof. Computer Dept.)__________
 Gharda Institute of Technology, Ratnagiri (Khed,Lavel)
Sub: Adhoc Wireless Network (BE COMPUTER-VIII Semester)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_

• 802.11: This was the first 802.11 task group. The objective of this group was to develop MAC
layer and physical layer specifications for wireless connectivity for fixed, portable, and mobile
nodes within a local area. The 802.11 standard was first published in 1997.
• 802.11a: This group created a standard for wireless LAN operations in the 5 GHz frequency
band, where data rates of up to 54 Mbps are possible. The 802.11a standard was ratified in 1999.
– System: orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM).
– Data payload communication capability: 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48, and 54 Mbps

• 802.11b: This task group created a standard for wireless LAN operations in the 2.4 GHz
Industrial, Scientific, and Medical (ISM) band, which is freely available for use throughout the
world. This standard is popularly referred to as Wi-Fi, standing for Wireless-Fidelity. It can offer
data rates of up to 11 Mbps. This standard was ratified in 1999.
• 802.11g: This group was involved in extending the 802.11b standard to support high-speed
transmissions of up to 54 Mbps in the 5 GHz frequency band, while maintaining backward
compatibility with current 802.11b devices. The 802.11g standard was published in 2003.
• 802.11n: The objective of this group is to define standardized modifications to the 802.11
MAC and physical layers such that modes of operation that are capable of much higher
throughputs at the MAC layer, with a maximum of at least 100 Mbps, can be enabled. Work on
this is in progress.

Wireless PAN (IEEE 802.15)

IEEE 802.15 is a working group of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) IEEE 802
standards committee which specifies wireless personal area network (WPAN) standards. There are 10
major areas of development, not all of which are active. The number of Task Groups in IEEE 802.15
varies based on the number of active projects. The current list of active projects can be found on the IEEE
802.15 web site.

IEEE 802.15.1: WPAN / Bluetooth

Task group one is based on Bluetooth technology. It defines physical layer (PHY) and Media Access
Control (MAC) specification for wireless connectivity with fixed, portable and moving devices within or
entering personal operating space. Standards were issued in 2002 and 2005.[1][2]

IEEE 802.15.2: Coexistence

Task group two addresses the coexistence of wireless personal area networks (WPAN) with other
wireless devices operating in unlicensed frequency bands such as wireless local area networks (WLAN).
The IEEE 802.15.2-2003 standard was published in 2003[3] and task group two went into "hibernation".[4]

IEEE 802.15.3: High Rate WPAN

IEEE 802.15.3-2003

IEEE 802.15.3-2003 is a MAC and PHY standard for high-rate (11 to 55 Mbit/s) WPANs.
____________Prepared By: Mrs. KRANTI M. GAJMAL (Asst. Prof. Computer Dept.)__________
 Gharda Institute of Technology, Ratnagiri (Khed,Lavel)
Sub: Adhoc Wireless Network (BE COMPUTER-VIII Semester)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_
IEEE P802.15.3a

IEEE 802.15.3a was an attempt to provide a higher speed Ultra wideband PHY enhancement amendment
to IEEE 802.15.3 for applications which involve imaging and multimedia

IEEE 802.15.3b-2006

IEEE 802.15.3b-2005 amendment was released on May 5, 2006. It enhanced 802.15.3 to improve
implementation and interoperability of the MAC. This amendment include many optimizations, corrected
errors, clarified ambiguities, and added editorial clarifications while preserving backward compatibility.

IEEE 802.15.3c-2009

IEEE 802.15.3c-2009 was published on September 11, 2009. The task group TG3c developed a
millimeter-wave-based alternative physical layer (PHY) for the existing 802.15.3 Wireless Personal Area
Network (WPAN) Standard 802.15.3-2003ee PHY modes were defined in the standard:[8]

IEEE 802.15.4: Low Rate WPAN

IEEE 802.15.4-2003 (Low Rate WPAN) deals with low data rate but very long battery life (months or
even years) and very low complexity, including IEEE 802.15.5, ZigBee, 6LoWPAN, WirelessHART, and
ISA100.11a.

WPAN Low Rate Alternative PHY (4a)

The principal interest was in providing higher precision ranging and location capability (1 meter accuracy
and better), higher aggregate throughput, adding scalability to data rates, longer range, and lower power
consumption and cost.

Revision and Enhancement (4b)

IEEE 802.15.4b was approved in June 2006 and was published in September 2006 as IEEE 802.15.4-
2006. The IEEE 802.15 task group 4b was chartered to create a project for specific enhancements and
clarifications to the IEEE 802.15.4-2003 standard, such as resolving ambiguities, reducing unnecessary
complexity, increasing flexibility in security key usage, considerations for newly available frequency
allocations, and others.

PHY Amendment for China (4c)

PHY and MAC Amendment for Japan (4d)

MAC Amendment for Industrial Applications (4e)

PHY and MAC Amendment for Active RFID (4f)

PHY Amendment for Smart Utility Network (4g)

Task Group 5: Mesh Networking

____________Prepared By: Mrs. KRANTI M. GAJMAL (Asst. Prof. Computer Dept.)__________

 Gharda Institute of Technology, Ratnagiri (Khed,Lavel)
Sub: Adhoc Wireless Network (BE COMPUTER-VIII Semester)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_
IEEE 802.15.6: Body Area Networks

IEEE P802.15.8: Peer Aware Communications

IEEE P802.15.9: Key Management Protocol

IEEE P802.15.10: Layer 2 Routing

Wireless Next Generation Standing Committee

1. BLUETOOTH:
The first attempt to define a standard for PANs dates back to Ericsson's Bluetoothproject2 in
1994 to enable communication between mobile phones using low power and low-cost radio
interfaces. In May 1998, several companies such as Intel, IBM, Nokia, and Toshiba joined
Ericsson to form the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG) whose aim was to develop a de
facto standard for PANs

Low power consumption of Bluetooth technology and an offered range of up to ten meters
has paved the way for several usage models. One can have an interactive conference by
establishing an ad hoc network of laptops. Cordless computer, instant postcard [sending digital
photographs instantly (a camera is cordlessly connected to a mobile phone)], and three-in-one
phone [the same phone functions as an intercom (at the office, no telephone charge), cordless
phone (at home, a fixed-line charge), and mobile phone (on the move, a cellular
charge)] are other indicative usage models.

Bluetooth protocol stacks.

Piconet
The initiator for the formation of the network assumes the role of the master (of the
piconet). All the other members are termed as slaves of the piconet. A piconet can have up to
seven active slaves at any instant. For the purpose of identification, each active slave of the
piconet is assigned a locally unique active member address AM_ADDR. Other devices could
also be part of the piconet by being in the parked mode. A Bluetooth device not associated
with any piconet is said to be in standby mode. Figure shows a piconet with several devices.

____________Prepared By: Mrs. KRANTI M. GAJMAL (Asst. Prof. Computer Dept.)__________

 Gharda Institute of Technology, Ratnagiri (Khed,Lavel)
Sub: Adhoc Wireless Network (BE COMPUTER-VIII Semester)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_

State Diagram of Bluetooth Devices

Scatternet
a device can participate in two or more overlaying piconets by the process of time sharing. To
participate on the proper channel, it should use the associated master device address and proper
clock offset. A Bluetooth unit can act as a slave in several piconets, but as a master in only a
single piconet. A group of piconets in which connections exist between different piconets is
called ascatternet

____________Prepared By: Mrs. KRANTI M. GAJMAL (Asst. Prof. Computer Dept.)__________

 Gharda Institute of Technology, Ratnagiri (Khed,Lavel)
Sub: Adhoc Wireless Network (BE COMPUTER-VIII Semester)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_

2. HOMERF
Wireless home networking represents the use of the radio frequency (RF) spectrum to
transmit voice and data in confined areas such as homes and small offices. One of the visionary
concepts that home networking intends to achieve is the establishment of communication
between home appliances such as computers, TVs, telephones, refrigerators, and air conditioners.
Home RF Working Group has developed a technology that is termed HomeRF. This
technology intends to integrate devices used in homes into a single network and utilize RF links
for communication. HomeRF is a strong competitor to Bluetooth as it operates in the ISM band.

Technical Features
 The HomeRF provides data rates of 1.6 Mbps, a little higher than the Bluetooth
rate, supporting both infrastructure-based and ad hoc communications.
 It provides a guaranteed QoS delivery to voice-only devices and best-effort
delivery for data-only devices.
 A typical HomeRF network consists of resource providers (through which
communication to various resources such as the cable modem and phone lines is
effected), and the devices connected to them (such as the cordless phone, printers, and
file servers).
 The HomeRF technology follows a protocol called the shared wireless access protocol
(SWAP).
Because of its complex (hybrid) MAC and higher capability physical layer, the cost of HomeRF
devices is higher than that of Bluetooth devices. HomeRF Version 2.0, released recently, offers
higher data rates (up to 10 Mbps by using wider channels in the ISM band through FHSS).

3. Infrared
The infrared technology (IrDA) uses the infrared region of the light for communication. Some of
the characteristics of these communications are as follows:
• The infrared rays can be blocked by obstacles, such as walls and buildings.
• The effective range of infrared communications is about one meter. But when
high power is used, it is possible to achieve better ranges.
• The power consumed by infrared devices is extremely low.
• Data rates of 4 Mbps are easily achievable using infrared communications.
• The cost of infrared devices is very low compared to that of Bluetooth devices.
Although the restriction of line of sight (LoS) is there on the infrared devices, they are
extremely popular because they are cheap and consume less power.

WiMAX (IEEE 802.16)

 The acronym WiMAX stands for “Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access”. It is
based on IEEE 802.16 standard.
 IEEE 802.16 is the IEEE standard for Wireless Metropolitan Area Network (Wireless MAN).
 It specifies the air interface for fixed, portable, and mobile broadband wireless access (BWA)
systems supporting multimedia services.
 WiMAX aims to provide wireless broadband services with a target range of up to 31 miles at a
transmission rate exceeding 100 Mbps.
____________Prepared By: Mrs. KRANTI M. GAJMAL (Asst. Prof. Computer Dept.)__________
 Gharda Institute of Technology, Ratnagiri (Khed,Lavel)
Sub: Adhoc Wireless Network (BE COMPUTER-VIII Semester)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_
 It is also to provide a wireless alternative to cable, DSL and T1/E1 for last mile access.
 The term IEEE 802.16 and WIMAX are used interchangeably.
 WiMAX is to IEEE 802.16 what Wi-Fi is to IEEE 802.11
Overview of the IEEE 802.16 Standard
 Designed for point-to-point (PTP) and point-to-multipoint (PTM) topologies but mainly
deployed for point to multipoint topologies. It also support mesh topologies.
 In PTM a base station (BS) services many subscriber stations (SS) which are mounted outdoors.
 IEEE 802.16 has three major versions; 802.16-2001, 802.16-2004 and IEEE 802.16-2005.

IEEE 802.16-2001
 Addresses fixed line of sight connections and operates in the licensed frequency range between
10 GHz and 66 GHz.
 At this high frequency range there are more available bandwidth and reduced risk of
interference.
 Has a maximum coverage of 5km.

IEEE 802.16-2004 (802.16d)

 Designed to operate in lower frequency range; 2-11 GHz.
 Support Non-line of sight (NLOS) operation.
 Operates in both licensed (3.5 GHz) and unlicensed (5.8 GHz).
 Operates with a range of up to 50km and data rates of up to 75Mbps.
 It is the most supported version of the standard by vendors.

IEEE 802.16-2005(802.16e)
 Support mobility and will standardize networking between fixed base stations and mobile
devices.
 Would enable high-speed signal handoffs necessary for communications with users moving at
vehicular speeds which are below 100km/h.
 It will provide a symmetric (up and down) bit rates of 70Mbps.
 Operate in the frequency range between 2-6 GHz.

Applications
 To provide a wireless alternative to cable, DSL and T1/E1 for last mile access especially in areas
where wire broadband access are absent.
 Serves as E1/T1 replacements for small and medium size businesses.
 Provide residential ‘wireless DSL’ for broadband Internet at home.
 It can be used as wireless backhaul for Wi-Fi hotspot and cellular companies.
 Operators/carriers can use it as a backup backbone.
 It can be used in disaster recovery scenes where the wired networks have broken down.

____________Prepared By: Mrs. KRANTI M. GAJMAL (Asst. Prof. Computer Dept.)__________

 Gharda Institute of Technology, Ratnagiri (Khed,Lavel)
Sub: Adhoc Wireless Network (BE COMPUTER-VIII Semester)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_

WIMAX versus Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.16 versus 802.11)

Sr.
Wi-MAX Wi-Fi
No
WiMAX was designed to replace the
Wi-Fi was created for providing services into
1) last-mile wired-broadband access
LAN networks.
networks
At the PHY layer, WiMAX channel Wi-Fi based products require at least 20 MHz
2)
sizes ranges from 1.75 MHz to 20 MHz for each channel
The MAC layer in WiMAX has been Wi-Fi uses the CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense
3) designed to scale from one to up 100s Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance)
users within one RF channel. which is not an efficient protocol.
In WiMAX, the base station assigns a In 802.11, QoS was not considered in the early
4)
QoS class to each connection. stage of its implementation.
WiMAX supports many transport
5) technologies, such as ATM, IPv4, and These technologies are not supported by Wi-Fi
IPv6
WiMAX has the ability to support 802.11 was designed for low power
6) longer range transmission from 2 to 40 consumption which limit the coverage to
kilometers. hundreds of meters.

HiperLAN

 Two main standards families for Wireless Lan:

o IEEE 802.11 (802.11b, 802.11a, 802.11g...)
o ETSI Hiperlan (Hiperlan Type 1, Type 2, HiperAccess, HiperLink...)

____________Prepared By: Mrs. KRANTI M. GAJMAL (Asst. Prof. Computer Dept.)__________

 Gharda Institute of Technology, Ratnagiri (Khed,Lavel)
Sub: Adhoc Wireless Network (BE COMPUTER-VIII Semester)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_
The European counterparts to the IEEE 802.11 standards are the high performance radio
LAN (HIPERLAN) standards defined by the European Telecommunications Standards Institute
(ETSI). The standards have been defined as part of the ETSI broadband radio access networks
(BRAN) project.

Four standards have been defined for wireless networks by the ETSI.

• HIPERLAN/1 is a wireless radio LAN (RLAN) without a wired infrastructure, based on one-
to-one and one-to-many broadcasts. It can be used as an extension to a wired infrastructure, thus
making it suited to both ad hoc and infrastructure based networks. It employs the 5.15 GHz and
the 17.1 GHz frequency bands and provides a maximum data rate of 23.5 Mbps.

• The HIPERLAN/2 standard intends to provide short-range (up to 200 m) wireless access to
Internet protocol (IP), asynchronous transfer mode (ATM1), and other infrastructure-based
networks and, more importantly, to integrate WLANs into cellular systems. It employs the 5
GHz frequency band and offers a wide range of data rates from 6 Mbps to 54 Mbps.
HIPERLAN/2 has been designed to meet the requirements of future wireless multimedia
services.

• HIPERACCESS (originally called HIPERLAN/3) covers "the last mile" to the customer; it
enables establishment of outdoor high-speed radio access networks, providing fixed radio
connections to customer premises. HIPERACCESS provides a data rate of 25 Mbps. It can be
used to connect HIPERLAN/2 deployments that are located far apart (up to 5 Km away). It
offers point-to-multipoint communication.

• The HIPERLINK (originally called HIPERLAN/4) standard provides high speed radio links
for point-to-point static interconnections. This is used to connect different HIPERLAN access
points or HIPERACCESS networks with high-speed links over short distances of up to 150 m.
HIPERLINK operates on the 17 GHz frequency range.

____________Prepared By: Mrs. KRANTI M. GAJMAL (Asst. Prof. Computer Dept.)__________

 Gharda Institute of Technology, Ratnagiri (Khed,Lavel)
Sub: Adhoc Wireless Network (BE COMPUTER-VIII Semester)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_

Deployment of the ETSI standards

1. HIPERLAN/1
 Apart from supporting node mobility, HIPERLAN/1 provides forwarding mechanisms
(multi-hop routing).
 HIPERLAN/1 provides a data rate of around 23.5 Mbps without utilizing much power,
thus having the capability to support multimedia data and asynchronous data effectively.
This data rate is significantly higher than that provided by IEEE 802.11.
 The HIPERLAN/1 protocol stack is restricted to the two lower-most layers in the OSI
reference model: the data link layer (DLL) and the physical layer. The DLL is further
divided into the medium access control (MAC) sub layer and the channel access control
(CAC) sub layer.

1) The Physical Layer

 The tasks of the physical layer are modulation and demodulation of a radio carrier with a
bit stream, forward error-correction mechanisms, signal strength measurement, and
synchronization between the sender and the receiver.

2) The MAC Sub-layer

 The HIPERLAN/1 MAC (HM) sub layer is responsible for processing the packets from
the higher layers and scheduling the packets according to the QoS requests from the
higher layers.
 The MAC sub-layer is also responsible for forwarding mechanisms, power conservation
schemes, and communication confidentiality through encryption–decryption mechanisms.

3) The CAC (Channel Access Control) Sub layer

____________Prepared By: Mrs. KRANTI M. GAJMAL (Asst. Prof. Computer Dept.)__________

 Gharda Institute of Technology, Ratnagiri (Khed,Lavel)
Sub: Adhoc Wireless Network (BE COMPUTER-VIII Semester)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_
 The CAC sub layer offers a connectionless data service to the MAC sub layer. The MAC
layer uses this service to specify a priority (called the CAM priority) which is the QoS
parameter for the CAC layer.

4) Power Conservation Issues

 The HIPERLAN/1 standard has suggested power conservation schemes at both the MAC
and the physical layers. At the MAC level, the standard suggests awake/sleep modes
similar to the DFWMAC in IEEE 802.11.
 At the physical level, a framing scheme has been adopted to conserve power. The
physical burst is divided into high bit rate (HBR) and low bit rate (LBR) bursts. The
difference between the two bursts lies in the keying mechanisms.

5) Failure of HIPERLAN/1
 In spite of the high data rate that it promised, HIPERLAN/1 standard has always been
considered unsuccessful. This is because IEEE Ethernet had been prevalent and hence,
for its wireless counterpart too, everybody turned toward IEEE, which came out with its
IEEE 802.11 standard.
 As a result, hardly any manufacturer adopted the HIPERLAN/1 standard for product
development.

2. HIPERLAN/2
 The HIPERLAN/2 tries to integrate WLANs into the next-generation cellular systems. It
aims at converging IP and ATM type services at a high data rate of 54 Mbps for indoor
and outdoor applications. The HIPERLAN/2, an ATM compatible WLAN, is a
connection-oriented system, which uses fixed size packets and enables QoS applications
easy to implement.

There are two modes of communication in a HIPERLAN/2 network, which are described by the
following two environments:

• Business environment: The ad hoc architecture of HIPERLAN/1 has been extended to support
a centralized mode of communication using APs. This topology corresponds to business
environments. Accordingly, each AP serves a number of MTs.

____________Prepared By: Mrs. KRANTI M. GAJMAL (Asst. Prof. Computer Dept.)__________

 Gharda Institute of Technology, Ratnagiri (Khed,Lavel)
Sub: Adhoc Wireless Network (BE COMPUTER-VIII Semester)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_
• Home environment: The home environment enables a direct mode of communication between
the MTs. This corresponds to an ad hoc architecture that can be operated in a plug-and-play
manner.

The HIPERLAN/2 protocol stack consists of the physical layer, convergence layer (CL),
and the data link control (DLC) layer.

The Physical Layer

 The physical layer is responsible for the conversion of the PDU train from the DLC layer
to physical bursts that are suitable for radio transmission. HIPERLAN/2, like IEEE
802.11a, uses OFDM for transmission.

The CL
 The topmost layer in the HIPERLAN/2 protocol stack is the CL. The functions of the
layer are to adapt the requirements of the different higher layers of the core network with
the services provided by the lower layers of HIPERLAN/2, and to convert the higher
layer packets into ones of fixed size that can be used by the lower layers.

The DLC Layer

 The DLC layer constitutes the logical link between the AP and the MTs. This ensures a
connection-oriented communication in a HIPERLAN/2 network, in contrast to the
connectionless service offered by the IEEE standards.
 The DLC layer is organized into three functional units, namely, the radio link control
(RLC) sub layer on the control plane, the error control (EC) sub layer on the user plane,
and the MAC sub layer.

Security Issues
 Elaborate security mechanisms exist in the HIPERLAN/2 system. The encryption
procedure is optional and can be selected by the MT during association.
 Two strong encryption algorithms are offered, namely, the data encryption standard
(DES) and the triple-DES algorithms.

____________Prepared By: Mrs. KRANTI M. GAJMAL (Asst. Prof. Computer Dept.)__________