Course Code: BBM 102R Author: Mr.

Fred odhiambo
Lesson No: 6

NETWORK FUNDAMENTALS

Objectives: The motive of this chapter is to present an introduction to computer

networks and within that framework the key network concepts, types,
purpose, benefits and limitations of computer networks are discussed.

Structure:
12.1 Introduction to Computer Networks
12.2 Defining Computer Networks
12.3 Why Computer Networks?
12.4 Uses of Computer Networks
12.5 Benefits and Limitations of Computer Networks
12.6 Types of Computer Networks
12.7 Some Other Computer Networks
12.8 Summary
12.9 Self-Test questions
12.10 Suggested Readings

12.1 Introduction to Computer Networks

The rapid growth of computer networks has spurred the spread of data
communications and these networks have become an integral part of business life.
The productivity and profitability of organizations has been enhanced significantly by
this revolutionary tool. Computer Networks allow a business to streamline the overall
operation and to interact with suppliers and customers very efficiently. In many cases
computer networks are seen as the solution to every problem within business, and to
some extent the magic wand to tackle all problems with.
This technology is accelerating as more people discover the power of computers and
communications networks both for business and for homes. Individuals use computer
networks almost daily to conduct personal and professional business. The day-to-day
transactions at department stores, banks, reservation counters, and other businesses
are all dependent upon computer networks. Whilst it is not necessary to understand

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fully the technical details, it is necessary to understand in full the meaning of
computer networks and what precise purpose the introduction of a computer network
into an organization serves.

12.2 Defining Computer Networks

Communications system connecting two or more computers and their peripheral
devices to exchange information and share resources is known as a computer network.
It is a group of devices such as computers and printers connected together or to a hub
or switch in order to share information or tasks. Networks also include software and
cables so that they can communicate with each other and share information, software,
peripheral devices, and processing power.

A computer network can be seen as an interconnected collection of autonomous

computers. Two computers are said to be interconnected if they are able to exchange
information, and when no other computer can start, stop or control, the computer is
said to be autonomous i.e. there is no dictatorship.

A computer network may also be referred to as an arrangement consisting of a group

of computers linked in such a way so they can send information back and forth
between themselves. It is a system for data communication among two or more
computers that interconnects computer systems at different sites. These networks may
be fixed i.e. connected through cables permanently or temporary i.e. connected as via
modems.

Thus, a computer network may be defined as a collection of two or more computers

and related devices, connected through some communication channel in such a way
that allows them to share data, hardware, and software.

12.3 Why Computer Networks?

The first and foremost need of computer networks is to enable people to share
information or tasks and that can be achieved by sharing all programs, equipment, and
especially data available to anyone on the network without regard to the physical
location of the resource and the user.

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Secondly, to provide high reliability by having alternative sources of supply such as
having replicated files on two or three machines, so if one of them is unavailable due
to a hardware failure, the other copies could be used.

Thirdly, the organizations have a tendency to limit their resources but have a desire to
share these resources so as it may result in cost reduction.

Another need may be scalability i.e. the ability to increase system performance
gradually as the workload grows just by adding new processors.

Lastly, a powerful communication medium among widely spread people can be a

computer network.

12.4 Uses of Computer Networks

The following uses of computer networks serve the purpose of computer networks in
organizations.
Share resources, such as hard drives, printers, scanners, etc., to get more use
out of office equipment.
Share data on a central server, where all data is collected.
Share files in electronic form to reduce printing costs and paper waste.
Share software with multi-user licenses.
Perform data backups quicker and easier with files on shared drives.
Exchange information via an internal network.
Allow access to the Internet.
Use the network and the Internet to allow access to data from anywhere in the
world
Integrate the whole operations of business organizations into a networked
operation, including sales activity, stock holding, quotations, ordering raw
materials, control the production process, process invoices, process all the
accounts, analyze business performance, quality control.

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Computer networks also have many uses to deliver services to private individuals at
home. The people can use computer networks for achieving the following purposes:
Access to remote information (e.g. Home shopping, Billing etc.)
Person-to-person communication (e.g. E-mail, Video conferencing etc.)
Interactive entertainment (e.g. Video on demand, Live shows on TV &
Radios)

12.5 Benefits and Limitations of Computer Networks

The most obvious benefit of computer network is that one can store virtually any kind
of information at, and retrieve it from, a central location on the network as well as
access it from any connected computer. One can store, retrieve, and modify textual
information such as letters and contracts, audio information such as voice messages,
and visual images such as facsimiles, photographs, medical x-rays, and even video
segments.

A network also enables to combine the power and capabilities of diverse equipment
and to provide a collaborative medium to combine the skills of different people
regardless of physical location. Computer networking enables people to share
information and ideas easily, so they can work more efficiently and productively.
Networks also improve commercial activities such as purchasing, selling, and
customer service. Networks are making traditional business processes more efficient,
more manageable, and less expensive. The key benefits of computer networks for
business organizations can be summarized in the following manner:

Increase employee productivity

Reduce office equipment costs
Backup and protect your data
Communicate better with customers
Provide access to your data 24-hours a day
Cost-Effective Resource Sharing
Streamlined Business Processes
Freedom to Choose the Right Tool
Powerful, Flexible Collaboration between Companies

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 Improved Customer Relations
Secure Management of Sensitive Information
Worldwide, Instantaneous Access to Information

Limitations of Computer Networks

Although the benefits of having a network are significant, technology also presents
some limitations to the networks.
A network's sharing capabilities can be difficult to configure initially
Network cabling can be difficult to manage
Shared Internet access may not perform satisfactorily
Network connections drop unexpectedly
Network is too insecure

12.6 Types of Computer Networks

Computer networks come in many different shapes and sizes. Over the years, the
networking industry has projected terms like "LAN", "WAN" and "MAN" attempting
to define sensible categories for the major types of network designs. The precise
meaning of this terminology remains lost on the average person. However, Computer
Networks can be classified based on their characteristics and according to the distance
between individual computers that are attached to the network.

Following are the characteristics used to categorize different types of networks:

Topology
The geometric arrangement of positioning computer systems is known as a network
topology. Common topologies include a bus, star, and ring.

Architecture
Network Architecture basically means how computer networks should be made and
can be broadly classified as using either a peer-to-peer or client/server architecture.
Computers on a network are sometimes called nodes. Computers and devices that
allocate resources for a network are called servers.

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Peer-to-Peer: Sometimes called P2P, these networks are the simplest and least
expensive networks to set up but provide less performance under heavy loads. In this
type of architecture, each computer (workstation or node) has equal capability and
responsibility i.e. none of the node is superior over other nodes.

P2P networks are simple in the sense that the computers are connected directly to each
other and share the same level of access on the network, hence the name. Computer
‘X’ will connect directly to Computer ‘Y’ and will share all files with the appropriate
security or sharing rights. If many computers are connected a hub may be used to
connect all these computers and/or devices. One can opt for Peer-to-Peer when:

have five or fewer PC’s.

want to share files and printers.
want easy installation.
want users to manage their own computers.
do not frequently share large files such as CAD or graphic files.
there is a tight budget.

Client/Server: They consist of the server which stores the files or runs applications
and the client machines, which are the computers used by workers. Here, server is
having a superiority over other nodes and will serve the client nodes. Hence, server is
more powerful and clients have to completely rely on server.

Using a client/server setup can be helpful in many ways. It can free up disk space by
providing a central location for all the files to be stored. It also ensures the most recent
copy of that file is available to all. A server can also act as a mail server which
collects and sends all the e-mail or a print server which takes all the print jobs and
sends them to the printer, thus freeing computing power on the client machine to
continue working.

The client/server network is the most widely-used type of networking because of its
efficiency. Whereas the computers in a peer-to-peer network can perform multiple
operations, including running applications, displaying documents onscreen, and

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printing, computers in a client/server network are more specialized. One can opt for
client/server when:
have six or more computers.
need strong central security and reliable back up.
need the additional speed and performance.

Protocol
The rules and encoding specifications for sending data are known as protocols. The
protocols also determine whether the network uses a peer-to-peer or client/server
architecture.

In networking, the communication language used by computer devices is called the

protocol. The protocol defines a common set of rules and signals that computers on
the network use to communicate. One of the most popular protocols for LANs is
called Ethernet. Another popular LAN protocol for PCs is the IBM token-ring
network.

The classification of computer networks includes the following:

Local Area Network (LAN)
Wide Area Network (WAN)
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Local Area Network (LAN)

LAN stands for Local Area Network which supplies connectivity to a group of
computers in close proximity to each other such as in an office building, a school or a
home.

In simple words, it is a group of computers and associated devices that share a

common communications line or wireless link and typically share the resources of a
single processor or server within a small geographic area For example: a building,
office, department, home, manufacturing plant, or other work sites. Besides operating
in a limited space, LANs include a distinctive feature. LANs are typically owned,
controlled, and managed by a single person or organization.

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A LAN consisting of two or more computers and peripheral devices such as printer,
scanner, hard disk drive etc. has software to control all the devices connected to the
LAN through special cables like fibre optic or coaxial and a plug-in board to handle
the data transmissions. The rate of data transmission usually ranges from 1 Mbit/s to
20 Mbit/s. The length of cable connecting computers to a LAN varies about 1000 feet
to several miles depending upon the LAN.

The main benefits of this type of network are resource sharing and cost reduction as
several computers and users can share the same peripheral devices and programs. The
error rate on a LAN is considerably better than other types of networks due to its
small size. On the other hand, security and privacy are two major concerns for data
transmission. Only authorized users may gain access to the data and transmission of
data should be ensured in correct form at its destination on a LAN.

LANs are very common in offices but can also connect several offices together. There
is no limit as to how many computers are networked for the network to be classified
as LAN. Even a simple network of one computer connected to one printer can be
considered a LAN. A local area network may serve as few as two or three users for
example, in a home network or as many as thousands of users for example, in an
FDDI network.

Most LANs connect workstations and personal computers. Each node (individual
computer) in a LAN has its own CPU with which it executes programs, but it is also
able to access data and devices anywhere on the LAN. Usually, the server has
applications and data storage that are shared in common by multiple computer users.
This means that many users can share expensive devices, such as laser printers, as
well as data. Users can also use the LAN to communicate with each other, by sending
e-mail or engaging in chat sessions.

There are many different types of LANs Ethernets being the most common for PCs.
Most Apple Macintosh networks are based on Apple's AppleTalk network system,
which is built into Macintosh computers. LANs have become commonplace in many

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organizations for providing telecommunications network capabilities that link end
users in offices, departments, and other work groups.

LANs are distinguished from other kinds of networks by these characteristics:

Size: The number of computers connected in a network through some communication
channel.

Transmission Technology: Devices can be connected by twisted-pair wire, coaxial

cables, or fiber optic cables. Some networks do without connecting transmission
media altogether, communicating instead via radio waves. LAN's are capable of
transmitting data at very fast rates, much faster than data can be transmitted over a
telephone line; but the distances are limited, and there is also a limit on the number of
computers that can be attached to a single LAN

Topology: The geometric arrangement of devices on the network. For example,

devices can be arranged in a ring or in a straight line.

Protocols: The rules and encoding specifications for sending data. The protocols also
determine whether the network uses a peer-to-peer or client/server architecture.

LAN Hardware
The basic hardware devices for establishing a LAN are:
Data Transmission Channel: Four types of communication channels are
generally used in a LAN. These may be Coaxial Cable, Twisted Pair Cable,
Fibre Optic Cable, Infrared or Radio Waves.
Network Interface Circuitry (NIC): This unit in the individual personal
computers may be part of the system motherboard or it may be on a separate
plug-in card and is connected to the network. It contains the rules and logic to
access the LAN. The function of this circuitry depends on the type of topology
used in LAN.
Server and Workstations: The server provides all of the services and
information and handles printing requests, for example. The server generally
controls all the resources and puts them at the client's disposal. Networks may
also consist of more than one server. Each of these servers has a different and

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 more specialized job. A print server handles the print jobs of its workstations
and servers. A file server stores or sends files. An application server runs
applications and sends the results. A modem server is used to connect other
network simply using a telephone wire to share expensive resources by all
connected workstations in a network ring.

The workstations are the computer users interact with the server. If the
workstation needs something it doesn't have, it can send its request to the
server.

LAN Software
Local Area Networks use special operating systems and other system software to
manage the network, its resources and its users. Network Operating Systems should
be very secure and robust to provide reliable network services. Examples of some of
the popular LAN Operating System Software are:
Windows 2000 Server
Novell NetWare
Ethernet
ArcNet
Corvus
Major Local Area Network technologies are:
Ethernet
Token Ring
FDDI

Ethernet is by far the most commonly used LAN technology. A number of

corporations use the Token Ring technology. FDDI is sometimes used as a backbone
LAN interconnecting Ethernet or Token Ring LANs. Another LAN technology,
ARCNET, once the most commonly installed LAN technology, is still used in the
industrial automation industry.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

As the term implies, a wide area network spans a large geographic dispersed area,
involving a vast array of computers, generally covering a couple miles, sometimes

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connecting computers thousands of miles apart. A WAN can also be a collection of
LANs, bringing together many smaller networks into one large network, so that users
and computers in one location can communicate with users and computers in other
locations. Many WANs are built for one particular organization and are private. A
WAN can constitute a very large corporate or government network, spanning a state, a
country, or even the world. Computers connected to a wide-area network are often
connected through public networks, such as the telephone system. They can also be
connected through high-speed fiber-optics, microwave dishes, leased lines or satellites
links. The largest WAN in existence is the Internet.

WANs are used for many different purposes. Some are designed as a communications
backbone for a large distributed organization. Other WANs focus on particular
transaction packages. Many WANs are used to transfer and consolidate corporate
data, such as daily transaction summaries from branches.

LANs and WANs in general are similar in the sense that both are collections of
computers. However, there are huge differences between the LAN and a WAN. Due
to the small coverage of areas, LANs are capable of transmitting data at a very high
speed with a lower error rate and at low cost as compared to WANs. In case of LAN
there is complete control of the owner whereas WAN requires involvement of external
authority like telecom department.

WAN Hardware
In a large geographically dispersed area, to establish links between computers, it
requires four basic network devices: Repeaters, Bridges, Routers, and Gateways.

Repeater: A repeater connects two segments of network cable. It retimes and

regenerates the signals to proper amplitudes and sends them to the other segments.
Repeaters require a small amount of time to regenerate the signal. This can cause a
propagation delay which can affect network communication when there are several
repeaters in a row. Many network architectures limit the number of repeaters that can
be used in a row. Repeaters work only at the physical layer of the OSI network model.

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Bridge: Bridges do not normally allow connection of networks with different
architectures and are used to connect two LANs following identical protocols. A
bridge reads the outermost section of data on the data packet, to tell where the
message is going. It reduces the traffic on other network segments, since it does not
send all packets. Bridges can be programmed to reject packets from particular
networks. Bridging occurs at the data link layer of the OSI model, which means the
bridge cannot read IP addresses, but only the outermost hardware address of the
packet. This may be of following types:

Transparent Bridging: They build a table of addresses (bridging table) as

they receive packets. If the address is not in the bridging table, the packet is
forwarded to all segments other than the one it came from. This type of bridge
is used on ethernet networks.
Source route bridging: The source computer provides path information
inside the packet. This is used on Token Ring networks.

Router: A router is used to route data packets between two networks that may not be
similar. It reads the information in each packet to tell where it is going. If it is destined
for an immediate network it has access to, it will strip the outer packet, readdress the
packet to the proper ethernet address, and transmit it on that network. If it is destined
for another network and must be sent to another router, it will re-package the outer
packet to be received by the next router and send it to the next router. Routing occurs
at the network layer of the OSI model. They can connect networks with different
architectures such as Token Ring and Ethernet. Although they can transform
information at the data link level, routers cannot transform information from one data
format such as TCP/IP to another such as IPX/SPX. Routers do not send broadcast
packets or corrupted packets. If the routing table does not indicate the proper address
of a packet, the packet is discarded.

Gateway: A gateway can translate information between different network data

formats or network architectures. It can translate TCP/IP to AppleTalk so computers
supporting TCP/IP can communicate with Apple brand computers. Most gateways
operate at the application layer, but can operate at the network or session layer of the

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OSI model. Gateways will start at the lower level and strip information until it gets to
the required level and repackage the information and work its way back toward the
hardware layer of the OSI model. To confuse issues, when talking about a router that
is used to interface to another network, the word gateway is often used. This does not
mean the routing machine is a gateway as defined here, although it could be.

WAN Connection Technology

X.25 Standard Interface: This is a set of protocols developed by the CCITT/ITU
(International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee/International
Telecommunication Union) which specifies how to connect computer devices over a
internetwork. These protocols use a great deal of error checking for use over
unreliable telephone lines. Their speed is about 64Kbps. Normally, X.25 is used on
packed switching PDNs (Public Data Networks). A line must be leased from the LAN
to a PDN to connect to an X.25 network. A PAD (packet assembler/disassembler) or
an X.25 interface is used on a computer to connect to the X.25 network.

WAN Connections
Wide Area Networks (WAN) refers to the technologies used to connect organizations
at remote locations. The size of a network is limited due to size and distance
constraints. However networks may be connected over a high speed communication
links and are usually:
Dial up connection
Dedicated connection: It is a permanent full time connection. When a
dedicated connection is used, the cable is leased rather than a part of the cable
bandwidth and the user has exclusive use.
Switched network: Several users share the same line or the bandwidth of the
line.

There are two types of switched networks:

Circuit switching: This is a temporary connection between two points such as dial-
up or ISDN.

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Packet switching: This is a connection between multiple points. It breaks data down
into small packets to be sent across the network. A virtual circuit can improve
performance by establishing a set path for data transmission. This will shave some
overhead of a packet switching network. A variant of packet switching is called cell-
switching where the data is broken into small cells with a fixed length.

Classification of Wide Area Networks

WANs can be further divided into two types:

Public Networks: These are the networks installed and run by telecom authorities and
can be accessed through subscription.

Private Networks: These are the networks installed and run to link the locations
privately. There is a complete control of the owner and is free to use the network.
Private networks can carry large volume of data at a higher data transmission speed.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Metropolitan Area Network, in essence a computer network that is meant to span a
whole metropolitan area. This network interconnects users with computer resources in
a geographic area or region larger than that covered by a large local area network but
smaller than the area covered by a wide area network, such as a city, with dedicated or
high-performance hardware. When banks adopted the use of automatic teller
machines (ATMs), they were connected within the confines of a city and the nearby
countryside. Thus, network of ATMs may be seen as metropolitan area network.

It is also used to mean the interconnection of several local area networks by bridging
them with backbone lines. Metropolitan Area Networks are usually characterized by
very high-speed connections using fiber optical cable or other digital media (wireless
infrastructure).

Distributed Queue Dual Bus (DQDB), is the Metropolitan Area Network standard for
data communication. Using DQDB, networks can be up to 30 miles long and operate
at speeds of 34 to 155 Mbit/s. Some technologies used for this purpose are ATM,
FDDI and SMDS. These older technologies are in the process of being displaced by

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Ethernet-based MANs (e.g. Metro Ethernet) in most areas. MAN links between LANs
have been built without cables using either microwave, radio, or infrared free space
optical communication links.

This concept was very popular in the early 1990s when various cities envisaged
establishing such networks. In practice these networks are very rare, and today only
the concept survives. This is mainly due to the increasingly private providers that
develop networks as opposed to cities and councils taking the development of such
networks into their own hands.

12.7 Some Other Computer Networks

Value Added Network (VAN)

A value-added network (VAN) is a specialized application service provider (ASP)
that acts as an intermediary between trading partners sharing data or business
processes. The provider of such services must process, store and manipulate the data
that can be carried on the network (adding value to the data). So these are the public
networks that “add value” by transmitting data and by providing access to commercial
databases and software. The use of VAN is usually sold by subscription, with users
paying for the amount of data they move.

VAN can send data between computers in different cities or even different countries.
They are often used in electronic data interchange (EDI) systems because they reduce
the complexity of connecting to the disparate EDI systems of various trading partners.
In this application they collect forms in an electronic mailbox, translate and forward
them to recipients, and guarantee they will reach their destinations intact. Other
common VAN services include electronic mail, access to stock market data and other
public databases, and access to electronic banking and other transaction processing
services.

VAN is used for a number of reasons. They usually service a given industry and
provide value-added services such as data transformation. They can be considered as a
way of transmitting computerized data, offering a service similar to what the

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telephone networks do for telephone calls. At one end a VAN hosts only business-to-
business (B2B) application integration services, hosting general-purpose integration
services for any process or industry. At the other end a VAN also hosts industry-
specific pre-defined integration capabilities and applications (e.g., supply chain order
visibility). Traditionally, most VANs primarily only supported general-purpose B2B
integration capabilities focused on EDI but these service providers are quickly
evolving to become more industry-specific over time, particularly in industries such as
retail and hi-tech manufacturing.

Internet
The Internet is a global network of networks that use a specific set of protocols. The
Internet exploded into the public consciousness in the mid-1990s with the World
Wide Web, a hyper-linking of documents located in computers around the world. The
documents, described in an easy-to-write language called HTML, can include text,
graphics, video clips, audio and links to other documents. Users navigate in this
worldwide collection of documents by simple mouse clicks on links or locate them by
using a search engine. The World Wide Web with its popular interfaces Netscape
Navigator and Microsoft Explorer, breaks down distances, integrates multimedia,
enables users to find information, and, equally importantly makes every user a
potential publisher. The Web merges computers and communication and transforms
every personal computer into a personal communication device.

Intranet
An intranet is a private network. It is an implementation of Internet technologies such
as TCP/IP and HTTP servers for use within an enterprise and not for connection with
the Internet. It may consist of many interlinked local area networks (LAN) and also
use leased lines in the wide area network (WAN). Typically, an intranet includes
connections through one or more gateway computers to the outside Internet. The main
purpose of an intranet is to share company information and computing resources
among employees. An intranet can also be used to facilitate working in groups and for
teleconferences.

Extranet

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An extranet is an intranet with a wider range than one organization. It is a private
network that uses the Internet protocols and the public telecommunication system to
securely share part of a business's information or operations with suppliers, vendors,
partners, customers, or other businesses. An extranet can be viewed as part of a
company's intranet that is extended to users outside the company.

12.8 Summary
Business organizations currently benefit from the use of personal computers.
However, many businesses have not taken the next step to increase productivity and
reduce office equipment costs by installing a computer network.

A network consists of two or more computers, printers, faxes and other electronic
devices linked together with cables enabling all of the "pieces" to communicate
together to share data and resources. The simple idea behind computer networking is
to allow users to access more information and give them access to devices not directly
attached to their “local” system, such as printers or storage devices. Three of the main
types of computer networks are:
Local Area Network (LAN)
Wide Area Network (WAN)
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A LAN is comprised of computers located within close proximity, such as in an office

or building. A WAN is a network of computers that are situated further apart, but still
connected. Such a network might be of computers within a single state agency or of a
multi-national corporation worldwide. Man is a data network designed for a town or
city. In terms of geographic breadth, MAN is larger than LAN, but smaller than
WAN.

A PC must have a Network Interface Card, frequently called “nics”, installed to

connect it to a network. The computers can be configured in several ways. The most
popular of these “architectures” are peer-to-peer and client/server. The first is a loose
connection of local computers with no central authority, and the later relies on a
“server” to manage the network and its resources.

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Computer networks use special operating systems and other system software to
manage the network, its resources and its users. Network Operating Systems should
be very secure and robust to provide reliable network services.

After LAN, WAN and MAN, many other types of network designs also most
commonly encounter the network technologies. Some of them are Value Added
Network (established to add value to the data resources), Internet (Network of
networks to share world wide data resources), Intranet (Network within an
organization to share its data resources by the own company’s employees) and
Extranet (Network, shared even outside the organization, is an intranet with a wider
range than one organization to share part of a business's information with customers,
or other businesses).

The key benefits of computer networks for business organizations include:

Increased employee productivity
Reduced equipment costs
Backup and protection of data
Resource Sharing
Streamlined Business Processes

Some of the limitations to computer networks:

Sharing capabilities can be difficult to configure initially
Shared Internet access may not perform satisfactorily
Network connections drop unexpectedly
Network is too insecure

12.9 Self-Test questions

What is a computer network?
What are the major benefits of computer networks?
What are the types of network architectures?
What are the types of computer networks?

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 Differentiate the following:
LAN and WAN
Intranet and Extranet
Routers and Gateways
Peer-to-Peer Architecture and Client/Server Architecture
What are Value Added Networks?

12.10 Suggested Readings

nd
Black, Uyless, “Computer Networks: Protocols, Standards, and Interfaces”, 2
Ed., Prentice-Hall India.
nd
Norton, Peter, “Introduction to Computers”, 2 Ed., Tata McGraw Hill.
rd
Ram, B., “Computer Fundamentals: Architecture and Organization”, 3 Ed., New
Age Publishers.
Sinha, Pradeep K. and Sinha, Priti, Computer Fundamentals, Third Ed., BPB
Publications.
rd
Tanenbaum, Andrew S., “Computer Networks”, 3 Ed., Prentice-Hall India.